Quick viewing(Text Mode)

Democracy - the Inevitable Concretization of the Inequality Principle

Democracy - the Inevitable Concretization of the Inequality Principle

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-2, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

Democracy - The Inevitable Concretization of the Inequality Principle

Bruno Ferreira Costa University of Beira Interior, Communication, Philosophy and Humanities Research Unit (LABCOM.IFP - UBI)

Abstract: The problematic of representation and regime in which they are inserted, as well as the the system in the western possibilities available to citizens to manage this leads us to revisit the concept of , participation. It is also clear that under such seeking to understand their relevance in the current perspective we cannot neglect the political, social, debate on the potential action of individuals in economic and historical context in which public life in a period where electoral democracy "sets in" or "imposes itself". Each rates reach record levels. context is determinant for the assimilation of the After a period of considerable consolidation of democratic principles and for the evaluation of the , as well as the implementation of transformation of any regime. democracy regime in several countries mainly in the Western world and during the second half of We begin this analysis with the most consensual the 21st century, the debate focus on the question of perspective, the etymological origin of the word the quality of democracy. However, the need to “democracy”, according to its Greek roots (Finley, revisit the concept arises from the perspective of 1988), which leads us to resort to the classics for a the establishment of distinct models of democracy, first approach to its surroundings. In fact, in an as well as the observation that in a growing initial perspective it’s important to decode its number of countries some democratic principles meaning: demos = people and kratos = power, that have been questioned. is, democracy means “both the government of the According to this perspective, we set off for a people and the government of a certain people” historical framework covering the key elements of (Hermet et al., 2014: 74). This distinction assumes democracy and its functioning in the contemporary a very relevant role in the context of the tasks societies. Can we definitely assume the democracy assigned to the democratic regime, the affirmation as an inequality system? of the principle and the question of the legitimacy in the exercise of the political power. Keywords – Democracy, Political Participation; Citizenship; Western Society; Inequality In the first case (government of the people), one sees a principle of direct governance (people's 1. Revisiting the concept and origins of government), while in the second case (government of a certain people) the principle of governance by democracy legitimation / representation is in force.

The challenge of going through the study of the The regime dates back to the VI century b.C., democracy concept becomes a difficult and vicious having been implemented by Cleisthene (Finley, task, not only because of the numerous historical 1988 and Filho, 2001) [1], although was references to democracy and the process of given the driving force behind a set of reforms of globalization of this kind of regime across the the political system that led to the recognition of a world, but also due to the need of a clear distinction series of principles of equality, namely the between the etymological interpretation of the word possibility of grouping classes without any kind of of the practical exercise of the democracy. It`s clear discrimination or hierarchies based on wealth or that this point led us to a dichotomy between what family ancestry (some of the key aspects in a global democracy proclaims to be and what it actually and equal society). represents, a dichotomy between the ideal system and the possible political system. Basing our perspective in the own words of Pericles cited by Thucydides in the Peloponnesian In this sense, we consider that it is not possible to War Book (in Schilling, 1999:10) to describe the carry out any analysis of the functioning of the regime it`s possible to observe some arguments that political system and the mechanisms for citizens’ are still valid in the contemporary societies: participation, without first understanding the

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Page 1619 Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-2, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

