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“Brass” Ceiling: Elite Military Women’S Strategies for Success

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“Brass” Ceiling: Elite Military Women’S Strategies for Success ABSTRACT Title: BREAKING THROUGH THE “BRASS” CEILING: ELITE MILITARY WOMEN’S STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS. Darlene Marie Iskra, Ph.D., 2007 Directed by: Professor Mady Wechsler Segal, Department of Sociology People who rise to the top of any organization must have a dedication and determination that distinguishes them from their co-workers. White men historically have held these positions due to discriminatory practices by employers, protectionist legislation, and social constructs about their leadership capabilities and motivation. Inroads into these elite positions are being made, however, both in the corporate world and in the military, by women and minority men. This study examines the women who have risen to the top of a masculine institution, and the strategies they used to “break through the brass ceiling” and become General and Flag Officers. Data were collected through several methods, including content analysis of their military biographies, self- administered surveys, and selected interviews. Results generally indicate that the women overcame the challenges they faced and took advantage of opportunities that arose. They rarely said “no” to a challenge; they did not question their ability to succeed simply due to gender, and they overwhelmingly had a positive attitude and loved the military institution. However, the ability for the women to navigate the masculine organization of the military would not have been possible without a vibrant support system, which included mentors, and supportive spouses and family. Mentorship was an important factor in the women’s ability to navigate the system; mentors provided career guidance, opened opportunities, and provided personal support and advice when needed. Many also had an active family life. This was especially true for those in the Reserves; family formation was the most obvious difference between Regular and Reserve respondents. Results primarily varied by cohort, with earlier cohorts limited by institutional and legislative impediments to both their professional and family lives. This research is sociologically important because it helps to fill the gap in knowledge about the situations and behaviors that lead to career success for executive women. It is limited in that it looks only at the women in these elite positions and does not compare these findings with male generals and admirals or to women who did not rise to these levels. Suggestions for further research are provided. BREAKING THROUGH THE “BRASS” CEILING: ELITE MILITARY WOMEN’S STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS. By Darlene Marie Iskra Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2007 Advisory Committee: Professor Mady W. Segal, Chair Professor Kathryn M. Bartol Associate Professor Joan Kahn Associate Professor Melissa Milkie Professor David R. Segal ©Copyright by Darlene M. Iskra 2007 DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my parents, Jerry and Manola Scovel. Without their unconditional love and support, my independent and adventurous spirit would not have thrived, and this accomplishment would not have been possible. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my chair, Professor Mady Segal, to my other committee members for their guidance, and to Joan Kahn for stepping in at the last minute as a member of my committee. To Ann-Catherine Ventura for her help in documenting the data, to Kathy Felger who provided insight into careers in the Coast Guard, and the personnel at the various General and Flag Officer Management Offices who helped me in numerous ways, especially Master Sergeant Roseann Casini of the Army Reserve General Officer Management Office for her invaluable help in contacting retired Army Reserve Generals. Thanks also to Lieutenant Colonel Lynn Jackson, USA, for sponsoring my access the Army Knowledge Online (AKO) portal, and to the Navy Flag Officer Management Office for their help in forwarding surveys to retired Navy Flag officers, for verifying my list of names and their timely response to my requests for information. Finally, I thank all of the wonderful women General and Flag Officers who responded to my request for information about their personal lives. This dissertation was partially supported by the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences under Contract Number DASW0100K0016. The views expressed in this paper are the authors’ and not necessarily those of the Army Research Institute, the Department of the Army, or the Department of Defense. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION …………………………………………..…… ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …..…………………………………………… iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………..