Development Development and and
1997 1997 July July Research Research of of Office Office
·. ·.
Congress Congress to to Report Report A A
Applications Applications
Railroad Railroad in in
Utility Utility Admlnstration Admlnstration
Railroad Railroad Federal Federal
(SMES) (SMES) Storage Storage Energy Energy Magnetic Magnetic
Transportation Transportation of of
Department Department . . U.S Micro-Superconducting Micro-Superconducting of of Assessment Assessment
Feedback Feedback Industry Industry and and -References -References 7 7 Section Section
Conclusions Conclusions and and Findings Findings 6 6 Section Section -
Applications Applications Railroad Railroad in in Use Use ofMicro-SMES ofMicro-SMES Suitability Suitability - S S Section Section
Corridor Corridor Northeast Northeast the the in in Usage Usage Energy Energy and and Power Power Traction Traction -Electric -Electric 4 4 Section Section
Description Description System System Micro-SMES Micro-SMES - 3 3 Section Section
Development Development Micro-SMES Micro-SMES and and SMES SMES of of -Background -Background 2 2 Section Section
Introduction Introduction 1 1 Section Section -
Executive Executive Summary Summary
Acronyms Acronyms of of List List
Contents Contents of of Table Table
Watt Watt w w
Force Force Air Air States States United United USAF USAF
System System Power Power Uninterruptible Uninterruptible UPS UPS
Storage Storage Energy Energy Magnetic Magnetic Superconducting Superconducting SMES SMES
Authority Authority Transportation Transportation Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Southeastern Southeastern SEPTA SEPTA
System System Management Management Energy Energy Superconducting Superconducting SEMS SEMS
Office Office Initiative Initiative Defense Defense Strategic Strategic SDIO SDIO
Unit Unit Conditioning Conditioning Power Power PCU PCU
Equipment Equipment Interfacing Interfacing Continuation Continuation and and Conditioning Conditioning Power Power PCCffi PCCffi
Transit Transit Jersey Jersey New New NIT NIT
Corridor Corridor Northeast Northeast NEC NEC
Megawatt Megawatt MW MW
Megajoule Megajoule MI MI
Motor/Generator Motor/Generator MIG MIG
Commuter Commuter Rail Rail Maryland Maryland MARC MARC
Road Road Island Island Rail Rail Long Long LIRR LIRR
Laboratory Laboratory National National Alamos Alamos Los Los LANL LANL
Kilowatt-hour Kilowatt-hour kWh kWh
Kilovolt Kilovolt kV kV
Kilogram Kilogram kg kg
Joule Joule J J
Hertz Hertz Hz Hz
Center Center Research Research Advanced Advanced Houston Houston HARC HARC
Laser Laser Electron Electron Free Free Ground-Based Ground-Based GBFEL GBFEL
Administration Administration Railroad Railroad Federal Federal FRA FRA
Model Model Test Test Engineering Engineering ETM ETM
Institute Institute Research Research Power Power Electric Electric EPRI EPRI
ofEnergy ofEnergy Department Department DOE DOE
ofDefense ofDefense Department Department DOD DOD
Agency Agency Nuclear Nuclear Defense Defense DNA DNA
Current Current Direct Direct DC DC
Transportation Transportation of of Department Department Connecticut Connecticut ConnDOT ConnDOT
Agency Agency Projects Projects Research Research Advanced Advanced ARPA ARPA
. . Current Current Alternating Alternating AC AC
& & ACRONYMS ACRONYMS ABBREVIATIONS ABBREVIATIONS OF OF LIST LIST
1 1 ES-
efficiency. efficiency. and and safety, safety, cost, cost, size, size, capacity, capacity, energy energy of of areas areas
the the in in systems systems micro-SMES micro-SMES current current of of performance performance and and cost cost the the improving improving for for options options and and goals goals
design design identified identified have have researchers researchers However, However, pricing. pricing. cost cost maintenance maintenance and and operating operating capital, capital,
in in scale scale of of economies economies for for potential potential the the assess assess to to difficult difficult is is it it result, result, a a As As . . applications power power
micro-SMES micro-SMES for for date date to to experience experience operating operating little little is is there there areas, areas, market market selected selected in in introduced introduced
being being currently currently technology, technology, evolving evolving rapidly rapidly still still and and emerging emerging an an are are systems systems micro-SMES micro-SMES Since Since
applications. applications. savings savings energy energy railroad railroad for for
appropriate appropriate configurations configurations SMES SMES commercial commercial near-term near-term pursuing pursuing currently currently is is one one No No . . evaluation
and and test test under under still still are are and and applications applications quality quality power power facilities facilities critical critical or or utility utility for for environment environment
commercial commercial the the to to introduced introduced been been recently recently only only have have prototypes prototypes SMES SMES existing existing Third, Third, trains. trains.
regenerative regenerative from from transferred transferred energy energy any any absorb absorb can can it it that that dense dense sufficiently sufficiently is is NEC NEC the the serving serving
network network distribution distribution electrical electrical the the Second, Second, . . wayside the the on on or or trainset trainset a a board board on on either either units units
storage storage energy energy bulk bulk as as useful useful be be to to cost cost importantly, importantly, most most and, and, weight weight size, size, their their for for energy energy little little
too too store store devices devices SMES SMES First, First, rail." rail." commuter commuter or or Amtrak Amtrak either either for for NEC NEC the the along along capability capability
savings savings energy energy and and regeneration regeneration cost-effective cost-effective "provide "provide presently presently not not capabilities does does capabilities current current
with with technology technology SMES SMES that that appears appears it it analysis, analysis, technical technical and and review review preliminary preliminary this this on on Based Based
micro-SMES. micro-SMES.
as as such such system system storage storage energy energy an an or or redistribution redistribution via via propulsion propulsion for for purchased purchased energy energy of of amount amount
the the reduce to to it it reuse reuse to to and and energy energy this this recover recover to to opportunity opportunity an an is is There There grids. grids. resistor resistor in in heat heat
as as dissipated dissipated then then is is energy energy This This energy. energy. electrical electrical into into train train the the of of energy energy kinetic kinetic the the converting converting
generators generators as as function function motors motors traction traction the the braking, braking, dynamic dynamic In In stopping. stopping. and and down down slowing slowing
for for means means the the on on as as braking braking dynamic dynamic and and friction friction of of combination combination a a use use currently currently NEC, NEC, trains trains the the
Boston. Boston. and and Washington Washington
between between NEC NEC the the along along operations operations of of rail rail efficiency efficiency the the upgrade upgrade or or improve improve to to suitability suitability
and and maturity maturity technology technology micro-SMES micro-SMES assessing assessing in in Center Center Volpe Volpe the the and and the the by by FRA FRA considered considered
input input was was their their and and soliciied soliciied were were academia academia and and industry industry government, government, in in experts experts recognized recognized
from from comments comments review, review, independent independent this this to to addition addition In In projections. projections. benefit/cost benefit/cost and and designs, designs,
concepts, concepts, ~ ~ SMES SMES on on information information background background other other and and literature literature technical technical current current the the
review review to to been been has has approach approach The The operations. operations. rail rail commuter commuter and and Amtrak Amtrak both both for for (NBC) (NBC) Corridor Corridor
Northeast Northeast the the along along capability capability savings savings energy energy and and regeneration regeneration energy energy cost-effective cost-effective provide provide
to to technology technology (SMES) (SMES) Storage Storage Energy Energy Magnetic Magnetic micro-Superconducting micro-Superconducting using using of of feasibility feasibility
the the investigated investigated Center), Center), (Volpe (Volpe Center Center Systems Systems Transportation Transportation National National Volpe Volpe the the from from support support
technical technical with with (FRA), (FRA), Administration Administration Railroad Railroad Federal Federal the the Congress, Congress, . . U.S the the of of direction direction the the At At
Summary Summary Executive Executive
ES-2 ES-2
, , .
