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The Environmental Implications of the Covid-19 Pandemic

The Environmental Implications of the Covid-19 Pandemic

Mountain gorilla in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. Credit: Juan Pabloe Moreiras/FFI Juan Pabloe Rwanda. Credit: National Park, Mountain gorilla in Volcanoes

The environmental implications of the Covid-19 pandemic

FAUNA & FLORA INTERNATIONAL MAY 2020 | WRITTEN BY TOM MADDOX, TIM KNIGHT & NATHAN WILLIAMS

1 In 2019, a National Security Risk Assessment economy, the pandemic also has serious briefing for the UK government highlighted repercussions for the environment. Many of the danger from a pandemic as ‘very high’ and these are intrinsically linked and will potentially warned of potentially catastrophic economic exacerbate those very and economic and social impacts. Those warnings were sadly impacts. prescient. Eight weeks after being declared a global pandemic Covid-19 has so far caused This paper identifies some of the more hundreds of thousands of deaths, several immediately visible impacts, explores the million and pushed the global extent to which we can apply lessons from economy into a to rival the Great the pandemic to other environmental threats . But that same assessment also and suggests ways in which environmentalists mistakenly assessed the likely environmental could join with other disciplines to realise impact as zero. Whilst initial focus has rightly shared visions for ‘building back better’ into been on the huge impacts on health and the future.

A CRISIS CAN BE AN OPPORTUNITY, AND THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC COULD BE AN OPPORTUNITY LIKE NO OTHER “You never want a serious crisis to go to waste. And what I mean by that is an opportunity to do things that you think you could not do before.”

Rahm Emanuel, Chief of staff to

Crises bring pain and suffering to many and and mental – are likely to be compounded and the initial responses rightly focus on mitigating exacerbated by the economic ramifications. those impacts. But at the same time, crises The IMF is projecting a global economic represent unique opportunities for change. contraction to rival that of the Great Some of the most significant changes in Depression of the 1930s. The Bank of England recent – from the US New Deal and the is forecasting the deepest recession in 300 UK’s National Health Service to the rise of free years. Like the health impacts, the economic market approaches following inflation in the impacts will be felt hardest by more vulnerable 1970s – were catalysed by crises. Identifying sections of society. Impacts were initially and mitigating the immediate impacts of the projected to be slightly lower for developing pandemic on health, the economy, society countries, but resilience to economic shocks and the environment is important, but we must in such countries is also significantly lower, simultaneously learn from the experience and making overall impacts potentially much higher. engender positive change for the future. The nature of the economic crisis also differs from previous economic shocks; Covid-19 has The impacts of Covid-19 are going to be vast, physically shut down economies by preventing and will be disproportionately shouldered people from working. It is not an economic by some of the most vulnerable sections crisis that can be addressed through of society. No cure has been found and the confidence rebuilding or financial stimulus and risk of future waves is unknown. it will not be possible to just pick up where we Furthermore, the initial impacts – both physical left off if and when the recedes.

