Science Education International 30(4), 334-341 https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v30.i4.11

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The Thing about : Investigating the Fundamental Chemistry Skills of Biology Education Students at Bielefeld

Claas Wegner, Rachel LeeAnn Bruneman*, Antonia Steffen Department of Biology, Osthushenrich-Center for Giftedness Research, , Bielefeld, *Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Although fundamental chemistry acts as a prerequisite for fully comprehending imperative aspects of biology, Bielefeld University is one of three in North -Westphalia, Germany that does not require majors or minors in biology education to complete classes in general chemistry, before fulfilling graduation requirements. A study was utilized to determine to what extent graduate students possess the chemistry skills essential for teaching the state-mandated biology curriculum. The assessed graduate students consisted of individuals with and without chemistry as their second elected subject. The chemistry skills of the individual graduate students were measured with a non-standardized knowledge test. The results of each test were computed using an evaluation form and specified point system. Results revealed that the majority of the graduate students without chemistry as their second elected subject possessed an insufficient (e.g., poor and failing) level of understanding for fundamental chemistry, characteristically essential for instructing biology lessons. The findings in this study and in previous research have established grounds for discussing potential methods of intervention and further investigation of this field, to better prepare biology education students for their teacher training and future careers.

KEY WORDS: biology education; biology teachers; chemistry skills; ; knowledge test

INTRODUCTION in biology education, typically did not possess the chemistry knowledge needed to instruct the state-mandated secondary f the fundaments of chemistry play a prominent role school biology curriculum adequately. in the didactics of biology, why is it possible at select universities in North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), Germany, Alongside the contributing theoretical background and toI attain a degree in biology education before acquiring a basic hypotheses, this article presents a detailed overview of the utilized understanding of chemistry (QUAL-LiS NRW, 2016; Lumer, methods and results of the study, as well as a concise discussion 1996)? A recent study in Bielefeld, Germany analyzed to what concerning the hypothesized outcomes, design of the experiment, extent graduate students pursuing a degree in biology education future research, and potential methods of intervention. possessed the fundamental chemistry skills essential for their teacher training and careers as secondary school biology Theoretical Background instructors. To become a secondary school teacher in Germany, Although physicists and chemists can do without biology, individuals are required to obtain at least a master’s degree in biologists cannot do without and chemistry. Those who two elected subjects from a state-accredited university. After not only want to describe biology but also [want to teach] it, graduation, students must complete an 18-month teacher must possess an understanding of physics and chemistry… training (i.e., internship) followed by practical exams at a (Vollmer, 1992, p. 146). school of their choice, before obtaining the right to teach for This quote symbolizes the difference between memorization the state. (i.e., describing) and comprehension (i.e., understanding) To measure the students’ understanding of chemistry, a in the context of teaching. Utilizing as an knowledge test was constructed and conducted with graduate example, individuals would not be expected to comprehend students during a preparatory teacher training seminar at multiplication and division fully without first gaining a basic Bielefeld University. The sample consisted of individuals understanding of addition and subtraction. If this example is with and without chemistry as their second elected subject. applied metaphorically to the relationship between biology The score and grade of each knowledge test were calculated and chemistry, a teacher cannot possess a full understanding by an evaluation form and specified point system. The results of biology without first comprehending the fundamental of the study revealed that graduate students, pursing a degree properties of chemistry.

334 Science Education International ¦ Volume 30 ¦ Issue 4 Science Education International 30(4), 334-341 https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v30.i4.11 Wegner, et al.: The thing about chemistry