. . justified be be can can investment investment
capital capital
large large
potentially potentially
the the where where
applications applications particular particular in in useful useful be be may may megajoules megajoules 1000 1000 of of
order order
the the
on on
capacity capacity
storage storage a a
with with micro-SMES micro-SMES parallel parallel massively massively or or units units SMES SMES large large
capability, capability,
storage storage energy energy
low low relatively relatively
their their of of because because regeneration, regeneration, energy energy cost-effective cost-effective for for
appropriate appropriate
appear appear
not not
do do
capacity) capacity)
energy energy of of megawatt-seconds megawatt-seconds 20 20 , , . e . i megajoules, megajoules, {20 {20 "micro" "micro" as as
defined defined
size size the the
of of
units units SMES SMES
Although Although markets. markets. niche niche power power and and transportation transportation into into
introduced introduced be be
to to are are
systems systems
micro-SMES micro-SMES
if if necessary necessary are are pun pun market market and and push push technology technology both both that that clear clear is is It It
1 - 1 1 - 1
study. study. this this of of scope scope the the beyond beyond were were these these but but storage, storage, energy energy magnetic magnetic with with associated associated
capabilities capabilities the the from from benefit benefit potentially potentially may may supplies supplies power power uninterruptible uninterruptible as as such such applications applications
railroad railroad Other Other trains. trains. electrified electrified of of energy energy braking braking regenerated regenerated resupplying resupplying and and storing, storing, capturing, capturing,
for for devices devices micro-SMES micro-SMES of of use use the the on on primarily primarily focused focused has has assessment assessment and and review review This This
industry. industry. railroad railroad electrified electrified
the the of of requirements requirements savings savings energy energy and and regeneration regeneration energy energy the the from from cycles) cycles) charge/discharge charge/discharge
of of number number the the (in (in significantly significantly differ differ applications applications quality quality power power industrial industrial for for requirements requirements
the the However, However, . . supply power power utility utility the the to to parallel parallel in in operating operating generators generators engine engine diesel diesel
emergency emergency with with conjunction conjunction in in sometimes sometimes power, power, battery battery oflead-acid oflead-acid consisting consisting supply supply power power
uninterruptible uninterruptible an an of of use use make make now now systems systems these these of of all all Almost Almost critical. critical. is is quality quality power power where where
installations installations of of typical typical are are processes processes industrial industrial and and facilities facilities controlled controlled Computer Computer system. system. power power
utility utility the the of of outages outages power power momentary momentary and and fluctuations fluctuations voltage voltage from from protected protected be be must must process process
or or installation installation the the applications, applications, critical critical these these For For process. process. industrial industrial an an of of control control the the to to or or facility facility
a a of of operation operation the the to to critical critical is is quality quality power power where where installations installations those those on on focused focused currently currently are are
(MJ), (MJ), megajoules megajoules 20 20 than than less less to to limited limited applications, applications, Micro-SMES Micro-SMES 1970s. 1970s. the the since since prototypes prototypes
micro-SMES micro-SMES and and SMES SMES developing developing been been have have agencies agencies Federal Federal and and industry industry utility utility The The
NEC. NEC. the the on on performance performance
train train of of modeling modeling by by generated generated data data simulation simulation upon upon and and gathered gathered information information available available the the on on
based based conducted conducted was was assessment assessment and and review review This This . . operator railroad railroad electrified electrified an an and and agencies, agencies,
government government researchers, researchers, university university representatives, representatives, industry industry SMES SMES include include organizations organizations
These These operations. operations. railroad railroad and/or and/or technology technology SMES SMES in in expertise expertise with with organizations organizations of of number number
a a from from comments comments and and information information solicited solicited has has and and search, search, literature literature a a conducted conducted has has Center, Center,
Systems Systems Transportation Transportation National National Volpe Volpe the the from from support support technical technical with with the the FRA, FRA, response, response, In In
· · operations." operations."
rail rail commuter commuter and and Amtrak Amtrak both both for for (NEC) (NEC) Corridor Corridor Northeast Northeast the the along along capability capability savings savings
energy energy and and regeneration regeneration cost-effective cost-effective provide provide to to technology technology (SMES) (SMES) Storage Storage Energy Energy Magnetic Magnetic
micro-Superconducting micro-Superconducting utilizing utilizing of of "feasibility "feasibility the the on on report report a a prepare prepare to to (FRA) (FRA) Administration Administration
Railroad Railroad Federal Federal the the directed directed 104-205, 104-205, P.L. P.L. 1997, 1997, Act, Act, Appropriations Appropriations Agencies Agencies Related Related
and and Transportation Transportation of of Department Department the the accompanying accompanying Report Report Conference Conference a a in in Congress, Congress, U.S. U.S. The The
1-Introduction 1-Introduction Section Section
1 1 2-
. . air compressed compressed and and capacitors, capacitors, ultra ultra flywheels, flywheels, batteries, batteries,
pumped-hydro, pumped-hydro, include include stage, stage, developmental developmental a a in in also also are are which which of of some some systems, systems, storage storage
energy energy Competitive Competitive storage. storage. energy energy including including means, means, all all or or any any by by supply supply available available and and demand demand
peak peak between between differences differences daily daily the the smooth smooth to to try try would would utilities utilities units, units, peaking peaking fossil-fueled fossil-fueled the the of of
use use the the To To minimize minimize demand). demand). high high of of times times (at (at duty duty peaking peaking provide provide to to only only serve serve would would plants plants
powered powered fueled fueled fossil fossil while while plants, plants, generating generating nuclear nuclear by by produced produced be be primarily primarily would would electricity electricity
that that was was seventies seventies early early and and sixties sixties late late the the in in proposed proposed initially initially was was SMES SMES when when perception perception The The
customers. customers. their their and and utilities utilities
among among interest interest largest largest the the currently currently has has which which application application the the is is This This quality. quality. power power increase increase and and
stability stability line line provide provide also also can can it it but but grid, grid, a a from from power power real real absorb absorb or or into into power power real real insert insert SMES SMES
a a can can only only not not Therefore, Therefore, milliseconds. milliseconds. 100 100 than than less less in in power power full full deliver deliver and and transient transient grid grid
a a to to respond respond can can units units SMES SMES Typically, Typically, quality. quality. power power and and stability stability electrical electrical line line transmission transmission
power power enhance enhance to to used used be be also also can can capacity capacity sufficient sufficient of of SMES SMES a a response, response, fast fast its its of of Because Because
capability. capability. savings savings energy energy the the reduce reduce
significantly significantly can can interface interface cold-to-warm cold-to-warm the the with with associated associated losses losses thermodynamic thermodynamic the the sequence, sequence,
operating operating and and design design system system the the on on Depending Depending operate. operate. to to power power of of fair fair a a requires requires ~ount ~ount
which which system system refrigeration refrigeration a a needs needs it it temperatures, temperatures, cryogenic cryogenic at at maintained maintained be be to to needs needs SMES SMES a a
Since Since temperatures. temperatures. cryogenic cryogenic at at superconductor superconductor the the keep keep to to system system refrigeration refrigeration cryogenic cryogenic a a has has
also also plant plant SMES SMES the the PCU, PCU, the the and and coil coil superconducting superconducting the the to to addition addition equipment. equipment. In In conversion conversion
power power solid-state solid-state the the of of capacity capacity and and time time switching switching the the being being limitation limitation key key the the with with grid, grid, a a from from
power power absorb absorb or or load, load, a a to to power power supply supply either either to to rapidly rapidly very very respond respond can can SMES SMES A A quickly. quickly.
very very extracted extracted be be can can coil coil superconducling superconducling the the in in energy energy the the and and indefinitely, indefinitely, stored stored be be can can
energy energy that that is is feature feature key key Its Its served. served. being being system system the the to to and and grid, grid, power power utility utility electric electric an an usually usually
source, source, power power the the to to (PCU), (PCU), unit unit conditioning conditioning power power a a via via attached, attached, is is SMES SMES The The coil. coil. the the in in
flowing flowing current current direct direct a a by by generated generated field field magnetic magnetic the the in in energy energy stores stores that that coil coil superconducting superconducting
a a of of consisting consisting accumulator accumulator energy energy an an is is system system SMES SMES a a configuration, configuration, simplest simplest its its In In
system. system. refrigeration refrigeration cryogenic cryogenic
a a via via state, state, superconducting superconducting a a in in kept kept is is it it as as long long so so indefinitely indefinitely energy energy the the store store can can coil coil
a a Such Such material. material. specific specific the the for for zero) zero) absolute absolute near near (usually (usually temperature temperature superconducting superconducting critical critical
the the below below or or at at level level to to reduced reduced is is ioss ioss neglig~ble neglig~ble resistance resistance the the conductor, conductor, the the as as used used is is material material
superconducting superconducting a a When When energy. energy. stored stored the the dissipate dissipate that that losses losses resistance resistance generates generates copper) copper)
(e.g., (e.g., wire wire ordinaiy ordinaiy an an in in flowing flowing current current However, However, current. current. the the of of square square the the to to and and coil coil turns turns
of of number number the the to to proportion proportion in in increases increases coil coil the the in in energy energy stored stored the the coil, coil, a a in in wound wound is is wire wire the the
energy. energy. If If stores stores that that field field magnetic magnetic a a creates creates (DC) (DC) current current direct direct a a carrying carrying wire wire a a that that principle principle
physical physical simple simple the the on on based based is is technology technology (SMES) (SMES) Storage Storage Energy Energy Magnetic Magnetic Superconducting Superconducting
Background Background - 2.1 2.1 Section Section
Development Development Micro-SMES Micro-SMES and and SMES SMES of of Background Background - 2 2 Section Section
2-2 2-2
well well as as