2 But Covid-19 is not ‘only’ a health or an equipment. People are questioning the values economic crisis. The pandemic originated of individualism, exceptionalism and the from an environmental crisis, its management freedom to do whatever you want. There have is being hindered by a political crisis, its been numerous philanthropic responses and impacts are being exacerbated by a social various companies have gone beyond the call crisis and the whole system is driven by a of duty to support workers or charity groups. globalised economic framework that is deeply flawed and arguably unsustainable. With every We are in uncharted waters. Decisions are person on the planet susceptible to infection, being taken and behaviour changed in ways the ubiquity of exposure means the impacts that would have been unthinkable just weeks are likely to extend much further and deeper before. People have readily accepted new than the immediate implications of loss of norms of working, travelling and meeting. life and an economic crash - they are likely Experts and science are once again seen as to extend to our society as a whole, to our trusted sources. Governments have deviated politics, to our environment, to our culture and from ‘normal’ policy. Furthermore, the speed to our psyche. The Covid-19 pandemic is likely of decision-making and the rapid results to be the most significant disruption in living achieved are flying in the face of traditional memory and is making us question almost arguments that policies were unfeasible, every aspect of the way we were living. or could not be implemented quickly. For example, the UK effectively removed Crises often reveal both the best and the homelessness from the streets – an issue worst in humanity, and examples of both that has been a long standing problem - with are already clearly on display in response a single decision. to Covid-19. On the one hand, we have witnessed antagonistic and racist rhetoric, The result is that Covid-19 is driving a massive power grabs and profiteering. Flaws in our shift in thinking. Almost anything is possible, system have been laid bare, exemplified by almost everything is feasible, as illustrated by the absurdity of airlines flying large numbers the diversity of voices now calling for change. of empty or near-empty planes for the sole Even traditionally conservative, business- purpose of protecting their slots on prime orientated mouthpieces such as the Financial routes. Conversely, the pandemic has instilled Times are stating that ‘radical reforms are in us an appreciation of what is important – needed for a social contract that benefits spending time with families, the value of key everyone.’ The implications of the pandemic workers, social interaction and communities. for society are likely to be far-reaching and Community groups have rallied to support permanent. Normality is being rewritten. neighbours, a call for volunteer assistants was What the new normal will look like is for us oversubscribed, organisations and companies to determine. have cooperated to manufacture protective Ground pangolin, South . Credit: David Brossard/Flickr David Credit: Africa. pangolin, South Ground

3 THE IMMEDIATE IMPACTS AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE PANDEMIC ON ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

The environmental impacts of the pandemic, and how those working in environmental conservation and restoration should be responding, are still unfolding, but six immediate implications are already clear:

1. Raised awareness of the relationship between nature and human health

Particular emphasis is being placed on the rich ecosystems are better at containing relationship between nature and . disease, whereas disrupted ecosystems are Covid-19 is a – a human disease more likely to promote . Covid-19 originating in animals. It is thought to have is the latest, and most serious, zoonosis to come from bats and possibly pangolins and arise in recent years, but it was not the first, spread to humans at a ‘’ in will not be the last and – according to experts Province in where live wild animals – is likely to be less serious than some of the were being traded. The relationship between that could follow. animals and human disease is well recognised. 60% of emerging infectious diseases come The relationship goes deeper, however. from animals, domestic or wild. 75% of the Conservationists and human health experts most recent outbreaks originated from wild have long recognised multiple links between species. Domesticated animals, primates environmental and human health, not just and bats are the most common sources of through disease but also through pollution zoonoses, but endangered species threatened control, mental health and many other by habitat loss and over-exploitation are also relationships. There is a growing recognition important sources, with and trade that humans will stay healthy only if they exacerbating this risk. Examples of recent conduct their economic activities within the zoonoses include HIV (from sooty mangabeys physical limits that ensure the health of the and chimpanzees in West Africa, 1980s), avian natural systems on which they ultimately ’flu (from chickens in Hong Kong, 1997), West depend. Recent improvements in global health Nile virus (from mosquitoes and , New have only been achieved by re-mortgaging York, 1999), SARS (from civets and bats in the health of future generations for the China, 2002), MERS (potentially camels, Saudi economic benefit of this one. This pandemic Arabia, 2012), (mosquitoes, South is arguably an example of the price paid by the America, 2013) and (multiple vectors current generation for the benefits enjoyed by including bats, primates and porcupines, West previous generations. Africa, 2014). Transmission of disease between Even before the pandemic had started, wildlife and humans is not a one-way process. environmental and health experts were Various species can catch diseases from calling for action to increase cross-sectoral humans and there is concern that endangered investment in the global human, livestock, ape populations may be at risk from human wildlife, plant and ecosystem health transmission of Covid-19. How transmission infrastructure and international funding occurs depends on various factors, many mechanisms for the protection of ecosystems, of which are also environmental. Land-use commensurate with the critical nature of change, changes in agricultural practices, emerging infectious disease threats to life and consumption on . The UN has since called for all combine with factors such as international an expanded definition of health to include travel and human behaviour to drive zoonosis all its social, environmental and commercial . But in general, intact, biologically determinants. Similarly, the German