In previous research, Löwe (1990a, 1990b), Vollmer (1992), general chemistry classes performed statistically better than the Lumer (1996), (1981, 2000), and Lumer and Hesse group of students that had not, the mean performance results (1993, 1997a, 1997b, 1998, 2001) acknowledged the of the knowledge test revealed that only 25–30% of the tasks prominence of chemistry throughout biology curriculum and were answered correctly (Lumer & Hesse, 1993). The results recognized that it is crucial for biology instructors to maintain of Part I lead to the conclusion that fundamental chemistry an adequate understanding of chemistry. In Table 1, the seminars and/or lectures are necessary for students pursuing corresponding aspects of biology and chemistry are brought a degree in biology education, as the knowledge of chemistry into perspective by distinguishing between the NRW state- acquired in secondary school — if at all —is not sufficient for mandated secondary school biology curriculum and the an ideal career as a biology teacher. properties of chemistry that overlap with the respective biology This conclusion was reinforced by the results from Part III, subject matter. The applicable aspects of chemistry (i.e., listed where secondary school biology teachers were surveyed in Table 1) represent — for comprehensive purposes — ideal about what role chemistry played (i.e., had played) in their prerequisites for biology instructors. academic and professional careers (N = 83). The sample Despite the relationship between the two subjects, biology consisted of biology teachers with chemistry as their second education students at several universities in NRW are not subject (n = 33), while the remainder of the sample taught obligated to attend chemistry seminars or lectures before alternative subjects (e.g., English, physical education, and fulfilling graduation requirements. Table 2 outlines a mathematics) (n = 50). In this phase of the experiment, various synopsis of nine universities in NRW, which currently offer a conclusions were drawn from the perspectives of the surveyed degree in biology at the secondary school level, and include biology teachers. In one of the conclusions, Lumer (1996) the respective mandated chemistry seminars or lectures disclosed that various biology teachers who did not also teach for biology education students. Students pursuing a degree in chemistry (i.e., attend chemistry seminars or lectures during biology education at Bielefeld University are required to attend their academic career) experienced uncertainties regarding biology seminars where components of the seminar(s) focus on aspects of chemistry in biology lessons (Lumer, 1996). Others the basics of chemistry necessary for understanding biological invested considerable amounts of time after graduation to content (Bielefeld University, 2016). However, in contrast to acquire an understanding of chemistry for their career as a most other universities in NRW, Bielefeld University does biology teacher (Lumer, 1996). not require biology education students to attend seminars or lectures focused solely on chemistry. While the causes remain diverse, Lumer and Hesse (1998) claimed that these occurrences stem consistently from an The expectation that biology education students acquire a inadequacy of the biology education programs, where often sufficient level of understanding for chemistry by incorporating minimal to no lectures or seminars in the field of basic aspects of chemistry into biology seminars or lectures is chemistry are required. Furthermore, biology teachers with realistic; however, it remains questionable if it is an effective and without chemistry as their second subjects expressed in method. Although research in this context is limited, the Part III that chemistry should not be excluded from biology combined efforts of Lumer and Hesse (1993, 1997a, 1997b, lessons because an understanding of chemistry is essential for 1998, 2001) and Lumer (1996) provided theoretical and discussing various topics in biology (Lumer, 1996). empirical structure for the hypotheses and utilized test instruments in the recently conducted study. The findings of The theoretical background presented in this section not only Jutta Lumer and Manfred Hesse were results of a three-part empowered the concept to examine basic chemistry skills of empirical experiment, focusing on Part I: The chemistry skills biology education students and analyze on-going consequences of 1st-year (i.e., undergraduate) biology students (Lumer & for future biology teachers but it also provided a basis to Hesse, 1993), Part II: The biology and chemistry terminology discuss methods of intervention to optimize biology education comprehension of pupils (i.e., school children) (Lumer & for future students. Hesse, 1997a), and Part III: The presence of chemistry in a Hypotheses biology classroom, from the perspective of secondary school Stemming from probability and prior empirical research, the biology teachers (Lumer & Hesse, 1997b). Despite contextual hypotheses of the recent study — utilizing a knowledge test differences, Part I and Part III of the empirical experiment — were constructed from students’ predicted performance contributed valuable perspectives to the design of this study. results. The aim of each hypothesis was to analyze the trend Part I entailed a randomized sample of freshmen from the of mean performance scores from biology education students University of Münster, pursuing a degree in biology (N = 253). based on the students’ second elected subject. For this reason, In this experiment, a knowledge test containing 16 tasks was the hypotheses distinguish between two groups of biology conducted. The tasks addressed aspects of general chemistry education students. The group type corresponds to the students’ and biochemical-physiological fields (Lumer, 1996). The second elected subject, chemistry, or other. Students with sample differentiated between students that had attended chemistry as their second elected subject are recognized as general chemistry courses in secondary school and students one group, while students with alternative (i.e., all subjects that had not. Although the group of students that had attended aside from chemistry) second elected subjects are recognized