We live in the form of a government that is not In other words, since it is not possible to deny the based on the institutions of our neighbors; on the influence of in the delineation contrary, we serve as a model to some rather than of the structure of the , it is verified that "the imitate others. Its name, as all that depends not of legacy has not succeeded until today that the real few but of the majority, is the democracy. and the rational coincide, but remains as a heritage of the West this dialectical polarity between This premise of democracy is a clear recognition of thought and Action "(idem, ibid), between the real the citizens equality, and the regime was based on and the thought about the real, since the what Montesquieu would later call the separation presuppositions of democracy, in their fullness, are, of powers between the legislative system, the in our view, unattainable. executive system and the judicial system (Richter, 1977). Although there was a demand for direct In spite of this consideration, the undeniable legacy democracy (perceived as an ideal political model), around the various areas of action and promotion of that is, based on the participation of all citizens, equality is visible in a series of words that have Athenian democracy presented a set of limitations, reached the present day, such as: Isonomy (equality some identified by Plato himself when he presented before the ); Isotomy (equality of honors); the (Politeia), as the virtuous regime, as Isopoliteia (equal political rights); opposed to bad regimes, in a clear structuring of the (equality of political power); Isopsephia (equality that govern the city (Rancière, 2004). in ); Isogoria (equality of the right to speak); Isoteleia (tributary equality); Isomoinia Therefore, the or the mixed regime (equal participation); Isokleria (equality of assumed, in the eyes of Plato, as the best form of property) and isodaimonia (equality of fortune) government, giving space for the affirmation of the (Moreira, 2003: 388). best ones on the masses. This perspective is in line with some aspects that can be defined as the In all this words we found a common denominator, , the problem is that the natural choice “isos”, which directly refers precisely to the notion of the fittest did not obey any desirable criteria of of “equality”, although, as we mentioned earlier, merit. the concept of citizenship at the time resided in an assumption of inequality. However, these However, it should be noted that "the democratic fundamental principles would be reflected in the concept of Pericles is far from being universal, it is constitution of the modern democracies, by rather Athenian, restricted, particular, of the city. ensuring their implementation in the drafting of Just as the ideal democratic contradiction of the their respective constitutions. Even in the modern great powers of today has been fully compatible democracies it is observed some attempts to return with the nature of the state in movement" (Moreira, to a kind of through the 2003: 381). That is, the contextual question is realization of . decisive to avoid entering a criticism devoid of historical basis. If there is no ideal political system, In another scope of the creation of the basis of we cannot advocate the emergence of an ideal democracy, Alexis de Tocqueville (ed. 2012) model of democracy. So, it is possible to delineate contributed, when in the 19th century he published an adequate model according to the context and the book “From Democracy in America”, in a clear peoples` characteristics, but the same model could compliment to the equality of conditions and the represent a civilizational retrogression in other principles of democracy in the United States. societies [3]. Tocqueville emphasizes the contextual and historical scenario in the United States history to For this reason, the citizens represented a minority explain the difference between the regimes in of the individuals residing in the city, excluding Europe (mainly in his home country – France) and women [4], as well as the political participation of the new American structure. It is clear that "the the foreigners residing in Athens (metics). circumstances that accompanied the democracy However, from our point of view, the birth in America and helped in its development had impracticability of democracy (in its fullness a significant importance in the country history and consideration) was also based on other aspects, evolution (idem: 36). such as the practice of ostracism for those who challenge the democratic regime, as well as the fact In other words, democracy is valued as an ideal that Athenian society was a slave society, with regime for the government of the people, and it is slaves being considered objects, deprived of any defended that democracy designates a mode of rights [5]. organization of political power whose legitimacy requires that it fully recognize the primacy of popular sovereignty and that it assumes as a real