4 Environment Minister has noted, ‘science tells already indicating it intends to relax this soon us that the destruction of ecosystems makes and markets in Africa remain open, albeit with disease outbreaks including pandemics more reduced trade. Two hundred organisations likely. Conversely, good nature conservation signed an open letter to the WHO to policy that protects our diverse ecosystems recommend governments ban wet markets, is a vital preventive measure address the threats to human health from against new diseases.’ Rather than reacting wildlife trade, ban the inclusion of wildlife in to each crisis separately, we need to address the definition of traditional and the underlying factors that are making them promote alternative forms of protein to increasingly likely, including loss bushmeat. Some are calling for an extension and climate change. of this to cover all wildlife trade. Others, including FFI, are arguing for a more nuanced To what extent will increased awareness lead approach that recognises wider issues. Knee- to change? China initially responded with a jerk bans can backfire on the environment, permanent ban on wildlife trade for food and and responses need to contribute to – and not a temporary ban on wildlife trade in general, detract from – the livelihoods of the world’s with following suit, although China is most vulnerable people.

2. Reduced environmental awareness, capacity and oversight in almost every other aspect

2020 was meant to be a crucial year for the emerging among companies and their attitude environment revolving around several key to environmental, social and governance events. These included the climate COP26 (ESG) performance. One survey showed that in Glasgow, the CBD COP15 in Kunming, seven out of ten businesses were planning China, a UN conference on oceans and a new to mothball sustainability announcements or oceans biodiversity treaty and the IUCN World initiatives. Conservation Congress in Marseille. All have now been postponed. Face-to-face UN climate Some of the decisions by governments and meetings are on hold indefinitely. China has companies are arguably more exploitative, formally dropped many of its green ‘ecological using the crisis to profit from environmentally civilisation’ goals to focus on economic harmful decisions. Behaviour labelled by recovery. The EU is now pausing action on its Naomi Klein as ‘ capitalism’ is already Biodiversity and Farm to Fork strategies with evident. Pressure from the US petroleum lobby Poland and the Czech Republic calling for a has already resulted in the Environmental complete dropping of the Green Deal and the Protection Agency (EPA) announcing it does Scottish government has delayed publication not expect compliance with routine monitoring of its Climate Change Plan. A similar pattern is and reporting of pollution and will not pursue Traditional conferences. Credit: Samuel Pereira/Unsplash

5 penalties during the pandemic period. The meet Paris Agreement targets. In July, a major Trump administration has also rolled back decision on deep-sea mining is due, potentially legislation requiring car manufacturers to opening an area larger than the size of produce more fuel-efficient vehicles. Several to exploitation despite massive environmental groups are using the crisis to promote anti- concerns. has declared that timber environmental messages across social media. exports no longer need proof they come from In , vested interests are lobbying against legally verified sources. has also scaled green stimulus packages, arguing climate back environmental monitoring in the Amazon. change is not an immediate threat to humanity. The plastics industry is also using the crisis to At the same time, capacity within the lobby for the return of single-use plastic bags. organisations that promote environmental Meanwhile, the International Air Transport causes has been falling. Charities everywhere Association (IATA) is seeking amendments to are facing a funding crisis. In Africa there are the aviation carbon offset scheme, already reports of ranger capacity falling, national criticised for not being ambitious enough to parks closing and poaching rising as a result.