……… iv LIST OF TABLES ……………………….………………...….… vii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Purpose and Organization………..………….… 3 Theoretical Perspectives…………………….…. 5 Sociological Contributions…………………… 8 CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURES OF WORK AND FAMILY 10 Section 1: Theoretical Background 10 Organizations and the Gendered Structure of Work ………………………………………. 12 Cultural Constructs of Work and Family……… 19 Interpersonal Issues and Attitudes at Work…… 22 Section 2: The Structure of a Military Career : Organizational, Cultural and Interpersonal Challenges …………………………………. 25 Structural Requirements for Entrance, Career Continuity, and Promotion……………....…. 26 Commissioning Sources……………………. 27 Minimum Service Requirements and the Internal Labor Market………..…...………. 30 Requirements for Promotion……………….. 32 Limitations due to Occupational Category… 34 Service status – Regular, Reserve or Auxiliary...................................................... 37 Promotion Performance Measures and Obstacles…………………………….….… 40 Selection to General/Flag Officer……….…. 42 Appointment v Selection: Early Structural Obstacles………….……………………..... 44 Summary………………………………………. 47 iv CHAPTER 3 CAREER WOMEN IN EXECUTIVE POSITIONS 49 The Work - Family Dilemma………………..… 50 The Unspoken Burdens of Racial and Ethnic Minorities………………………………....... 57 Negotiating the Corporate Mobility Maze…..… 61 Negotiating Social and Professional Networks... 64 Leaving the Job: Voluntary Attrition.…………. 67 Summary…………………………………….… 70 CHAPTER 4 WOMEN IN THE MILITARY …………..…. 72 Legal barriers………………..……..…….….… 74 Social structural barriers….…………….…..…. 78 Career and Family Issues in the Military...….… 80 Summary………………………………….…… 85 CHAPTER 5: CASE STUDY: LIEUTENANT GENERAL CLAUDIA J. KENNEDY, U.S. ARMY 87 Family Background……………………….…… 88 Military Career…………………………..….…. 89 Staying in the Army…………………………… 90 Career Challenges………………………...…… 91 Strategies for Success……………………….…. 93 Words of Advice………………………….…… 95 Summary………………………………………. 96 CHAPTER 6: METHODOLOGY Methodology………………………………….. 97 Interview Sample.…………………………..… 99 Sample Bias, Respondent Bias and Selective Recall………………………………………. 101 Identifying the Members of the Population…… 103 Finding the Flag and General Officers for this Study……………………………………….. 105 Data Processing and Analysis…………………. 109 Respondent Confidentiality………..………….. 110 Limitations………………………………..…… 111 v CHAPTER 7: WHO ARE THE WOMEN WHO HAVE BROKEN THROUGH THE BRASS CEILING? 113 A Demographic Look………………………….. 113 Year Group Cohorts……..……………..……… 116 Rank Attained……….………..……….….……. 119 Race………………………………..….……….. 120 Occupation……………….……………...…….. 124 Commissioning Source………………….…..… 127 Education and Joint Professional Military Education…………………………….…….. 130 Wartime Service…..…………………..….……. 132 Joint Service and Command Experience…....…. 135 Family Background………..………………..…. 139 Marriage and Family………………………..…. 145 Marital Status…………...……………….….…. 146 Family Formation…………………………….... 152 Cohort Comparisons………..………………….. 154 Summary………………………………………. 158 CHAPTER 8: PERCEPTIONS OF SUCCESS BY ELITE MILITARY WOMEN 163 Section 1 Overcoming Structural Barriers 164 Balancing Work and Family…………………. 164 Leaving Active Duty and Joining the Reserves………………………………… 167 A Career in the Military……………………... 171 An Institutional Perspective…………………. 179 Turning Negative Situations into Positive Outcomes……………………………….… 180 Social Support: Mentoring and Networking… 181 Hard Work and taking the Hard Jobs………… 191 Integrity and Doing the Right Thing…………. 193 The “Right” Jobs……………………………… 194 The People and Teamwork…..…….…………. 194 Leadership Challenges: Being a Woman in a Section 2 Man’s World………..…………………….. 195 Taking Advantage of Structural Opportunities 199 Advice from the Experts……………….……... 201 Summary…………………………………….… 203 vi CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 205 Opportunity Structures and Structural Barriers... 205 Negotiating Structural, Cultural, and Interpersonal Boundaries…………………. 207 Overcoming Leadership Challenges…………... 209 Work and Family Differences and Similarities... 211 Reserves and the Work Devotion Schema..…… 214 Comparison of Regular and Reserve Officers… 215 Conclusions……………………………………. 216 Limitations to this Research……………..……. 218 Recommendations for Further Research……… 220 Broader Research Implications…………….….. 223 APPENDICES Appendix A: U.S. Military Rank, Insignia and Employment 226 Appendix B: Sample Respondent Letter 227 Appendix C: Informed Consent 229 Appendix D: Survey Questions 231 Appendix E: Interview Questions & Protocol 238 Appendix F: Glossary 239 Appendix G: Chronology of Female GFO “Firsts” 240 REFERENCES Reference List………………………..…….… 243 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1 U.S. Military Commissioned Officer Promotions 31 Table 2 Military Officer Personnel by Broad Occupational Category and 36
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