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Page 1620 Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-2, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in goal its effective arrangement. Democracy is ideal model, being common the recourse to the always based on a delegation of power to speech given by Winston Churchill, in the House of specialized personnel through regular, competitive the Commons in 1947: and unencumbered in certain sectors. In this perspective it’s not allowed that the will of the Many forms of government have been tried, and majority could mean the diminution of the will be tried in this world of sin and woe. No one minority’s rights or the rights of certain social pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. groups. Indeed it has been said that democracy is the worst form of Government except for all those other It should be noted that the need to implement a forms that have been tried from time to time ... specific quota in some countries to guarantee the (574). representation of the minorities in the sovereignty organs (mainly in the national parliament) was one This assumption is also based on the idea that most of the legislator paths to avoid the clash between of today's democracies are representative social groups and promote the efficient integration democracies, where citizens' votes are central to the of minorities in the social mainstream. functioning of the system. This would be the political path to assure or allow greater political The principle of sovereignty is decisive in this equality, provided that the institutional process, and Tocqueville (2012: 65) recognizes that requirements of a were in the American case the principle "is not hidden or observed, namely: "public policies chosen by sterile, as in certain nations; he is recognized by voters; free competition of candidates for customs, proclaimed by the laws; extends with representatives of the people; free, fair and frequent freedom and arrives without obstacles to the final elections; freedom in the formation of public consequences ". However, it should be noted that it opinion and expression of different social interests; is not sufficient for the assumption of democracy universal suffrage "(Dahl, 1998: 85). (there are, of course, undemocratic sovereign states), and it is important to distinguish between But use this premise or group of premises is not the real political regime and democracy as a enough in the present societies to guarantee the mobilizing utopia or ultimate goal of history. functioning of a democracy or to define in concrete matters what should be a democratic regime. In If it is true that the democratic sense implies fact, using the vision defended by Tocqueville acceptance of the uncertainty of the results of any (2012), the primacy of the "equality of conditions" political action for both the governed and the is verified, however a democratic society should rulers, contrary to based on the always guarantee the absence of orders and classes ancestral supply and demand of certainties for the and simultaneously ensure that all the individuals future, it is no less important to note that "the vices that compose the society are equal. and weaknesses of the government of democracy come without difficulty ... while... their defects The multiple democratic conceptions are thus based impress the outlet" (idem: 269-270). on three fundamental ideas: the idea of popular sovereignty; the idea of equality between man and the idea of freedom (Kelsen, 2000), and it is 2. Traditional models of democracy possible to see some rather succinct and explicit definitions of the essence of democracy. The focus In a global perspective, it’s possible to identify four would be on the impact on the functioning of major models of democracy: the classical model, institutions and on the role of citizens in the whole the protective democracy model, the elitist model process, being the concept of modern democracy as and the model (Held, "the system of production of ordination standards 1996). It is precisely in this model that we focus the that entrusts such a task to an elective body analysis of the present article, due to the focus on (parliament), with the broadest possible basis the role of individuals in the construction of society (universal suffrage) and proportional electoral and by the fact that this model was the most method "(idem: 13). implemented Western world democracies [6]. However, it should be noted that "democracy is not In fact, the implementation of democracy is based, exhausted in the representative field, but that the in the scope of the mentioned model, on the democratic ideal requires a participatory approach, effective participation of citizens in public life, which refers to a more intense, effective and closer with authority emanating from the group of citizens intervention to the achievement of specific (assumption of popular government). It is in this problems of citizens" (Martins , 2004: 293). This sense that some authors defend democracy as the principle of proximity is fundamental and has been

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Page 1621 Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-2, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in the basis of several studies aimed at bringing voters the increase in corruption or the perception of closer to their representatives, in order to establish corruption, the lack of confidence in the political a greater degree of confidence of the citizens actors and government responsible and the absence towards the institutions and political actors. That is of real alternative to the political parties involved in to say, democracy cannot be dependent on any the “government arc”, creating a vicious suffrage carried out from time to time [7]. democratic circle.

The present definition finds space in the theoretical discussion about the concept of citizenship, as well 3. The inequality perspective – the the relation between each individual and the contemporary democracy political power, in a dynamic that lead us to question whether we are facing a mere member of Can we consider that democracy is under a vicious society (subject to power) or a real subject of the circle? Or, at least, dominated by partisanship? Are power (citizen) (Miranda, 1996). The conceptual citizens truly free in their choices or conditioned, framework for the analysis of democracy can no decisively, by the choices of the parties and by the longer be dissociated from the institutional influence of the media? In a society where there is archetype of the individual states, in a context a call for the valorization of merit and individual where the European states face a democratic crisis, freedoms, based on the principle of active political based on the failure of the legitimacy of the participation of individuals, the path implies political decisions and the authority of the political structural reforms in the political and electoral actors (Goulard & Monti, 2013). system, which necessarily causes changes in the democratic perspective existing. In this new reality the multiplicity and complexity of the democracy concept implies an analysis of the Is democracy and the various forms of political factors and elements that influence its participation conditioned to sectors such as the implementation, as well as the historical and social economy? Are the new models of political context in which citizens exercise their rights and participation replacing the impact of on duties within the establish democratic framework. public statements? In what sense can one approach the functioning of democracy on the basis of a This institutional arrangement influences all the perspective of continuous inequality? The present analysis that can be carried out, and the "perfect" democratic model precisely substantiates this ideal democracy comes down to an unrealizable inequality, and the democratic ideal may be held goal, since the human condition automatically hostage by economic interests and a bureaucratic refers to a set of differences that cause inequalities elite. in the institutional dynamics created. That is, in a very simple way it is possible to affirm that Something that seems undeniable, and taking into democracy comes down to the choice of who account the various periods analyzed for the governs the State, being this one responsible for implementation of democracy, is that it always conducting the organic functioning of society. At presents imperfections, which derives from the no point in this definition does it envisage that systematic dependence of its confirmation, either democracy can or does require full equality by the strength of the polls and the popular vote, between citizens, and there is a clear attempt to being as a result of the existing institutional alleviate possible pockets of inequality. framework and that implies the verification of its functioning through the interrelation of the various However, after a period marked by the organs of sovereignty. That is, a constant globalization of democracy, a process designated assessment of the regime's assumptions, with a no by Samuel Huntington (1993) as a "third wave of less regular assessment of its inability to generate " and beginning with the full equality among citizens. The impact of an Portuguese in 1974 [8], there is an imperfect regime is the constant questioning of its increasing criticism over the functioning of the foundations, which has motivated multiple democracies in western world, not related to the criticisms of the functioning of the political system, democracy option itself. In this perspective the being this perspective based on social inequality main critics are related with the lower level of and a lack of definition on the principles that turnout in political elections (Freire & Magalhães, should guarantee the foundation of the regime. 2002 and Costa, 2010); the problematic of political representation and accountability (Freire, Martins However, we do not intend, with this vision, to & Moreira, 2008) which could lead to the adoption assume a catastrophic character of the of populist and extremist solutions. Other issues implementation of democracy; on the contrary, it is directly related to the questioning of democracy is