3. Shifted baselines on environmental normality

One of the most visible and reported Unfortunately, history tells us that neither the implications of the pandemic for the reduced levels of pollution nor the higher environment was the immediate fall in pollution levels of nature visibility are likely to last once levels and the increased visibility of nature in the economic restrictions are lifted. The response to the ceasing of economic activity. Spanish global flu pandemic of 1918-19 saw China saw a fall in coal use that was associated production and carbon emissions fall by 14% with an estimated 25% fall in carbon dioxide then, in 1920, rise by 16%. During the financial emissions and has recorded a considerable crisis of 2008 global carbon emissions fell by improvement in air quality across over 300 2% but then subsequently rose by 5-6%. The cities. Hong Kong saw a one-third reduction in extent of the ‘bounce back’ will largely depend air pollution. Similar falls have been recorded on how countries decide to structure their in Europe. Changes in have economic stimulus packages (see below). also been reported, with the canals of Venice already appearing cleaner and clearer. However, we could see a reversal of the ‘shifting baseline syndrome’, which describes Wildlife is more visible, birdsong more audible, the phenomenon whereby people become and nature potentially more appreciated. used to new, poorer conditions and no longer Sightings of wildlife have included pumas in recognise them as different from, or strive to Santiago, wild boar in Barcelona, penguins in return to, conditions enjoyed in the past. Could Cape Town, turtles in Thailand and Brazil and it be possible that this tantalising glimpse of a hedgehogs in the UK. The increased interest lower pollution, lower car density, higher nature in accessing nature in response to isolation visibility environment (and the rapid timeframe and self-distancing is accentuated by our in which it could be achieved) will encourage reduced ability to access nature as part of the people to strive for better once the pandemic lockdown. In the UK, the prime minister initially has passed? This widespread experience of urged people unable to work to enjoy nature, craving, and then being denied, access to and the RSPB and National Trust made access nature may serve to support arguments that to their sites free. This led to record visitor nature plays a vital role in mental health and numbers at many of the country’s top nature well-being. spots and a rapid reversal of advice and the closing of most areas.

6 Large-scale mining within a forest landscape. Credit: Roel Slootweg

4. The implications for environmentally relevant business

Businesses are set to be hit hard by the to workers and revenue, but its relevance is pandemic and the recession that will follow. beginning to hit home. An interesting question The inevitable shake-up will force some is whether companies that perform well on companies to completely re-evaluate business ESG are also the ones proving most resilient models, supply chains, social contracts and to the crisis? ESG-focused investments have redefine working practices and consumption, apparently been out-performing conventional with potentially major positive or negative funds on both sides of the Atlantic in the first implications for the environment. Some should quarter of 2020, partly due to the fall in oil and see it as an opportunity for reform - a wake-up gas stock. If the trend continues throughout call to address the record low levels of trust in the pandemic period it will increase support business and reform business models to be fit for ESG reporting and regulation. There is for a low-carbon future. With public scrutiny of also anecdotal evidence that companies company behaviour particularly high, actions certified to operate sustainably are reaping the such as the distribution of cash back to benefits of having environmentally and socially shareholders, are now being openly criticised, responsible business models during the crisis. with airlines singled out for their hypocrisy in These developments should help to shift paying large dividends while simultaneously corporate attitudes towards what has typically requesting government bail-outs. been regarded as an unwelcome distraction.

Ideally, the crisis would spur companies into The rise of renewable energy and the relative aligning with the Sustainable Development decline of fossil fuel energy has been one Goals, using science-based targets to reduce of the key trends in recent years. The oil and their emissions and investing in nature-based gas industry has been one of the heaviest hit solutions to safeguard natural capital. At the by the pandemic. Global oil demand and the very least, some of the stimulus packages price of oil have plummeted. But renewables launched in response to the crisis will provide have also been affected, reliant as they are incentives for companies (with investor on massive capital expenditure, which has support) to start exploring sustainable dried up. Fiscal stimuli are urgently needed to alternatives to fossil fuels. maintain the momentum of the green energy transition, focus economic rebuilding on The initial response by some companies to the renewables and put paid once and for all to our pandemic was to put Environmental, Social reliance on fossil fuels. Failure to do so would and Governance (ESG) on the back burner and set back the transition several years – time that focus on more immediate concerns relating we can ill afford.