undertaken undertaken was was Program Program Reduction Reduction Risk Risk a a million, million, $54 $54 of of estimate estimate cost cost original original the the times times
five five
than than more more to to increased increased IT IT Phase Phase for for estimates estimates cost cost the the Because Because . . program SMES-ETM SMES-ETM the the
resumed resumed DNA DNA Congress, Congress, of of direction direction the the at at 1991, 1991, late late in in Subsequently, Subsequently, program. program. SMES-ETM SMES-ETM
the the
canceled canceled DNA DNA 1991, 1991, June June in in Consequently, Consequently, program. program. GBFEL GBFEL the the canceled canceled SDIO SDIO 1990, 1990, In In
coils. coils. superconducting superconducting the the cool cool to to ofhelium ofhelium ofliters ofliters thousands thousands
use use to to proposed proposed teams teams These These meters. meters. over over 5 5 of of heights heights and and meters, meters, 100 100 over over of of diameters diameters
with with designs designs coil coil solenoidal solenoidal proposed proposed teams teams Both Both definition. definition. concept concept I, I, Phase Phase SMES-ETM, SMES-ETM,
the the
for for selected selected were were Ebasco) and and (Bechtel (Bechtel contractors contractors two two study, study, costing costing preliminary preliminary a a After After
acceptable. acceptable. environmentally environmentally and and sited, sited, easily easily reliable, reliable, efficient, efficient, effective, effective, cost cost were were plants plants the the
only only if if
SMES SMES in in interested interested were were utilities utilities electric electric The The usage. usage. of of cycle cycle day-night day-night typical typical the the level level to to
energy energy
electrical electrical of of storage storage diurnal diurnal provide provide to to were were plants plants SMES SMES large large these these utilities, utilities, electric electric For For
required. required. was was MWh) MWh) (1000 (1000 gigajoules gigajoules 3,600 3,600 about about of of capacity capacity energy energy an an with with SMES SMES a a GBFEL, GBFEL,
the the
power power To To SDIO. SDIO. by by development development under under weapon weapon directed-energy directed-energy (GBFEL) (GBFEL) laser laser free-electron free-electron
ground-based, ground-based, a a for for sufficient sufficient power power provide provide to to were were units units SMES SMES these these purposes, purposes, military military For For
developed. developed. be be to to need need would would systems systems larger larger or or MWh) MWh) (1000 (1000 gigajoule gigajoule 3,600 3,600
viable, viable,
economically economically be be to to technology technology SMES SMES for for that that anticipated anticipated was was it it srudies, srudies, costing costing on on Based Based
plant. plant. full-scale full-scale a a for for necessary necessary technologies technologies construction construction and and fabrication, fabrication, engineering, engineering, design, design,
the the
develop develop to to was was It It plants. plants. MWh) MWh) 5000 5000 (1000- gigajoule gigajoule 18,000 18,000 3,600- to to up up scaled scaled be be could could
that that
technology technology dual-use dual-use a a demonstrate demonstrate to to was was SMES-ETM SMES-ETM The The demonstration. demonstration. utility utility electric electric
the the for for
hours hours 2 2 for for megawatts megawatts 10 10 and and demonstration demonstration military military the the for for seconds seconds 100 100 for for megawatts megawatts
400 400 of of capabilities capabilities PCU PCU with with storage, storage, energy energy usable usable of of MWh) MWh) (20 (20 gigajoules gigajoules 72 72 provide provide to to
was was It It
(ETM). (ETM). Model Model Test Test Engineering Engineering SMES SMES MWh) MWh) (20 (20 gigajoule gigajoule 72 72 a a demonstrate demonstrate to to program program
utilities) utilities) (military-electric (military-electric dual-use dual-use a a undertake undertake to to (SDIO) (SDIO) Office Office Initiative Initiative Defense Defense Strategic Strategic
(DOD) (DOD)
Defense's Defense's of of Department Department by by tasked tasked was was (DNA) (DNA) Agency Agency Nuclear Nuclear Defense Defense the the 1987, 1987, In In
control. control. power power state state solid solid namely namely equipment, equipment, cost-effective cost-effective more more much much of of introduction introduction
the the
by by
eliminated eliminated was subsequently subsequently was 1976, 1976, in in existed existed which which unit, unit, SMES SMES the the for for need need The The year. year. a a
about about
for for operated operated Washington, Washington, Tacoma, Tacoma, in in located located unit, unit, The The Intertie. Intertie. Pacific Pacific Authority's Authority's Power Power
Bonneville Bonneville the the . . to support stability stability provide provide to to unit SMES SMES kWh) kWh) (8.3 (8.3 megajoule megajoule 30 30 a a construct construct
and and
design design to to program program a a initiated initiated LANL LANL 1976, 1976, In In means. means. other other by by manageable manageable was was requirement requirement
storage storage energy energy bulk bulk the the because because leveling leveling load load than than rather rather quality quality power power line line transmission transmission on on
focused focused
quickly quickly
study study The The operate. operate. to to have have would would it it which which in in conditions conditions utility utility the the assess assess and and to to
technologies, technologies, storage storage other to to comparison comparison in in SMES SMES of of value value relative relative the the deterlnine deterlnine to to (LANL) (LANL)
Laboratory Laboratory National National Alamos Alamos Los Los the the requested requested Commission Commission Energy Energy Atomic Atomic U.S. U.S. the the 1972, 1972, In In
applications. applications.
utility utility in in required required leveling leveling load load of of amount amount the the for for expensive expensive and and large large too too as as viewed viewed were were units units
SMES SMES Such Such time. time. that that at at built built anything anything than than larger larger magnitude magnitude of of orders orders were were units units large such such
for for
needed needed coils coils superconducting superconducting the the However, However, . . more or or MWh) MWh) (5000 (5000 gigajoules gigajoules 18,000 18,000 storing storing
of of capable capable systems systems large-scale large-scale on on focused focused designs designs SMES SMES early early needs, needs, perceived perceived these these of of Because Because
2-3 2-3
1995. 1995. Corp., Corp., Bechtel Bechtel Cesar, Cesar, Luongo, Luongo, Overview," Overview," An An Systems: Systems: Storage Storage "Superconducting "Superconducting . . 2
1995. 1995. Agency, Agency,
Nuclear Nuclear Defense Defense W., W., George George Ullrich, Ullrich, Program," Program," Development Development SMES SMES DNA DNA the the of of "Summary "Summary l. l.
References References - 2.2 2.2 Section Section
[2] [2] applications. applications. specific specific to to tailored tailored be be can can that that units units bigger bigger and and
better better demonstrating demonstrating of of approach approach steady steady a a follow follow can can SMES SMES of of commercialization commercialization that that believes believes
now now systems, systems, prototype prototype scale scale small small demonstrating demonstrating in in success success its its on on based based industry, industry, SMES SMES The The
1997. 1997. May May around around Florida, Florida, AFB, AFB, Tyndall Tyndall Laboratory, Laboratory, Wright Wright at at unit unit fourth fourth
the the install install to to selected selected been been has has York, York, New New ofLatham, ofLatham, Corp., Corp., General General Intermagnetics Intermagnetics systems. systems.
three three first first the the installed installed and and built built Wisconsin, Wisconsin, of.Middleton, of.Middleton, Inc., Inc., Superconductivity Superconductivity Oklahoma. Oklahoma.
AFB, AFB, Tinker Tinker at at Megacenter Megacenter Defense Defense the and and California, California, Sacramento, Sacramento, AFB, AFB, McClellan McClellan York; York;
New New Upton, Upton, Laboratory, Laboratory, National National Brookhaven Brookhaven DOE DOE the the are are These These technology. technology. ofmicro-SMES ofmicro-SMES
demonstration demonstration for for sites sites several several identified identified Program Program Insertion Insertion Technology Technology micro-SMES micro-SMES PCCIE PCCIE The The
1997. 1997. March March in in completion completion for for scheduled scheduled are are programs programs demonstration demonstration technology technology the the of of
results results the the documenting documenting reports reports Final Final outages. outages. power power of of case case in in backup backup power power system system short-term short-term
and and power power electrical electrical quality quality providing providing of of capable capable are are devices devices micro-SMES micro-SMES that that demonstrate demonstrate
to to was was goal goal PCCIE PCCIE The The micro-SMES. micro-SMES. of of applications applications quality quality power power commercial) commercial) and and
(government (government "dual-use" "dual-use" on on development development concentrated concentrated PCCIE PCCIE devices. devices. micro-SMES micro-SMES evaluate evaluate
and and field field to to program program 3-year 3-year a a initiated initiated AFB AFB McClellan McClellan at at Group Group Materiel Materiel (PCCIE) (PCCIE) Equipment Equipment
Interfacing Interfacing Continuation Continuation and and Conditioning Conditioning Power Power Force Force Air Air U.S. U.S. the the 1993, 1993, September September In In
stability. stability. line line transmission transmission enhance enhance significantly significantly can can plant plant SEMS SEMS a a power, power, absorb absorb
or or inject inject to to cycles) cycles) six six or or milliseconds milliseconds 100 100 (within (within response response fast fast its its of of Because Because wheeling). wheeling). power power
retail retail of of environment environment contemplated contemplated the the by by posed posed risks risks stability stability the the under under (especially (especially importance importance
in in increases increases this this interconnected interconnected increasingly increasingly become become networks networks transmission transmission constraints. constraints. As As
stability stability by by capacity capacity power power in in limited limited lines lines are are transmission transmission (AC) (AC) alternating alternating current current Many Many
sector. sector. utility utility in in the the SEMS SEMS of of application application commercial commercial the the first first to to be be likely likely is is enhancement enhancement stability stability
line line Transmission Transmission identified. identified. were were applications applications quality quality power power Numerous Numerous System). System). Management Management
Energy Energy (Superconducting (Superconducting SEMS SEMS to to SMES SMES acronym acronym the the from from change change a a proposed proposed focus and and focus their their
cbaDged cbaDged researchers researchers Hence, Hence, I] I] units.[ units.[ ofSMES ofSMES density density energy energy low low and and cost cost the the high high of of because because
primarily primarily management, management, energy energy on on focus focus a a toward toward storage storage energy energy diurnal diurnal from from away away turning turning to to be be
them them showed showed utilities utilities electric electric of of sutVey sutVey The The found. found. were were SMES SMES for for requirements requirements military military formal formal
no no carrier, carrier, aircraft aircraft all-electric all-electric generation generation next next Navy's Navy's the the as as such such identified, identified, were were applications applications
military military potential potential of of number number a a Although Although applications. applications. utility utility electric electric and and of of military military survey survey a a as as
1 1 3-
contains contains equipment equipment This This it. it. requires requires load load the the if if phase, phase, and and current, current, voltage, voltage, of of terms terms in in properly properly
it it condition condition to to and and SMES SMES the the from from energy energy extract extract to to used used is is equipment equipment conditioning conditioning Power Power
system. system.