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Page 1622 Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-2, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in the aim of the known regimes that allows for a political regime, which in itself is already a greater level of citizen participation, fostering the verification of the need to analyze the concepts foundations for the promotion of equality of rights through the translation of reality. and duties in a continuous game of social accountability of political actors. The challenge is References not less than the change of regime, but rather, knowing the inevitable realization of full equality, 1. Arblaster, A. (1998). Democracy – concepts social it is necessary to defend the principles that guided thought. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota the implementation of democracy, in defense of the Press. ideals of freedom and equality between the citizens. 2. Aristóteles (1998). Política. Lisboa: INCM. 3. Austin, M., Vidal-Naquet, P. (1986). Economia e sociedade na Grécia antiga. Lisboa: Edições 70. Final remarks 4. Cohen, J. (1986). “Reflections on Rousseau: and democracy” in Philosophy and Public Affairs, vol. 15, n. 3, pp. 275-297. If the recognition of the inability to generate an 5. Dahl, R. (1998). On Democracy. New Haven: Yale unshakeable system of criticism accompanies the University Press. evolution of democracy, we are aware that the 6. Finley, M. (1988). Os gregos antigos. Lisboa: alternatives presented to the democratic model Edições 70. continue to raise greater doubts than the 7. Filho, M. (2001). A democracia no limiar do século implementation of democracy. The central issue, XXI. São Paulo: Saraiva. addressed throughout this article, is the need to 8. Freire, A., Martins, M.M., Moreira, D. (2008). Para uma melhoria da representação política. A reforma view democracy as an imperfect model, capable of do sistema eleitoral. Lisboa: Sextante Editora. providing considerable inequalities and based on 9. Goulard, S., Monti, M. (2013). A democracia na multiple influences from other societal sectors. Europa. Uma perspectiva de futuro. Lisboa: Editorial Presença. The roots of Greek democracy allow us to frame 10. Hermet, G., Badie, B., Birnbaum, P., Braud, P. and understand the long historical course of the (2014). Dicionário de ciência política e das organization of society, but they do not represent instituições políticas. Lisboa: Escolar Editora. an insurmountable goal for the challenges of 11. Held, D. (1996). Models of democracy. Stanford: contemporary democracy. If the assumption of Stanford University Press. 12. Hellwig, T., Samuels, D. (2007). Electoral democracy is becoming more and more accountability and the variety of democratic widespread, it is also clear that the regime has not regimes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. solved numerous problems in the functioning of 13. Huntington, S. (1993). The third wave: societies, such as meritocracy and real equality of Democratization in the Late 20th Century. opportunity. : University of Oklahoma Press. 14. Kelsen, H. (2000). A democracia. São Paulo: More than a finding of legal equality, leaving aside Martins Fontes. the considerations on the functioning of the judicial 15. Langworth, R. (ed.). (2008). Churchill by himself: system, the road goes through the concrete analysis the definitive collection of quotations. London: Public Affairs. of reality, noting that the elementary premises of 16. Maltez, J.A. (1996). Princípios de ciência política, democracy (equality before the law, direct and 2ª Edição. Lisboa: ISCSP. universal suffrage and freedom of expression and 17. Martins, M.M. (2004). Participação política e opinion) are not sufficient for the emergence of de democracia. O caso português – 1976-2000. Lisboa: facto equality. ISCSP. 18. Miranda, J. (1996). Ciência Política. Formas de The verification of the bases of the traditional Governo. Lisboa: Pedro Ferreira Editor. 19. Moreira, D. (2003). Teoria das relações models of democracy induces the need to reflect internacionais. Coimbra: Almedina. and to equate the new perspectives of the concept, 20. Mosca, G. (1975). História das doutrinas políticas. in an automatic process of validation of Rio de Janeiro: Zahar. participatory democracy, considered in a larger 21. Mossé, C. (1985). As instituições gregas. Lisboa: scale than the simple electoral participation. In this Edições 70. context, equality is achieved, however, considering 22. Rancière. J. (2004). Disagreement: and the social, economic and integration disparities, the philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota requirements that promote electoral participation Press. are quite different. 23. Richter, M. (1977). The political theory of Montesquieu. New York: Cambridge University