7 5. The implications for environmental decision-making in public policy-making

Governments worldwide have been forced to that a commitment to sustainable growth take central stage during the pandemic. Some, and the integration of green initiatives are particularly those in and those led by preconditions for any recovery package. If we women, have risen to the challenge admirably. are to avoid a situation in which environmental Many are expanding their influence into areas pressure backfires, it will be essential to ensure well beyond the normal remit of government. that messaging is positive, focusing on what This is also the kind of leadership required to we want to build rather than what we want address many of the environmental challenges to prevent. we face. Covid-19 has magnified many existing The most immediate decision with relevance problems but has also proved that to the environment relates to economic governments can, and have been allowed stimulus packages that are in preparation to, take decisive action. The financial crisis, worldwide, with US$5 trillion expected to which highlighted many of the same issues, be spent by the G20 alone. Our current did not result in major change; instead, it led economic system is not designed for the to a doubling down on the same issues that kind of massive investment in new arguably caused the problems. Whether infrastructure required to ensure transition Covid-19 will be significant enough to catalyse to the low carbon economy to which most a different government response that benefits countries have committed under the Paris the environment and society as a whole Agreement. The fiscal flexibility engendered remains to be seen.

by the pandemic is clearly a unique Wind turbines. Credit: Zhang Fenshang/Unsplash opportunity to promote investment in green infrastructure. A range of green initiatives are now available, should governments choose to invest in them. This is an ideal opportunity to incentivise energy efficiency, to choose not to use public funds to support business activities that are incompatible with the Paris Climate Agreement, and to make payments to others conditional on making the necessary commitments.

There are ominous signs: the US$2tn stimulus package had all of its ‘green’ conditions stripped out and included significant unconditional support for polluting industries; in Canada, the first fiscal support packages announced include support for the oil and gas and cruise ship industries. A similar pattern is emerging in Europe: despite being a vocal proponent of climate-smart approaches, the Bank of England has included oil company debts in its bond scheme; in the wider EU, Poland and the Czech Republic have called for the Green Deal to be dropped, although pressure subsequently ensured

8 6. Environmental implications of the hidden social impacts

One undeniable feature of the pandemic is that the poor are hit disproportionately hard, at both an individual and national level. Poorer people are more vulnerable to sickness and death, more affected by the lockdown and self-isolation, and tend to benefit least from the economic interventions. At a national level, poorer countries – where many of the key environmental challenges lie – potentially face much larger risks from the pandemic due to lower resources and capacity to address the challenges. In many countries, debt repayments necessarily take precedence over healthcare investment. Others are highly dependent on sectors that have been devastated, such as tourism. According to the WHO, almost 30% of countries have no national Covid-19 preparedness response plans and only half have a national infection prevention and control programme. Sierra Leone, for example, has one ventilator.

The lower capacity of developing countries to monitor the spread of the virus means the extent of the crisis in such places is yet to be fully understood. The short-term consequence will almost certainly be an increase in inequality, which was already at record levels, with substantial impacts on both people and their environment. In many countries there has already been mass migration from cities back to rural areas and a return to subsistence lifestyles, including clearance for agriculture and bushmeat hunting. Resources for environmental protection are already under enormous pressure in most countries and it is likely even these will be shifted to deal with the more immediate demands of health and security. in Ecuador’s Choco bioregion. Credit: Juan Pablo Moreiras/FFI Juan Pablo Credit: Choco bioregion. in Ecuador’s Deforestation

9 COVID-19 AS AN OPPORTUNITY FOR LEARNING FROM EXPERIENCE Preparing for crises involves “telling governments what they don’t want to know, to spend money they don’t have, on something they don’t think will happen.”

