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Rare Earth Elements Deep Sea Mining and the Law of the Sea Rare Earth Elements Deep Sea Mining and the Law of the Sea MINERAL MATTERS www.mayerbrown.com Introducing REE … There are 17 rare earth elements (REEs) including the lanthanides, which occupy the elements from near the bottom of the Periodic Table (atomic numbers 57 to 71), along with the metals scandium and yttrium, which generally occur in the same ore deposits and exhibit similar chemical properties. The lanthanides are commonly divided into: lower atomic weight elements, lanthanum through to europium, referred to as the light rare earth elements (LREE); and the heavy rare earth elements (HREE) - gadolinium through to lutetium and yttrium. The global distribution of selected REE occurrences, deposits and mines is shown in Figure 1. The most commercially important REE deposits are associated with magmatic processes and are found in, or related to, alkaline igneous rocks and carbonatite. Inaptly named, the REEs’ geochemical properties meant that they were not often found concentrated in economically exploitable ore deposits and were thought to be “rare” even though we now know better. 19 52 20 53 21 50 07 22 24 49 51 08 23 48 01 18 03 09 04 15 64 05 56 06 10 65 11 54 02 14 17 12 61 13 16 31 55 66 57 63 30 60 58 59 62 45 25 41 46 29 42 47 32 43 71 33 44 70 26 28 Figure 1: Map showing global 34 38 72 74 77 39 distribution of REE deposits, 73 27 35 37 67 69 78 40 Walter and Lusty (2011) 36 76 68 75 01 Bokan Mountain 27 Barra do 53 Lowazano 02 Mountain Pass Itapirapua Complex 03 Rock Canyon 28 Araxá 54 Conaldi Creek 29 Camaratuba 55 Nile Delta and REE Selected Other deposits/ Rosetta Production advanced projects occurences 04 Snowbird 30 Bou Naga 56 Kutessay II Primary deposits 05 Lemhi Pass 31 Tamazeght Complex 57 Amba Dongar Carbonate associated 06 Deep Sands 32 Longonjo 58 Chavara Alkaline igneous rock associated 07 Nechalacho (Thor Lake) 33 Elaneno 59 Manavalakurichi Iron REE 08 Hoidas Lake 34 Lofdal 60 Omsa Hydrothermal other than alkaline settings 09 Bald Mountain 35 Steenkampskraal 61 Maoniuping/ 10 Bear Lodge 36 Zandkopsdrift Dalucao Secondary deposits 11 Iron Hill 37 Pilanesberg 62 Perak Marine Placers 12 Gallinas 38 Naboomspruit 63 Dong Pao Alluvial placers (inc paleo-lakes) Mountains 39 Phalaborwa 64 Bayan Obo 13 Pajarito Complex 65 Weishan Paleoplacers Mountain 40 Richards Bay 66 Xunwu/ Lateritic 14 Pea Ridge 41 Karonge Longnan Ion-adsorption 15 Elliot Lake 42 Nkombwa Hill 67 Eneabba 16 Green Cove 43 Kangankunde 68 Jangardup Springs 44 Songwa 69 Mount Weld 17 Carolina Placers 45 Mrima Hill 70 Cummins Range 18 Strange Lake 46 Wigu Hill 71 Brockman 19 Karrat 47 Congolone 72 Nolans Bore 20 Sarfartoq 48 Norra Kärr 73 Olympic Darn 21 Qaqqaarsuk 49 Bastnäs 74 Mary Kathleen Initially – and for the subsequent 150 years – interest in REEs was almost 22 Tikiusaaq 50 Kiruna 75 WIM 150 23 Kvanefjeld 51 Korsnas 76 Dubbo Zirconia purely academic. The new elements seemed to have few commercial or 24 Motzfeldt 52 Khibiny Complex 77 Fraser Island industrial applications; indeed extracting them from their ores was too 25 Pitinga 78 North Stradbroke 26 Chiriguelo Island expensive to be viable on an industrial scale. Since the mid-20th century, however, the unique chemical properties of the REEs have led to their use in a wide range of technological applications – and, inevitably, a strong surge in their economic value. mayer brown x 1 www.mayerbrown.com Uses of REEs We are now reliant on REEs. Many of the electronic devices and technological applications that have come to define the early 21st century are products of the unique chemical properties of REEs. Hybrid vehicles, rechargeable batteries, wind turbines, mobile phones, flat-screen display panels, fluorescent light bulbs, laptop computers, disk drives, lasers, catalytic converters - all are dependent on REE components. At present, the highest-value commercial application of REEs is their use in the manufacture of powerful permanent magnets (praseodymium and neodymium are the principal REEs used in the process, plus small amounts of dysprosium and terbium). These magnets can be used in electric motors to produce greater power and torque, which means that motors and therefore engines can be considerably smaller and lighter in weight. With the depletion of oil and gas reserves, hybrid engines take on a greater share of the energy burden, and our reliance on REEs will increase. A plethora of political commitments have been made, which in some part require the deployment of technology including REEs. REE magnets also allow the miniaturization of hard disk drives like those in mobile devices. The use of REEs has underpinned many of the technological innovations we consider today to be revolutionary. 