cryogenic cryogenic the the on on load load removal removal heat heat the the increases increases greatly greatly leads leads these these through through superconductor superconductor
the the entering entering Heat Heat material. material. superconductivity superconductivity the the of of mass mass cold cold the the into into creeping creeping heat heat of of
source source major major a a are are connections connections These These current. current. full full the the carry carry still still leads leads the the state, state, standby standby charged charged
fully fully the the in in is is SMES SMES the the while while and, and, unit unit conditioning conditioning power power the the to to coil coil the the connect connect leads leads These These
cryostat. cryostat. the the in in coil coil the the to to connected connected be be must must leads leads wire wire coil, coil, the the from from energy energy the the To To extract extract
Fahrenheit). Fahrenheit). 452° 452° minus minus or or Celsius Celsius 269° 269° minus minus
or or Kelvin Kelvin 4° 4° ( ( temperatures temperatures helium helium liquid liquid to to cooled cooled be be must must it it superconducting, superconducting, become become to to alloy alloy
niobium-titanium niobium-titanium the the For For wire. wire. alloy alloy niobium-titanium niobium-titanium a a from from made made magnets magnets superconducting superconducting
use use date date to to field field the the in in evaluated evaluated systems systems micro-SMES micro-SMES The The superconductivity. superconductivity. for for
required required is is which which that that below below cryostat cryostat the the within within temperature temperature the the maintain maintain to to needed needed is is equipment equipment
isolation isolation thermal thermal and and refrigeration refrigeration addition, addition, In In cryostat. cryostat. or or thermos thermos sealed sealed vacuum vacuum a a in in enclosed enclosed
then then is is which which nitrogen) nitrogen) or or helium helium (liquid (liquid fluids fluids cryogenic cryogenic of of bath bath a a in in immersed immersed be be coil coil the the that that
requires requires system system SMES SMES a a superconductivity, superconductivity, maintain maintain and and achieve achieve To To zero). zero). absolute absolute near near (usually (usually
temperature temperature characteristic characteristic a a below below cooled cooled when when superconducting superconducting become become materials materials Certain Certain
discharged. discharged. and and charged charged rapidly rapidly be be can can it it that that except except battery, battery,
conventional conventional a a to to function function in in similar similar conceptually conceptually is is SMES SMES device, device, storage storage energy energy an an system. system. As As
refrigeration refrigeration cryogenic cryogenic a a operate operate to to outside outside from from supplied supplied be be must must energy energy superconductivity, superconductivity,
of of state state this this maintain maintain to to But, But, current. current. circulating circulating the the to to resistance resistance any any provide provide not not
does does coil coil superconducting superconducting the the because because indefinitely indefinitely stored stored be be can can energy energy This This current. current. circulating circulating
the the of of square square the the times times buildup) buildup) current current rapid rapid to to presents presents coil coil a a impediment impediment much much how how of of measure measure
(a (a inductance inductance coil coil the the to to proportional proportional is is coil coil the the in in stored stored energy energy The The coil. coil. superconducting superconducting
a a in in current current a a circulating circulating by by created created field field magnetic magnetic intense intense an an of of form form the the in in energy energy
store store to to configured configured and and designed designed are are devices devices (SMES) (SMES) storage storage energy energy magnetic magnetic Superconducting Superconducting
Description Description General General - 3.1 3.1 Section Section
. . time by by multiplied multiplied power power
to to equivalent equivalent is is Energy Energy watts watts (W). (W). of of terms terms in in given given usually usually is is Power Power discharged. discharged. and and charged charged
can can be be device device storage storage the the which which at at second) second) per per Goule Goule rate rate the the defines defines device device storage storage energy energy an an
of of level level power power The (kWh). (kWh). kilowatt-hour kilowatt-hour a a as as quantity, quantity, larger larger in in alternatively, alternatively, or or watt-second, watt-second, a a
to to equivalent equivalent joule joule a a (J), (J), as as quantified quantified conveniently conveniently be be can can Energy Energy respectively. respectively. megajoules, megajoules, 3 3 and and
megawatts megawatts 2 2 to to up up of of storage storage ratings ratings energy energy and and capacity capacity power power with with vendors, vendors, U.S. U.S. several several from from
available available commercially commercially now now are are units units Micro-SMES Micro-SMES size. size. any any can can be be SMES SMES a a Conceptually, Conceptually, here. here.
barrier barrier technical technical no no is is there there However, However, kWh).[l] kWh).[l] (5.5 (5.5 megajoules megajoules 20 20 than than less less capacities capacities energy energy
with with devices devices storage storage energy energy magnetic magnetic superconducting superconducting as as defined defined are are systems systems Micro-SMES Micro-SMES
Description Description System System Micro-SMES Micro-SMES 3 3 Section Section -
3-2 3-2
commercially commercially The The 20 20 than than MJ). MJ). less less ( ( size size micro micro the the of of units units S:MES S:MES for for especially especially significant, significant,
relatively relatively is is systems" systems" "refrigeration "refrigeration superconductor superconductor temperature temperature low low run run to to required required Power Power
mass. mass. cold cold the the from from ofheat ofheat watt watt 1 1 remove remove to to power power of of watts watts 1,000 1,000 approximately approximately
use use must must system system cryogenic cryogenic the the temperatures, temperatures, those those at at cooling cooling for for available available methods methods inefficient inefficient
the the and and temperatures, temperatures, low low extremely extremely the the to to Due Due . . superconductivity maintain maintain to to mass mass cold cold
the the from from removed removed continuously continuously be be must must heat heat This This conduction. conduction. through through losses losses thermal thermal increased increased
comes comes cross-section cross-section conductor conductor large large this this with with but but operation, operation, SMES SMES with with associated associated currents currents
large large the the from from losses losses resistive resistive the the reduce reduce to to enough enough large large sized sized be be must must leads leads resistive resistive These These
cryostat. cryostat. the the outside outside environment environment temperature temperature ambient ambient the the into into out out cryostat cryostat the the inside inside from from run run
which which leads, leads, the the through through mass mass cold cold the the into into introduced introduced continuously continuously also also is is Heat Heat increases. increases. also also
system system cryogenic cryogenic the the on on load load the the increases, increases, unit unit S:MES S:MES the the of of cycle cycle duty duty the the . . As As cycle discharge discharge
and and charge charge each each with with happens happens as as changes, changes, coil coil the the in in field field magnetic magnetic the the when when superconductor superconductor
the the in in generated generated is is Heat Heat conductor. conductor. the the in in rise rise temperature temperature significant significant any any avoid avoid to to material material
superconducting superconducting the the in in generated generated heat heat any any remove remove continually continually must must system system cryogenic cryogenic The The
quench. quench. a a during during or or to to prior prior banks banks resistor resistor
heat heat as as in in dissipated dissipated be be must must unit unit S:MES S:MES the the in in stored stored energy energy the the and and monitored monitored carefully carefully be be must must
unit unit S:MES S:MES a a Therefore, Therefore, . . explosion an an cause cause even even and and fluids fluids cryogenic cryogenic release release may may it it that that extent extent
the the to to damaged damaged be be may may coil coil the the quench, quench, a a of of time time the the at at current current significant significant a a carrying carrying is is coil coil the the
If If "quenched"). "quenched"). be be to to said said (i.e., (i.e., superconducting superconducting longer longer no no is is coil coil the the time time that that at at and and temperature, temperature,
critical critical a a above above rises rises temperature temperature its its when when resistive resistive become become will will coil coil superconducting superconducting A A
SMES. SMES.
of of required required density density field field magnetic magnetic and and current current the the show show to to yet yet have have materials materials These These . . helium)
than than rather rather nitrogen nitrogen liquid liquid with with attained attained be be can can (which (which Kelvin Kelvin 70° 70° to to 20 20 between between temperatures temperatures
at at characteristics characteristics current-carrying current-carrying useful useful attain attain can can that that developed developed being being are are superconductors superconductors
High-temperature High-temperature cost. cost. and and manufacturability, manufacturability, complexity, complexity, system system of of degree degree the the to to add add they they
but but possible, possible, are are pumps, pumps, cryogenic cryogenic as as such such cooling, cooling, of of methods methods elaborate elaborate more more Other Other helium. helium.