Science Education International ¦ Volume 30 ¦ Issue 4 335 Science Education International 30(4), 334-341 https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v30.i4.11 Wegner, et al.: The thing about chemistry

Table 1: Secondary school biology curriculum and applicable aspects of fundamental chemistry Curriculum Biology subject matter Applicable aspects of chemistry Cell biology Cell structure Carbohydrates Definition of molecule/atoms Lipids Typical functional groups Proteins Molecular structure of different macromolecules Covalent bonds Interactions (hydrogen bonds, ionic WW, Van der Waals forces) Polarity and hydrophilicity Hydrocarbon chemistry Acids and bases Biomembrane Diffusion and osmosis Electrical and chemical gradients Transport on membranes Brown’s molecular motion Chemical equilibrium Cell duplication and DNA Structure of DNA Properties and structure of nucleic acids Semiconservative replication Isotopes and radioactivity Energy metabolism Enzymes Importance of biocatalysts Exergonic and endergonic chemical reactions Enzymes as special proteins Activation energy Chemical equilibrium Reaction kinetics Dissimilation Aerobic and anaerobic dissimilation Reduction, oxidation, redox systems, redox potentials Importance of NAD+ and ATP Design and functional principle of NAD+ and ATP Principle of ATP synthesis Typical functional groups and their chemistry Electrical and chemical gradients Chemical equilibrium Exergonic and endergonic reactions Genetics Protein biosynthesis Molecular processes Properties/molecular structure of nucleic acids and proteins Molecular genetic methods PCR Molecular structure of DNA Gel electrophoresis Different binding types in the DNA Neurobiology Neural information processing Wiring of neurons Electrical and chemical gradients Calculation of potentials Chemical equilibrium and equilibrium potentials Principle synapse function Molecular processes at neuronal membranes Definition of ions Effects of exogenous substances on the body Electric charge Ecology Environmental factors Photosynthesis: Photoreaction and synthesis Light and dye chemistry reaction Reduction, oxidation, redox systems, redox potentials Structure and functional principle of NADP+ and ATP Typical functional groups Electrical and chemical gradients (Contd...)

336 Science Education International ¦ Volume 30 ¦ Issue 4 Science Education International 30(4), 334-341 https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v30.i4.11 Wegner, et al.: The thing about chemistry

Table 1: Secondary school biology curriculum and applicable aspects of fundamental chemistry (Continued) Curriculum Biology subject matter Applicable aspects of chemistry Chemical equilibrium Exergonic and endergonic reactions Material cycles and energy flow Effect of anthropogenic factors on selected material Oxidation, reduction cycles Properties of phosphorus, nitrogen, oxygen, carbon and their compounds Properties of water Evolution Pedigrees Molecular genetic methods Properties and molecular structure of different macromolecules This table provides a summarized overview of the relationship between NRW secondary school biology curriculum and the applicable (i.e., relevant) aspects of fundamental chemistry. The table was structurally and contextually modified as well as translated from its original form. Adapted from QUAL-LiS NRW, 2016; Mortimer and Müller, 2011; Sadava et al. 2011; Averill and Eldredge, 2011; Ball et al. 2011; Berck and Graf, 2010. NRW: North Rhine-Westphalia