2 x Rare Earth Elements Most energy-efficient lighting and display panels require REEs – chiefly europium, terbium and yttrium – as phosphor compounds. This is an extremely strong growth sector; manufacturers of LED screens and the like constitute the second- largest commercial REE market. There are numerous other applications. The Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) rechargeable batteries used in hybrid cars and countless other electronic products employ a mixed REE alloy (mostly lanthanum). Catalytic converters use cerium as part of the catalyst for converting NOx to harmless Nitrogen, Oxygen and toxic CO to CO2. REEs – again, usually lanthanum – are also present in fluid-cracking catalysts, used increasingly in the petrochemical industry to increase the efficiency of the refining process. GLASSES & POLISHING RARE EARTHS METALLURGICAL ALLOYS Ce, La, Pr, Nd, Gd, Er, Ho La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Y Polishing Compounds NimH Batteries Decolorizers/Colorizers Fuel Cells UV Resistant Glass Steel X-Ray Imaging Lighter Flints Super Alloys Aluminium /Magnesium CATALYSTS MAGNETS La, Ce (Pr, Nd) Nd, Pr (Tb, Dy) Petroleum Refining Motors Catalytic Converter Disc Drives Diesel Additives MRI Chemical Processing Power Generation Industrial Pollution Micro Generation Scrubber Microphones & Speakers Magnetic Refrigeration CERAMICS PHOSPHORS La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Y Eu, Y, Tb, Nd, Er, Gd (Ce, Pr) Eu, Gd, Lu, Dy Display Phosphors CRT, LPD, LCD Capacitors Fluorescent Lighting Sensors Medical Imaging Colorants OTHER Lasers Scintillators Nuclear (Eu, Gd, Ce, Y, Sm, Er) Fiber Optics Refractories Defense (Nd, Pr, Dy, Tb, Eu, Y, La, Lu, Sc, Sm Water Treatment Pigments Ce, Y Fertilizers mayer brown x 3 www.mayerbrown.com Global REE Resources With global demand for products containing REEs likely to increase, the search for new stocks of REE ores has assumed huge economic significance. Until 1948, most of the world’s REEs were extracted in India and Brazil. In the 1950s large deposits of Monazite, then the largest source known, were discovered in South Africa. From the 1960s until the 1980s, California’s Mountain Pass REE mine dominated production. Today, the Indian and South African deposits still maintain a small output, and in 2010 the US Geological Survey found that those deposits contained an estimated 13 million metric tons of REEs. By far the greatest producer is China, which produced more than 90 percent of the global supply of REEs in 2012. This figure is made even more impressive by the fact that China is estimated to hold only 25–35 percent of the world’s confirmed reserves, mostly in Inner Mongolia. China’s monopoly is even more pronounced with regard to the eight Heavy Rare Earth Elements (also known as the yttrium Group). All of our sources for these elements are in China. Increasing demand for REEs has recently strained supply. There is therefore a growing concern regarding the potential for future shortages; projections suggest that worldwide demand for REEs could soon exceed supply by around 40,000 tons annually, unless major new sources are developed. These concerns have intensified as China, the predominant supplier, has moved to tighten its regulation of exports and crack down on REE smuggling. Controlling the global China’s ostensible motivations in limiting the global REE supply are to movement of REEs has conserve scarce resources and protect the environment. Other reasons, however, have been suggested for China’s actions. The Economist catalyzed central governments suggested that, by “slashing” their exports of rare earth elements, China to consider their dependence would be able to move Chinese manufacturers up the supply chain, on REES and deploy stock- “so they can sell valuable finished goods to the world rather than lowly piling and control strategies. raw materials.” 4 x Rare Earth Elements In September 2011, China stopped production at three of its eight major mines. These mines accounted for almost 40 percent of total Chinese REE production. In August 2012, it announced a further 20 percent reduction in production. The Chinese restrictions on supply failed in 2012, as prices dropped in response to the opening up of other REE sources and, to a degree, stockpiling of existing reserves. But the search for alternative sources – in Australia, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, Tanzania, Greenland, and the United States – goes on. Mines in many countries were closed in the 1990s when China’s Stakhanovism REE output triggered a global fall in prices but, as supply falters and demand continues to increase, re-opening these facilities is becoming economically viable. The once world-leading Mountain Pass mine in California resumed limited operations in August 2012; other The Isua project which significant sites are under development in central Australia and northern will cost an estimated $2.3 Canada. The Canadian deposit alone has the potential to supply about 10 “ percent of North America’s annual $1billion REE consumption. Vietnam billion has been controversial began supplying Japan with Rare Earths in 2010, while a potential mine site in Greenland as fears its in east Africa, the Tanzanian-based Ngualla project, is reported to contain construction would attract a the sixth-largest deposit by tonnage outside of China, and is of very high flood of Chinese workers into grade.
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