Press. We are therefore facing with the confirmation of the inequality inherent in democracy or any form of

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Page 1623 Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-2, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

24. Schilling, V. (1999). As Grandes Correntes do Vidal-Naquet, 1986; Finley, 1988; Maltez, 1998 Pensamento - da Grécia Antiga ao Neoliberalismo. and Aristóteles, 1998 (ed). Age: Porto Alegre. 25. Tocqueville, A. (2012). A democracia na América. [6] It is not in the present analysis to dwell on the Lisboa: Principia Editora. different perspectives and elements that each conception enshrines. On this subject see: Held, 1996; Maltez, 1996; Arblaster, 1998; Kelsen, 2000; Weblinks Martins, 2004; Hellwig & Samuels, 2007 and http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/suffrage.htm - accessed at Tocqueville, 2012. 20/01/2017. http://womenshistory.about.com/od/suffrage/a/intl_timeli [7] For a closer look over the electoral reform: ne.htm - accessed at 19/01/2017. Meirinho Martins, 2004 and Freire, Martins & Moreira, 2008.

Foot Notes [8] The third wave of democracy will be visible mainly in Latin America and Eastern Europe, after [1] Several authors identify Cleisthene as the the break-up of the USSR. founder of the Athenian democracy, in view of the adoption of a set of reforms in Athens, centered in the promotion of the participation of all the citizens. On this subject see Mosca, 1975 and Filho, 1988.

[2] It should be emphasized that the characterization of a regime as democratic depends on many factors, and in the eyes of the contemporary perspective, the model proposed by Pericles presented innumerable shortcomings, inherent in the context and social reality. Moreover, we consider that no attempt to equate the schemes is correct since the grounds on which they are based are of a distinct nature, as well as the a priori conditions available to legislators.

[3] Note, for example, the imposition of the democratic model in the Arab countries in the present century, and all the consequences for the instability of the Middle East.

[4] It should be noted that only in the late nineteenth century did women gain the right to vote in some countries, and New Zealand (1893) was the first state to recognize the vow to women without any restrictions. The debate around this issue is continuous and still present in many societies, both in terms of voting rights and voting, and in terms of women's political participation. For a chronological analysis of women's access to voting see: http://www.ipu.org/wmn- e/suffrage.htm. It should be noted in this connection that Portugal was the last country in the current to recognize, without limitation, the right to vote for women in 1976. On this subject see: http://womenshistory.about.com/od/ Suffrage / a / intl_timeline.htm.

[5] For a further developpment of the democracy concept: Mossé, 1985; Cohen, 1986; Austin &

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Page 1624

Top View