liquid liquid of of bath bath a a in in zero zero absolute absolute above above Kelvin Kelvin 4° 4° about about at at maintained maintained typically typically is is conductor conductor the the
alloy, alloy, niobium-titanium niobium-titanium as as such such material, material, superconducting superconducting temperature temperature low low For For superconducting. superconducting.
remain remain to to enough enough cold cold coil coil the the of of conductor conductor the the keep keep to to designed designed is is system system cryogenic cryogenic The The
System System Cryogenic Cryogenic - 3.2 3.2 Section Section
superconductor. superconductor. the the into into leakage leakage heat heat
for for path path a a become become can can itself itself structure structure support support coil coil the the Furthermore, Furthermore, cost. cost. high high extracted extracted be be at at
must must which which mass) mass) cooled cooled the the (in (in heat heat generates generates forces forces these these to to response response in in wire wire coil coil of of Movement Movement
forces. forces. internal internal these these restrict restrict must must structure structure cryostat cryostat The The coil. coil. SMES SMES the the in in circulating circulating
currents currents direct direct large large the the with with associated associated are are forces, forces, Lorentz Lorentz called called forces, forces, mechanical mechanical Strong Strong
unit. unit. SMES SMES
the the from from and and to to energy energy of of flow flow the the control control to to used used are are devices devices These These inverters. inverters. and and rectifiers rectifiers
3-3 3-3
and and PCU, PCU, the the of of condition condition operating operating system, system, cryogenic cryogenic the the of of condition condition operating operating temperature, temperature,
superconductor superconductor current, current, output output voltage, voltage, output output current, current, circulating circulating The The magnet. magnet. the the of of cycles cycles
discharging discharging and and charging charging the the control control to to and and quenching quenching from from magnet magnet the the keep keep to to controlled controlled and and
monitored monitored be be must must system system SMES SMES a a of of forces forces mechanical mechanical associated associated and and energy energy tremendous tremendous The The
Systems Systems Safety-Related Safety-Related - 3.4 3.4 Section Section
well. well. as as concepts concepts storage/management storage/management energy energy for for need need
the the reduce reduce also also may may but but SMES SMES of of cost cost the the reduce reduce may may devices devices electronic electronic power power in in Improvements Improvements
year. year. every every improving improving are are devices devices these these of of manufacturability manufacturability and and cycles, cycles, duty duty frequency, frequency, switching switching
levels, levels, power power The The technology. technology. electronics electronics power power in in made made being being continuously continuously are are Advances Advances
station. station. SMES SMES integrated integrated the the of of size size and and cost cost the the to to significantly significantly add add
can can components components These These system. system. distribution distribution catenary catenary the the of of level level voltage voltage the the to to up up PCU PCU the the of of
output output the the transform transform to to required required be be would would transformer transformer power power A A itself itself unit unit SMES SMES the the or or sections sections
catenary catenary electrical electrical individual individual with with associated associated activities activities maintenance maintenance during during or or faults, faults, of of cases cases in in
system system distribution distribution power power catenary catenary railroad's railroad's a a from from unit unit SMES SMES the the isolate isolate to to necessary necessary be be would would
switchgear switchgear usage, usage, railroad railroad For For system. system. distribution distribution power power voltage voltage high high a a with with SMES SMES a a interface interface
to to required required be be will will transformers transformers power power and and switchgear switchgear electronics, electronics, power power the the to to addition addition In In
system. system. SMES SMES the the of of cost cost the the of of portion portion substantial substantial
a a is is often often and and requirements requirements time time response response and and rating rating power power the the by by determined determined is is unit unit conditioning conditioning
power power the the of of cost cost The The promptly. promptly. load load the the to to delivered delivered and and "conditioned" "conditioned" be be must must SMES SMES the the in in
stored stored energy energy the the needed, needed, when when instantaneously instantaneously power power store store or or supply supply to to is is device device SMES SMES the the of of
function function primary primary the the Because Because interfaces. interfaces. SMES SMES for for unit unit conditioning conditioning power power the the of of configuration configuration
and and design design the the influence influence factors factors other other and and current, current, voltage, voltage, time, time, switching switching frequency, frequency, Switching Switching
unit. unit. SMES SMES the the from from and and to to energy energy of of flow flow the the control control to to used used are are devices devices These AC). AC).
to to (DC (DC inverters inverters and and DC) DC) (ACto (ACto rectifiers rectifiers involves involves typically typically This This . . application the the in in required required
form form a a to to coil coil superconducting superconducting the the from from energy energy convert convert to to used used is is equipment equipment conditioning conditioning Power Power
Unit Unit (PCU) (PCU) Conditioning Conditioning Power Power the the of of -Importance -Importance 3.3 3.3 Section Section
operations. operations. railroad railroad of of requirements requirements cycle cycle duty duty and and power power severe severe more more the the with with associated associated
generation generation heat heat the the handle handle can can that that system system cryogenic cryogenic a a have have must must unit unit SMES SMES railroad-based railroad-based
A A concern. concern. major major a a . not were were efficiencies efficiencies and and losses losses heat heat charge/discharge charge/discharge excessive excessive where where
inftequent) inftequent) and and term term (short (short cycles cycles duty duty low low had had systems systems These These systems. systems. power power uninterruptible uninterruptible
and and quality quality power power as as configured configured were were recently recently demonstrated demonstrated systems systems prototype prototype The The
2MW. 2MW.
approximately approximately be be to to expected expected is is Alaska Alaska in in Power Power and and Light Light Municipal Municipal Anchorage Anchorage by by development development
under under SMES SMES MJ MJ large large the the for for ~800 ~800 load load cryogenic cryogenic The The basis. basis. megajoule megajoule per per a a on on decrease decrease
will will load load cryogenic cryogenic this this that that expected expected is is it it units, units, SMES SMES larger larger For For kW.[2] kW.[2] of30 of30 excess excess in in
loads loads cryogenic cryogenic have have energy, energy, of of 3 3 M1 M1 provide provide to to designed designed are are which which units, units, micro-SMES micro-SMES available available
3-4 3-4
control control the the house house to to used used is is trailer trailer the the of of remainder remainder The The height. height. in in meters meters 1.5 1.5 and and diameter diameter
in in meter meter 1 1 approximately approximately are are coils coils superconducting superconducting The The [5] [5] trailer. trailer. 40-foot 40-foot a a in in housed housed be be
can can
systems systems micro-SMES micro-SMES available available Commercially Commercially $600,000. $600,000. and and $400,000 $400,000 between between cost cost would would
electronics electronics power power the the system, system, (MW) (MW) two-megawatt two-megawatt a a For For kW. kW. per per $300 $300 and and $200 $200 between between
be be to to estimated estimated is is electronics electronics power power the the of of costs costs The The [4] [4] capacity. capacity. per per MJ MJ $300,000 $300,000 near near of of
capacity capacity storage storage energy energy of of cost cost average average an an us us give give thus thus and and $1,000,000 $1,000,000 to to $745,000 $745,000 from from range range
units units
these these of of costs costs The The . . megajoules 3 3 to to up up of of ratings ratings capacity capacity storage storage energy energy and and megawatts megawatts 2 2
to to up up
ratings ratings power power with with vendors, vendors, U.S. U.S. several several from from available available commercially commercially now now are are units units SMES SMES
Units Units SMES SMES of of Size Size and and Cost Cost - 3.6 3.6 Sectioa Sectioa
unit. unit. the the from from far far fields fields magnetic magnetic the the of of strength strength
the the reducing reducing thereby thereby volume, volume, toroid toroid the the to to generated generated fields fields magnetic magnetic the the of of most most confining confining
of of
benefit benefit the the have have toroids toroids but but energy, energy, stored stored of of amount amount given given a a for for expensive expensive more more generally generally
are are and and solenoids solenoids than than conductor conductor more more require require coils coils Toroidal Toroidal storage. storage. energy energy of of amount amount
given given a a
for for material material conductor conductor of of amount amount least least the the requiring requiring of of benefit benefit major major a a has has solenoid solenoid A A
configuration. configuration. winding winding by by affected affected
are are that that factors factors all all are are modularity modularity and and strength, strength, field field volume, volume, conductor conductor Sizt, Sizt, shortcomings. shortcomings.
and and benefits benefits inherent inherent has has configuration configuration winding winding Each Each configuration. configuration. shaped shaped donut donut a a in in
wire-wrapped wire-wrapped is is coil coil toroid toroid A A cylinder. cylinder. long long a a around around wound wound wire wire is is coil coil A A solenoid solenoid toroid. toroid. a a or or
solenoid solenoid a a of of form form the the takes takes typically typically but but forms, forms, many many in in wound wound be be can can coil coil superconducting superconducting The The
[3] [3] fields. fields. magnetic magnetic to to exposure exposure worker worker and and public public for for exist exist do do guidelines guidelines
exposure exposure Maximum Maximum public. public. the the to to and and workers workers to to exposure exposure be be could could there there where where area an an
near near
device device SMES SMES a a locating locating when when considered considered be be also also must must fields fields magnetic magnetic high high These These winding. winding.