Table 2: Chemistry graduation requirements for biology education students at universities in NRW University Chemistry requirement Remarks Bielefeld University x No mandatory seminar/lecture RWTH University  Mandatory seminar/lecture for biology education students without chemistry as their second elected subject ‑Universität Bochum  Proof of knowledge required University of x No mandatory course/lecture University of Duisburg‑  Mandatory seminar/lecture for all biology education students University of  Mandatory seminar/lecture for biology education students without chemistry as their second elected subject University of Münster  Mandatory seminar/lecture for all biology education students University of x No mandatory seminar/lecture  Mandatory seminar/lecture for all biology education students This table reflects nine universities in NRW and the respective graduation requirements concerning chemistry seminars and/or lectures for biology education students. Graduation requirement; xNo graduation requirement. Adapted from Bielefeld University, 2016; RWTH Aachen University, 2017; Ruhr‑Universität Bochum, 2016; , 2017; University of Duisburg‑Essen, 2017; , 2017; University of Münster, 2012; , 2016; University of Wuppertal, 2016. NRW: North Rhine‑Westphalia

as a second group. The recent study was conducted based on The second hypothesis, H2, reflects the performance score the following two hypotheses: prediction for biology education students, based on Part I Hypothesis 1: Biology education students with chemistry as of the empirical experiment from Lumer and Hesse (1993). their second elected subject will perform significantly The results of the experiment from Lumer and Hesse (1993) better on the knowledge test than biology education revealed that knowledge test performance scores for 1st-year students without chemistry as their second elected biology students varied between 25% and 30% of the maximal subject. achievable score. In the conducted study, it was assumed that Hypothesis 2: Biology education students without chemistry the graduate students without chemistry as their second elected as their second elected subject will score between 10 and subject would resemble the performances of 1st-year biology 12 points (i.e., 25% and 30% of the maximal achievable students, due to the lack of furthered education (e.g., required score) on the knowledge test. chemistry seminars and/or lectures) in the subject of chemistry.

The first hypothesis, H1, represents the probable assumption that biology education students simultaneously pursuing a METHODS career in chemistry education will receive a better score on The recent study, utilizing a knowledge test, was conducted the knowledge test, due to their academic familiarity with in the winter semester of 2017–2018 and summer semester chemistry, than biology education students simultaneously of 2018, during two preparatory teacher training seminars for pursuing other subjects of education. As previously mentioned, biology education graduate students at Bielefeld University. Bielefeld University does not require biology education The participants were a mixture of first- and second-semester students to attend courses solely based on chemistry, unless biology graduate students, which promotes the assumption that student has elected chemistry as their second subject that both students with and without chemistry as their second (Bielefeld University, 2016). elected subjects, obtained, respectively, similar amounts of