Prof. David Alexander, UCL

How can we use Covid-19 as a lesson for The pandemic underlines the importance of addressing other environmental risks, such as a systemic, transboundary, cross-sector and climate change? The pandemic is, at its core, cooperative response to environmental crises the result of an environmental crisis and, like at a time when countries are moving in the climate change, and the other opposite direction towards more isolationist, concerns of environmentalists, it is a systemic self-serving policies. It also illustrates the threat tangled up with multiple issues. benefits of early action, of , and of initial prevention rather than costly Contrary to the claims of some commentators, retrospective attempts to find a cure. The way Covid-19 was perfectly foreseeable. As with people responded is also relevant for climate climate change, biodiversity loss, soil loss change; Covid-19 demonstrated that when a and , the pandemic was threat is clear and accepted, people are willing clearly imagined by a wide range of experts, to make extraordinary and immediate changes with copious data and forecasts outlining to the way they live. Like the pandemic, exactly how it would happen. In 2015, Bill other environmental threats such as climate Gates delivered a prescient Ted Talk on change and biodiversity loss develop in non- pandemics and our lack of preparedness. A linear ways, are exacerbated by various risk pandemic has featured as a level 5 (out of 5) multipliers, hit the poorest hardest and can threat on the UK’s National Risk Register since only be adequately addressed through the 2007, and rated as 10-100 times more likely kind of long-term thinking that is anathema to than biological or nuclear attack. In 2009, decision-makers who are hidebound by short- the UK Labour government assessed risk term political considerations. preparedness for a pandemic almost identical to Covid-19 and noted the limited capacity to There are significant differences, however. The expand critical care and a tenfold shortfall of severity of Covid-19 pales into insignificance ventilator beds. compared with the projected impacts of other environmental threats. The 2020 Global Risks Just like other environmental threats, the level Report classed all five environmental risks of preparation undertaken by countries in (climate change, biodiversity loss, extreme response to this well-described and quantified weather, natural and human- threat was also woefully inadequate. The USA caused natural disasters) as greater than was the highest scoring country in terms of the threat from infectious diseases in terms readiness for a pandemic, but has been one of impact and likelihood. Current national of the least prepared to respond, in part due commitments made in response to the Paris to a failure to roll out testing and in part due to Agreement place us on course for a 3-4 the abandonment of science at the highest degree temperature rise, well above the levels level of government, including the closing of (1.5-2 degrees) deemed to pose the maximum the pandemic-preparedness office in 2018. At acceptable level of risk. The impacts of 3-4 the time of writing the USA has over 1.6 million degrees on food production are projected to cases and more than 94,000 deaths, making it be massive, with simultaneous harvest failure the most heavily affected country in the world. and water shortages that will be much more

10 devastating than the pandemic. Furthermore, already experienced the pain of an economic the impacts of climate change are projected shutdown feels like. to come much more slowly (and less visibly) initially, but with a series of sudden shocks Covid-19 has highlighted what happens when as different tipping points are breached you fail to listen to experts, when political and and feedback loops initiated. Requirements business decision-making is restricted to of behaviour change may also be more short-term horizons and when governments extreme, and more permanent, than those neglect their duty to provide societal safety experienced during the pandemic, and people nets, fail to invest in public assets and rely too may be less inclined to accept them, having heavily on markets as solutions.

COVID-19 AS AN OPPORTUNITY FOR BUILDING BACK BETTER “The may turn out to be the locomotive of history which accelerates the transition to a better, fairer society. But we will have to fight to ensure it happens”

Caroline Lucas, MP

Whilst the Covid-19 pandemic clearly provides driven society, environmental destruction some learning points for how not to prepare is incorrectly perceived as an economically for and respond to an environmental crisis, it rational decision, and environmental also illustrates the limitations of driving change conservation as an economically irrational through facts and figures and ‘we told you so’. cost. As long as this remains the case, The response to the warnings of the pandemic, environmentalists may protect the occasional just as with the responses to warnings about species or save the odd habitat, but the global climate change, was not particularly rational. measures of environmental performance will When our world view is challenged, our continue to head rapidly in the wrong direction. instinctive reaction is often to cling tenaciously Can we use this Covid-induced crisis to to our own, comfortably familiar, perception of popularise alternative stories, stories where reality. Stories are the way we understand the natural, human and social capital are valued world, not facts, or lessons of what not to do. above man-made capital, where progress is Directly challenging a story often reinforces it. defined not solely by GDP, economic growth The most effective way to change a story is to or financial profit, but by people’s actual provide a better one. well-being?