the the from from distance distance minimum minimum a a situated situated and/or and/or shielded shielded adequately adequately be be must must latter latter the the therefore therefore
and and subsystems, subsystems, controlled controlled microprocessor microprocessor nearby nearby any any of of performance performance the the affect affect adversely adversely
may may winding winding the the in in high high the the currents currents with with ed ed 1 associat fields fields magnetic magnetic The The operation. operation. system system
safe safe for for needed needed space space minimum minimum the the influence influence factors factors other other many many however, however, unit; unit; SMES SMES the the of of
footprint footprint required required the the reduce reduce could could designs designs optimization optimization Space Space container. container. trailer-size trailer-size a a in in housed housed
be be could could generators, generators, backup backup emergency emergency and and devices devices storage storage energy energy required required other other excluding excluding
but but
electronics electronics power power the the including including installation, installation, UPS UPS micro-SMES micro-SMES megajoule megajoule a 3 3 a of of prototype prototype
tested tested a a example, example, For For rate. rate. discharge discharge or or charge charge power power desired desired the the and and required, required, storage storage
energy energy
of of amount amount the the by by determined determined be be will will attributes attributes physical physical the the of of many many However, However, location. location.
fixed fixed a a
operated operated at at be be to to or or transportable, transportable, be be to to configured configured and and designed designed be be could could systems systems SMES SMES
Coafiguratioa Coafiguratioa System System Micro-SMES Micro-SMES - 3.5 3.5 Seetioa Seetioa
availability. availability. high high provide provide to to maintained maintained be be must must and and SMES SMES a a of of complexity complexity the the
to to
add add systems systems monitoring monitoring These These initiated. initiated. be be must must unit unit SMES SMES the the of of discharge discharge and and shutdown shutdown
orderly orderly an an
unstable, unstable, becomes becomes systems systems critical critical the the of of more more or or one one If If safely. safely. and and properly properly operating operating
is is system system SMES SMES the the that that ensure ensure to to monitored monitored be be must must all all system, system, interface interface the the of of condition condition the the
3-5 3-5
1997. 1997. 13, 13, January January
Wilcox, Wilcox, & & Babcock Babcock Manager, Manager, Project Project SMES SMES Kunz, Kunz, Ron Ron System," System," SMES SMES ML&P ML&P "B&W/ "B&W/ 6. 6.
. . 1995 Jan/Feb Jan/Feb Magazine, Magazine,
Assurance Assurance Quality Quality Power Power Group, Group, Materiel Materiel PCCIE PCCIE Force Force Air Air Gravely, Gravely, Michael Michael Col. Col. Lt. Lt. Initiative," Initiative,"
Use Use Dual Dual the the Of Of Application Application Successful Successful Demonstrates Demonstrates Program Program micro-SMES micro-SMES Force Force . . "Air "Air 5
1996. 1996. 28, 28, October October Crawford, Crawford,
Mark Mark Week, Week, Technology Technology New New Tension," Tension," Size, Size, in in Growing Growing Market Market Equipment Equipment "Power "Power 4. 4.
1995-1996. 1995-1996. (ACGlll), (ACGlll), Industrial Hygenist Hygenist Industrial Governmental Governmental of of Conference Conference
American American Agents," Agents," Physical Physical and and Substances Substances Chemical Chemical for for (TLVs) (TLVs) Values Values L-imit L-imit "Threshold "Threshold 3. 3.
1995. 1995. Corp., Corp., General General Intermagnetics Intermagnetics Kamal, Kamal, Kalafala, Kalafala, No.2, No.2,
Paper Paper White White System," System," SMES SMES Micro Micro Intermagnetics' Intermagnetics' Regarding Regarding Questions Questions Asked Asked "Frequently "Frequently 2. 2.
. . 1995 Corp., Corp., Bechtel Bechtel Cesar, Cesar, Luongo, Luongo, Overview," Overview," An An Systems: Systems: Storage Storage "Superconducting "Superconducting 1. 1.
References References 7 - 7 3. 3. Section Section
2000. 2000. year year the the in in sometime sometime expected expected is is completion completion Project Project $28,000. $28,000.
approximately approximately be be to to estimated estimated is is per per MI MI cost cost the the unit, unit, demonstration demonstration this this For For system. system. SMES SMES
Anchorage Anchorage the the for for million million $50 $50 reach reach to to expected expected are are costs costs installation installation and and development development System System
feet). feet). square square 1,000 1,000 (over (over meters meters square square 100 100 least least at at be be to to expected expected is is system system monitoring monitoring
and and system, system, cryogenic cryogenic electronics, electronics, power power including including unit, unit, SMES SMES entire entire the the housing housing for for required required
area area The The [6] [6] . . lbs) (243,000 (243,000 kg kg .110,000 .110,000 exceed exceed to to expected expected is is assembly assembly coil coil superconducting superconducting
the the just just of of weight weight The The · · height. height. in in meters meters 2 2 and and diameter diameter in in meters meters 6 6 approximately approximately be be coil coil will will
superconducting superconducting solenoidal solenoidal the the of of dimensions dimensions the the energy, energy, of of 1800 1800 MI MI store store To To site. site. on on will will occur occur
coils coils the the of of assembly assembly the the assume assume now now developers developers system system The The units. units. assembled assembled factory factory upon upon based based
million million $25 $25 was was project project this this for for cost cost initial initial estimated estimated The The ARPA ARPA and and DOD DOD U.S. U.S. the the from from grant grant
Program Program Reinvestment Reinvestment Technology Technology a a by by supported supported partially partially is is project project This This megawatt megawatt system. system.
30 30 MWh) MWh) (0.5 (0.5 1800 1800 a a MI MI is is system system This This system. system. SMES SMES utility utility mid-size mid-size commercial commercial first first
install install the the to to Power Power and and Light Light Municipal Municipal (Alaska) (Alaska) Anchorage Anchorage with with working working is is Wilcox Wilcox & & Babcock Babcock
designs. designs. SMES SMES available available commercially commercially these these for for required required volume volume the the reduce reduce
might might designs designs optimization optimization Space Space . . system cryogenic cryogenic the the and and electronics, electronics, power power the the equipment, equipment,
4-1 4-1
also also must must utility utility The The phases. phases. different different to to sections sections electrical electrical catenary catenary adjacent adjacent connect connect to to chooses chooses
utility utility the the phases, phases, three three the the over over evenly evenly load load railroad railroad the the balance balance To To power. power. traction traction its its for for power power
single-phase single-phase requires requires railroad railroad electrified electrified an an but but power, power, three-phase three-phase so-called so-called is is system system utility utility
the the by by produced produced electricity electricity The The load. load. railroad railroad the the to to made made is is connection connection single-phase single-phase a a point, point,
supply supply utility utility each each At At location. location. substation substation traction traction each each at at utility utility the the to to directly directly connected connected is is
York York ofNew ofNew north north feed feed power power electric electric The The NEC. NEC. the the of of part part that that in in completed completed is is electriijcation electriijcation
when when Hz Hz 60 60 kV, kV, 25 25 at at operate operate will will Boston Boston and and Haven Haven New New between between system system new new The The
Hz. Hz. 60 60 kV, kV, 12.5 12.5 at at operates operates now now Haven Haven New New and and York York New New between between system system electrification electrification The The
DC. DC. volts volts 650 650 of of voltage voltage nominal nominal a a operates operates at at
which which system system third-rail third-rail a a is is LIRR LIRR the the example, example, For For York. York. New New around around and and in in areas areas certain certain in in
used used also also is is third-rail third-rail by by transmitted transmitted power power current current (DC) (DC) Direct Direct kV. kV. 12 12 of of voltage voltage catenary catenary the the to to
transformers transformers by by down down stepped stepped is is primary primary kV kV 138 138 the the where where substations substations traction traction numerous numerous feeds feeds
system system transmission transmission The The system. system. transmission transmission single-phase single-phase 25Hz, 25Hz, kV, kV, 138 138 railroad-owned railroad-owned a a to to
interconnected interconnected are are outputs outputs their their and and corridor corridor the the along along locations locations few few a a at at installed installed are are converters converters
synchronized synchronized These These power. power. 25Hz 25Hz single-phase single-phase the the produce produce to to used used are are converters converters frequency frequency
Washington, Washington, and and York York New New between between region region the the In In . . second) per per cycles cycles current current (alternating (alternating
Hz Hz of25 of25 frequency frequency a a at at and and kilovolts kilovolts 12 12 of of (kV) (kV) voltage voltage nominal nominal a a at at operates operates system system catenary catenary
the the York, York, ofNew ofNew south south territory territory the the In In frequencies. frequencies. and and voltages voltages catenary catenary different different with with operate operate
must must NEC NEC the the of of part part mainline mainline the the over running running now now trains trains Amtrak Amtrak ownership. ownership. railroad railroad different different
with with and and decades decades several several over over occurred occurred electrification electrification corridor corridor that that in in historical historical mostly mostly is is diversity diversity
this this for for reason reason The The system. system. diverse diverse a a is is NEC NEC the the in in used used system system power power traction traction electric electric The The
System System Electrification Electrification the the of of Configuration Configuration - 4.1 4.1 Section Section
. . engines diesel diesel with with locomotives locomotives by by exclusively exclusively powered powered are are NEC NEC
the the in in operations operations Freight Freight electrification. electrification. by by or or engines engines diesel diesel either either by by powered powered cars cars multiple-unit multiple-unit
and and locomotives locomotives use use NEC NEC the the in in operations operations passenger passenger the the of of rest rest the the all all but but third-rail, third-rail, electrified electrified
and and engine engine diesel diesel a a both both by by powered powered are are that that locomotives locomotives dual-mode dual-mode some some uses uses Metro-North Metro-North
electrification. electrification. third-rail third-rail use use Railroad Railroad Commuter Commuter Metro-North Metro-North and and (LIRR.) (LIRR.) Road Road
Island Island Long Long Rail Rail The The (ConnDOT). (ConnDOT). Transportation Transportation of of Department Department Connecticut Connecticut and and (MARC) (MARC)
Commuter Commuter Rail Rail Maryland Maryland (SEPTA), (SEPTA), Authority Authority Transportation Transportation Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Southeasteni Southeasteni (NIT), (NIT),
Tnnsit Tnnsit Jersey Jersey New New by by operated operated catenary catenary with with lines lines commuter commuter electrified electrified also also are are There There Boston. Boston.