Science Education International ¦ Volume 30 ¦ Issue 4 337 Science Education International 30(4), 334-341 https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v30.i4.11 Wegner, et al.: The thing about chemistry education in the subject of chemistry. A total of 55 graduate Item 5: The following figure displays a section of a protein, students pursuing a master’s degree in biology education, in which different bonds between amino acid side chains took part in the knowledge test. The size of the sample was can be seen. Please label the bonds with the provided equivalent to the number of students for approximately “Technical Terms” [Ionic Interaction, Covalent Bond, one graduating class. Although all participants represented Hydrogen Bond, Van der Walls Forces] by placing the graduates pursuing biology education, the second elected corresponding letters [A, B, C, D] in the respective subjects of the students varied between physical education boxes... (Task 2, Item 5, Translated Version) (n = 17), German (n = 11), chemistry (n = 11), mathematics Item 10: Decide which of the six statements [e.g., a/an (blank (n = 9), social studies (n = 4), and English (n = 3). Written space) increases the pH-level of a solution] apply to an informed consent and verbal assent were obtained from all acid and which to a base. To do this, please label the blank participants before testing. All procedures within the study spaces with either “acid” or “base”… (Task 4, Item 10, were conducted in accordance with ethical policies of Bielefeld Translated Version) University’s Committee. Item 12: In an experiment, caustic soda with a concentration of 2 mol/L is required to calculate the pH-dependence of To assess the understanding of chemistry, a non-standardized enzyme-catalyzed reactions. A total of 250 mL is needed. knowledge test was constructed to operationalize the Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is provided as a solid. Place fundamental chemistry skills of biology education students. a checkmark on the correct boxes to indicate which The construction of the knowledge test was adapted from information you need for the calculation… (Task 5, Item the method utilized in Part I of the Lumer and Hesse (1993) 12, Translated Version) empirical experiment. The knowledge test consisted of 18 items, which addressed six different subject areas of In the first example, Item 5, participants were expected to chemistry. The subject areas were allocated into seven tasks, match four terms (e.g., ionic interaction, covalent bond, each task containing up to four subtasks (i.e., items). An hydrogen bond, and Van der Waals forces) to the respective overview of the knowledge test design is displayed in Table molecular structure of amino acid. This example emphasizes 3. The knowledge test was designed to not exceed a 30-min the relationship between biology and chemistry because, time period. For this reason, only selected subject matter without an understanding of these types of bonds, it is not from Table 1 was assessed. plausible to understand the cell structure of proteins fully (Ball et al., 2011). After completing a list of demographic questions (e.g., gender, field of study, and second elected subject), each participant was The second example, Item 10, required participants to provided verbal instructions and given 30 min to complete the distinguish between acids and bases, according to a given knowledge test. To establish a realistic time-limit and ensure statement. In the context of biology, understanding the concepts item comprehensibility, the knowledge test was — before the of acids and bases are important for the comprehension of study — piloted with third-semester graduate students. The metabolic processes, as well as for the understanding of tasks in the knowledge test focused primarily on aspects of environmental influences on complex ecosystems (Mortimer chemistry that is embedded in the biology curriculum, including and Müller, 2011). but not limited to, general chemistry, inorganic chemistry, and In the last example, Item 12, participants were provided biochemistry (Löwe, 1990a). With the intent to coincide with with details of an experiment and asked to designate what the NRW secondary school biology curriculum (Table 1), the further information is required to calculate the amount of items were structured to assess the comprehension of basic sodium hydroxide needed for 250 mL of caustic soda with terminology, bonds and binding energy, polarity, acids and a concentration of 2 mol/L. For the purpose of practical bases, concentration, as well as the description and application experiments in a biology classroom, an understanding of of oxidation and reduction. Three item examples are provided how to calculate and produce solutions according to a given in the passage below: concentration is essential (Bayrhuber, 1994). An evaluation form, constructed based on Lienert and Raatz Table 3: Knowledge test design (1998), Mortimer and Müller (2011), Riedel and Janiak (2011), Sadava et al. (2011), Ball et al. (2011), and Berg et al. (2014) Task Subtask (s) Subject area was used to assess, analyze and interpret the results of the 1 4 Basic terminology knowledge tests. The evaluation form established a respective 2 2 Types of bonds and binding energy point system for each item, which enabled all knowledge 3 3 Polarity tests to be judged equally and objectively. Points were 4 2 Acids and bases 5 2 Concentration awarded diligently based on the complexity of the required 6 4 Oxidation and reduction (description) task, to reduce the influence of guessing probability in the 7 1 Oxidation and reduction (application) overall results. For example, multiple-choice items answered The knowledge test contained a total of 18 subtasks (i.e., items), which correctly were awarded fewer points than items requiring addressed six subject areas over the course of seven tasks the participants to provide a free text answer. The maximal