The economist Milton Friedman recognised Protecting the environment requires systemic the potential of crises as a junction for change, change. It requires economic change, but also emphasised the need to have new social change and political change. To ‘build stories ready for when audiences are ready to back better’ is already a mantra flowing hear them. Unfortunately, his way of thinking across social and mainstream media, with has arguably been one of the driving forces many opportunities identified for how we behind many of the environmental (as well as can learn from the pandemic and use it to social and political) issues we face to today. reform the way we live, the way we organise In a world that has largely become a market- our economic frameworks and the way

11 we govern ourselves. Arguably, this is an environmental values are integrated into the area where environmentalists have fallen various contributions to the ‘build back better’ short in the past. We have failed not only to story; to ensure the multiplicity of voices are move from facts and figures to a story that aligned and mutually supportive, rather than resonates, but also to tell a coherent story competing for attention; and to identify – and across environmental disciplines or one that be ready to implement – clear, tangible steps integrates the environment into the other that will ensure the unfolding narrative is a issues people care about. The challenge persuasive one. now for environmentalists is to ensure that Women’s blanket-making in Kyrgyzstan. co-operative Credit: Juan Pablo Moreiras/FFI

12 WHAT DOES BUILDING BACK BETTER IN A WAY THAT INTEGRATES THE ENVIRONMENT LOOK LIKE? “There can be no return to normal because normal was the problem in the first place.”

Graffiti in Hong Kong

There is no single story for building back better. But the various narrative threads, and how they relate to the environment, include:

• Recognising the biosphere as the cornerstone of human well-being, with intrinsic relationships to human health and nutrition, and to the regulation of the planetary systems upon which almost every aspect of human life depends. Furthermore, the biosphere has a right to exist and flourish irrespective of any recognisable dependence humans have on it.

• Redefining the idea of human nature. People are innately altruistic, empathetic, caring and cooperative, rather than just the individualistic and competitive ‘economic beings’ and consumers they are assumed and conditioned to be in many parts of the world. The pandemic has restored values such as appreciation of key workers, spending time with families and communities, spending time in nature. Many people have a deep connection to their environment, over and above the immediate benefits it provides.

• Redesigning economic frameworks to focus on the promotion of human well-being and equality within clear environmental and social boundaries, rather than on GDP, economic growth and capital accumulation, which are poor substitutes for well-being. Man-made capital is ultimately dependent on the nature that underpins it. Markets can have a role in delivering human well-being, but it has to be a limited role.

• Matching political frameworks to the new economic frameworks. Governments need to be leaders. They need to focus on their fundamental responsibility to protect citizens and public assets, including health systems and the environment. The post-Covid stimulus packages represent the opportunity to put in place the new frameworks.

• Incentivising businesses to rewrite their social contract, addressing the increasing distrust in them shown by society. Demonstration of a net positive impact on society and the environments they operate in should be a prerequisite for operation. Companies that demonstrably benefit the Sustainable Development Goals through environmental, social and governance metrics should be supported and rewarded. Companies that do not should be penalised and reformed.

‘One of the things most dangerous is the lapse into believing that everything was fine before disaster struck, and that all we need to do is return to things as they were. Ordinary life before the pandemic was already a catastrophe of desperation and exclusion for too many human beings, an environmental and climate catastrophe, an obscenity of inequality. It is too soon to know what will emerge from this emergency, but not too soon to start looking for chances to help decide it.’ Rebecca Solnit, author of A Paradise Built in Hell

13 Coral reefs, Andaman Islands. Credit: Michelangelo Pignani/FFI

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