and and Haven Haven New New between between installed installed currently currently is is being being catenary catenary and and overhead overhead catenary, catenary, have have
Philadelphia Philadelphia and and Harrisburg Harrisburg between between and and Haven Haven New New and and Washington Washington between between lines lines Amtrak's Amtrak's
rail. rail. third third with with also also some some and and
wires wires catenary catenary overhead overhead with with much much electrified, electrified, is is network network the the of of much much Consequently, Consequently, service. service.
rail rail commuter commuter and and passenger passenger intercity intercity of of deal deal great great a a handles handles Boston Boston and and Washington Washington between between
(NEC) (NEC) Corridor Corridor Northeast Northeast the the as as known known country country the the of of portion portion the the in in network network railroad railroad The The
Corridor Corridor Northeast Northeast the the Usaae Usaae in in Enel'l)' Enel'l)' and and Power Power Traction Traction FJectric FJectric - "' "' Section Section
4-2 4-2
into into train train the the brake brake to to required required energy energy kinetic kinetic the the convert convert they they and and generators, generators, as as function function
motors motors traction traction the the braking, braking, dynamic dynamic In In trains. trains. stopping stopping and and slowing slowing for for means means the the as as braking braking
dynamic dynamic and and friction friction of of combination combination a a use use to to is is operation operation train train passenger passenger for for practice practice Current Current
System System Distribution Distribution and and Power Power Stock Stock Rolling Rolling NEC NEC - 4.3 4.3 Section Section
operations. operations. grid grid utility utility impact impact
adversely adversely to to expected expected not not are are operations operations railroad railroad by by expected expected size size the the of of Loads Loads load. load. varying varying
under under voltage voltage constant constant a a maintain maintain to to grid grid the the of of ability ability the the describe describe to to used used "stifl:" "stifl:" term term a a as as
system system this this describe describe consultants consultants utility utility interconnections, interconnections, distribution distribution and and transmission transmission numerous numerous
and and capacity capacity generating generating large large the the of of Because Because loads. loads. industrial industrial and and commercial commercial residential, residential, major major
to to power power all all providing excess excess providing of of capable capable are are which which grids grids distribution distribution and and transmission transmission utility utility
and and plants plants generation generation power power constructed constructed have have utilities utilities the the York, York, New New and and Boston Boston including including and and
between between NEC NEC the the along along cities cities and and towns towns the the with with associated associated densities densities population population the the of of Because Because
continuously. continuously.
power power of of kW kW SOO SOO consume consume to to expected expected are are system system distribution distribution the the and and substation substation ofthe ofthe operation operation
the the with with associated associated losses losses the the section, section, electrical electrical each each For For . . system distribution distribution the the of of losses losses
the the to to add add all all inefficiencies inefficiencies transformer transformer and and losses, losses, cabling cabling ground, ground, to to Current Current ~eakage ~eakage NEC. NEC.
the the of of portion portion southern southern the the on on encountered encountered those those to to similar similar are are sections sections electrical electrical these these for for losses losses
inherent inherent The The sections. sections. adjacent adjacent from from section section electrical electrical each each isolate isolate electrically electrically to to system system catenary catenary
the the on on used used are are breaks breaks Phase Phase length. length. in in miles miles 2S 2S to to IS IS typically typically is is section section electrical electrical Each Each track. track.
of of section section electrical electrical an an for for power provides provides substation substation Each Each . . location substation substation traction traction each each at at
utility utility the the to to directly directly connected connected is is Haven Haven New New and and York York New New between between system system electrification electrification The The
not. not. or or running running are are trains trains whether system, system, distribution distribution and and transmission transmission
the the of of operation operation the the maintain maintain to to converters converters frequency frequency the the by by supplied supplied continuously continuously be be must must
power power This This . . megawatts IS IS to to IO IO around around of of inefficiencies inefficiencies system system to to due due losses losses state state steady steady has has
system, system, catenary catenary the the to to power power 2S 2S Hz Hz provides provides which which system, system, distribution distribution and and transmission transmission lengthy lengthy
the the Washington, Washington, and and York York New New between between NEC, NEC, the the of of portion portion southern southern the in in instance, instance, For For
system. system. the the of of inefficiencies inefficiencies the the to to add add losses losses all all motor motor internal internal and and ground, ground, to to leakage leakage current current
transformers, transformers, the the in in inefficiencies inefficiencies cabling, cabling, distribution distribution and and transmission transmission the the in in Resistances Resistances power. power.
delivering delivering with with associated associated costs costs operating operating inherent inherent have have systems systems distribution distribution and and Transmission Transmission
Territory Territory Electrified Electrified the the of of Loads Loads Operational Operational - 4.2 4.2 Section Section
installed. installed. be be will will sections, sections, isolated isolated electrically electrically and and substations, substations, traction traction additional additional more more or or
IO IO electrified, electrified, Boston Boston is is and and Haven Haven New New between between NEC NEC the the of of portion portion the the As As sections. sections. adjacent adjacent
from from its its isolated isolated electrically electrically catenary catenary is is of of section section each each that that breaks breaks is is phase phase for for requirement requirement
the the of of impact impact The The . . miles 2S 2S to to IS IS are are breaks breaks phase phase for for distances distances Typical Typical other. other. each each from from
phases phases utility utility the the of of separation separation the the preserve preserve thereby thereby and and sections, sections, adjacent adjacent from from section section railroad railroad
each each isolate isolate electrically electrically to to system system catenary catenary the the on on used used are are breaks breaks phase phase Therefore, Therefore, . . phases other other
the the from from isolated isolated continuously continuously is is system system distribution distribution 3-phase 3-phase their their of of phase phase each each that that sure sure make make
4-3 4-3
by by service service revenue revenue in in be be to to expected expected is is trainset trainset Flyer Flyer American American The The operations. operations. rail rail commuter commuter
in in used used currently currently configurations configurations NIT NIT and and LIRR, LIRR, Metro-North, Metro-North, SEPT SEPT the the of of representative representative A, A,
is is trainset trainset commuter commuter The The corridor. corridor. Empire Empire the the on on service service locomotive locomotive non-electric non-electric speed speed high high the the
also also but but Washington Washington and and York York New New between service service Amtrak Amtrak for for configuration configuration train train existing existing the the
only only not not of of representative representative is is trainset trainset Amtrak-present Amtrak-present the the with with associated associated energies energies propulsion propulsion The The
(Commuter). (Commuter). mph mph of80 of80 speed speed maximum maximum a a to to up up operating operating train train service service Commuter Commuter • •
Flyer), Flyer), (American (American mph mph 150 150 of of speed speed maximum maximum a a to to up up operating operating train train Intercity Intercity • •
present), present), - (Amtrak (Amtrak mph mph 125 125 of of speed speed maximum maximum a a to to up up operating operating train train Intercity Intercity • •
characteristics: characteristics: following following the the with with consists consists have have
would would trains trains of of groups groups three three The The groups. groups. distinct distinct three three into into trains trains these these grouping grouping by by simplified simplified
be be can can problem problem the the NEC, NEC, the the on on running running trains trains of of types types different different of of number number a a are are there there Although
characteristics. characteristics. operating operating its its and and "consist") "consist") (termed (termed train train the the of of composition composition the the upon upon depends depends
train train each each by by braking braking during during dissipated dissipated and and acceleration acceleration during during consumed consumed energy energy of of amount amount The The
Trainsets Trainsets Passenger Passenger Typical Typical for for Requirements Requirements Energy Energy Braking Braking - 4.4 4.4 Section Section
capability. capability. regenerative regenerative with with designed designed specifically specifically being being
is is Flyer, Flyer, American American the the trainset, trainset, high-speed high-speed new new Amtrak's Amtrak's possible. possible. braking braking regenerative regenerative make make
to to car, car, each each on on system system propulsion propulsion existing existing the the on on based based retrofitting, retrofitting, of of level level different different a a require require
would would type type car car Each Each NEC. NEC. the the on on run run being being currently currently stock stock rolling rolling of of types types different different many many
are are There There considered. considered. been been not not has has systems systems control control propulsion propulsion modem modem with with fleet fleet intercity intercity and and rail rail
commuter commuter the the retrofitting retrofitting with with rail rail associated associated cost cost The The system. system. power power utility utility electric electric the the into into back back
transferred transferred be be or or trains trains other other power power to to used used be be either either can can energy energy such such where where rail rail third third or or catenary catenary
the the into into back back fed fed be be to to energy energy braking braking the the enables enables technology technology system system control control propulsion propulsion Modem Modem
considered. considered. be be must must scenarios scenarios regenerative regenerative these these of of all all DC), DC), V V 650 650 60Hz, 60Hz,
kV kV 25 25 60Hz, 60Hz, kV kV 12.5 12.5 25Hz, 25Hz, kV kV (12 (12 system system distribution distribution power power diverse diverse a a of of comprised comprised is is which which
NEC, NEC, entire entire the the on on operating operating of of capable capable is is stock stock rolling rolling the the of of much much Since Since frequency. frequency. and and phase phase
matched matched with with and and voltage voltage higher higher a a at at energy energy regenerated regenerated the the back back feed feed and and power power supply supply the the of of
angle angle phase phase and and voltage voltage the the sense sense to to able able be be must must equipment equipment regeneration regeneration onboard onboard The The systems. systems.