338 Science Education International ¦ Volume 30 ¦ Issue 4 Science Education International 30(4), 334-341 https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v30.i4.11 Wegner, et al.: The thing about chemistry number of achievable points was 40, if all tasks (i.e., subtasks) second elected subject is depicted in Figure 2. It was computed were answered correctly. The total number of points awarded that the scores of 64% of biology education students (n = 35) for each individual knowledge test represented the raw reflected grade levels of either poor (n = 21) or insufficient performance scores of the participants. For interpretation (n = 14). Among the 27% of students, whose scores were purposes, the raw performance scores (i.e., percentage of equivalent to very well (n = 3), good (n = 5), and satisfactory (n items answered correctly) were converted to school grades = 7), only four scores consisted of students without chemistry according to specifications of the Central Abitur in NRW as their second elected subject. This concludes, as seen in (Schulministerium Nordrhein-Westfalen, 2017). The grades Figure 2, that only students with chemistry as their second were assigned based on a 6-point scale: Very well (1), good elected subject were able to perform strongly (e.g., very well (2), satisfactory (3), sufficient (4), poor (5), and insufficient and good) on the knowledge test. (6). For ranking purposes, grades were rounded to the nearest whole number. DISCUSSION The constructed knowledge test utilized to evaluate the Under the assumption that chemistry skills play a fundamental chemistry skills of the biology education students is role in the understanding of biology subject matter, it does not characterized as a non-standardized test instrument. This seem plausible nor practical to exclude chemistry lectures and/ method of research was chosen based on limit ability and or seminars from the graduation requirements of individuals adaptability. The limited amount of previous research concerning the chemistry skills of biology education students Table 4: Item difficulty and item selectivity consequentially limited the ability to conduct a study with a solid theoretical background and sufficient quality test criteria. Task Item Difficulty index Selectivity Other methods of research, such as test instruments utilized 5 Item 13 0.17 ‑ in previous experiments (e.g., Lumer, 1996), are seemingly 7 Item 18 0.12 0.14 outdated and therefore do not represent the most recent NRW Item difficulty for item 13 and item 18. Item selectivity for item 18 secondary school biology curriculum. 40 Despite the lack of information concerning the reliability 35 and validity of the constructed test instrument, objectivity 30 was fulfilled in both the execution and evaluation of the 25 knowledge test. In addition, item difficulty and selectivity 20 were calculated for each item of the test. Two items (i.e., item 15 13 and item 18) revealed difficulty index discrepancies, er of Points Received

mb 10 whereas only one item (i.e., item 18) revealed a selectivity Nu 5 discrepancy. The values of these discrepancies are specified 0 in Table 4. For the purpose of future research, a larger Chemistry Other sample of students and item modification, according to the Second Elected Subject results of the difficulty index and selectivity values, would Figure 1: Mean performance scores of biology education students. be beneficial. This figure represents the mean performance scores achieved on the knowledge test by biology education students with (n = 11) and without RESULTS chemistry (n = 44) as their second elected subject (N = 55)

As illustrated in Figure 1, biology education students with With Chemistry Without Chemistry chemistry as their second elected subject (M = 30.27, standard 25 deviation [SD] = 4.1) scored 47.83% higher on the knowledge test, than the students with other second elected subjects 20 (M = 11.14, SD = 6.40). A two-sided Mann–Whitney U-test 15

determined that the difference in mean performance scores er of Students 10

(i.e., between chemistry and other) was statistically significant mb at the specified 0.05 level, p = 0.003. Nu 5 0 To distinguish between performance levels, each individual 123456 score was assigned a grade proportionate to the number of Knowledge Test Grade points accumulated in the knowledge test. The utilized grading Figure 2: Knowledge test of biology education students. A graphical scale coincided with mandated secondary school grading depiction of the grades (converted from the chemistry knowledge raw criteria, determined by the respective German state (i.e., NRW) performance scores) received by the biology education students with (Schulministerium Nordrhein-Westfalen, 2017). The (n = 11) and without chemistry (n = 44) as their second elected subject distribution of the individual grades as well as the substantial (N = 55). The following grades were received accordingly: 1 (n = 3), 2 difference between students with and without chemistry as their (n = 5), 3 (n = 7), 4 (n = 5), 5 (n = 21), and 6 (n = 14)

Science Education International ¦ Volume 30 ¦ Issue 4 339 Science Education International 30(4), 334-341 https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v30.i4.11 Wegner, et al.: The thing about chemistry pursuing a degree in biology education (Lumer & Hesse, concept that biology is best taught by teacher, who possess 1993, 1997a). Despite the rationality of this statement, selected an understanding of fundamental chemistry (Vollmer, 1992). universities in NRW have neglected to integrate mandatory chemistry lectures or seminars into their biology education REFERENCES programs. In this study, the focus resided on the chemistry Averill, B., & Eldredge, P. (2011). General Chemistry: Principles, Patterns skills of biology education students at Bielefeld University. and Applications. Washington: Saylor Foundation. The chemistry skills were measured with a non-standardized Ball, D.W., Hill, J.W., & Scott, R.J. (2011). 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