catenary catenary long-block long-block of of typical typical characteristics characteristics power power the the accommodate accommodate to to frequency frequency and and voltage voltage
of of variations variations wide wide fairly fairly accept accept to to designed designed is is power power motive motive Railroad Railroad power. power. distribution distribution the the to to
content content harmonic harmonic similar similar in in · · be and and frequency frequency and and phase phase the the match match must must braking braking from from regenerated regenerated
energy energy electrical electrical system, system, the the distribution distribution catenary catenary the the into into back back fed fed heat. heat. dissipated dissipated be be If If u u
only only now now can can energy energy braking braking dynamic dynamic Thus Thus system. system. electrification electrification the the into into back back energy energy transfer transfer
to to equipment equipment conditioning conditioning power power necessary necessary the the have have not not do do NEC NEC the the on on operate operate trains trains the the that that
Currently, Currently, catenary. catenary. the the into into back back motors motors traction traction the the from from energy energy braking braking transferring transferring of of capable capable
are are use use of of only only trains trains would would if if be be installation installation wayside wayside a a at at energy energy braking braking regenerated regenerated Storing Storing
car. car. power power or or locomotive locomotive the the on on somewhere somewhere located located typically typically are are which which grids, grids, resistor resistor
into into fed fed by by being being heat heat into into conversion conversion through through dissipated dissipated then then is is energy energy This This energy. energy. electrical electrical
4-4 4-4
required. required. energy energy additional additional the the absorb absorb to to used used be be must must brakes brakes friction friction
required, required, is is rate rate braking braking higher higher a a If If motors. motors. the the damaging damaging without without exceeded exceeded be be cannot cannot limit limit
power power This This machines. machines. these these of of rating rating power power the the at at energy energy regenerate regenerate only only can can motors· motors· traction traction
The The system. system. propulsion propulsion the the of of effort effort tractive tractive braking braking the the by by limited limited is is force force braking braking regenerative regenerative
available available maximum maximum The The energy. energy. regenerative regenerative into into converted converted be be would would energy energy braking braking required required
the the of of most most rates, rates, braking braking low low very very At At increases. increases. regeneration regeneration for for available available energy energy of of fraction fraction the the
effort, effort, braking braking total total the the toward toward required required not not is is brakes brakes friction friction of of use use the the that that so so limited limited be be can can rate rate
braking braking Ifthe Ifthe brakes. brakes. friction friction the the by by absorbed absorbed energy energy of of amount amount the the minimize minimize thereby thereby and and energy energy
regenerative regenerative to to converted converted is is that that energy energy of of amount amount the the maximize maximize to to manner manner a a in in operate operate to to choose choose
may may Railroads braking. braking. during during dissipated dissipated be be must must that that energy energy kinetic kinetic this this is is it it and and speed, speed, its its
of of square square the the and and mass mass train train to to proportional proportional is is train train the the of of energy energy kinetic kinetic The The . . train the the of of energy energy
kinetic kinetic the the on on dependent dependent is is speed speed given given a a from from train train specific specific a a brake brake to to required required energy energy total total The The
(316.8) (316.8) 88 88 5032 5032 (381.6) (381.6) 106 106 6312 6312 1.7 1.7 Commuter Commuter
(680.4) (680.4) 189 189 7755 7755 (925.2) (925.2) 257 257 11812 11812 2.5 2.5 Flyer Flyer American American
(403.2) (403.2) 112 112 3092 3092 619.2) 619.2) ( ( 172 172 8853 8853 2.1 2.1 -present -present Amtrak Amtrak
kW kW kWh(MJ) kWh(MJ) kW kW min min
kWh(MJ) kWh(MJ) Speed Speed Max Max Enetll)' Enetll)' Powe[ Powe[
Imal Imal Imal Imal fowe[at fowe[at Ii1nc Ii1nc Ener.ay Ener.ay
Rutnmtive Rutnmtive Reatnmtive Reatnmtive Maximum Maximum Brakina Brakina Maxi~m~m Maxi~m~m Consist Consist
DECELERATION DECELERATION NOMINAL NOMINAL FOR FOR PERFORMANCE PERFORMANCE BRAKING BRAKING
below: below: given given are are and and estimated estimated been been have have configurations configurations train train three three the the for for energy energy regenerative regenerative
potential potential and and power power braking braking train train required required the the Amtrak, Amtrak, from from gathered gathered infonnation infonnation Using Using 1999. 1999.
5-1 5-1
weight. weight. additional additional
add add will will which which plates, plates, shielding shielding iron iron soft soft and and isolation isolation spatial spatial require require will will This This SMES. SMES. with with
associated associated fields fields magnetic magnetic time-varying time-varying intense intense the the from from be protected protected be to to need need equipment, equipment, control control
critical critical safety safety the the as as such such systems, systems, onboard onboard other other Finally, Finally, space. space. of of meters meters square square 20 20 additional additional
an an least least at at occupy occupy would would system system cryogenic cryogenic and and unit unit conditioning conditioning power power The The height. height. in in meters meters
2 2 and and diameter diameter in in meters meters 3 3 least least at at of of dimensions dimensions have have to to expected expected is is 600 600 MJ MJ of of capacity capacity energy energy
an an with with coil coil solenoidal solenoidal A A lbs). lbs). (110,500 (110,500 kg kg 50,000 50,000 over over be be to to estimated estimated is is unit unit SMES SMES 600 600 MJ MJ
a a for for coil coil the the of of weight weight The The height. height. in in meters meters 2 2 and and diameter diameter in in meters meters 6 6 approximately approximately be be will will
coil coil this this of of dimensions dimensions The The equipment. equipment. electronics electronics power power and and shielding shielding field field magnetic magnetic equipment, equipment,
cryogenic cryogenic the the including including not not lbs), lbs), (243,000 (243,000 110,000 110,000 kg kg be be to to expected expected is is utility utility Anchorage Anchorage
the the for for developed developed being being unit unit SMES SMES quality quality power power 1800 1800 the the for for M1 M1 coil coil the the of of weight weight The The
itself itself locomotive locomotive the the of of cost cost the the will'exceed will'exceed which which million, million,
$18 $18 and and million million $6 $6 between between cost cost to to expected expected is is storage, storage, energy energy for onboard onboard for 600 600 MJ, MJ, and and 200 200
ofbetween ofbetween capacity a a with with unit unit SMES SMES a a of of cost cost estimated estimated the the Therefore, Therefore, million). million). $50 $50 (over (over MJ MJ
per per $30,000 $30,000 about about of of cost cost estimated estimated an an has has utility, utility, Anchorage Anchorage the the for for developed developed being being unit unit quality quality
power power 1800 1800 MJ MJ the the as as such such units, units, SMES SMES Larger Larger capacity. capacity. per per MJ MJ of$300,000 of$300,000 order order the the on on are are
which which costs costs have have 3 3 to to MJ, MJ, up up capacities capacities energy energy with with units, units, SMES SMES micro micro available available Commercially Commercially
SMES. SMES. the the of of rating rating energy/power energy/power
and and cost, cost, weight, weight, size, size, include include train train the the board board on on unit unit SMES SMES the the locating locating with with associated associated
issues issues key key The The train. train. the the of of performance performance overall overall the the impact impact not not should should device device storage storage any any
But But configurations. configurations. consist consist train train on on depending depending megajoules, megajoules, 800 800 to to 300 300 from from range range could could energy energy
of of this this magnitude magnitude . . The The train the the of of energy energy regenerated regenerated the the absorbing absorbing of of all all capable capable be be should should
device device storage energy energy onboard onboard an an Ideally, Ideally, system. system. propulsion propulsion train train the the to to energy energy of of supply supply a a
as as useful useful be be to to MJ MJ and and 200 200 between between of of 600 600 capacity capacity a a have have must must devices devices storage energy energy Onboard Onboard
Systems Systems Storage Storage Energy Energy On-Board On-Board for for -Requirements -Requirements 5.1 5.1 Section Section
device. device. wayside wayside a a to to train train the the from from energy energy to to available available pass pass
network network third third or or rail rail catenary catenary no no is is there there because because train train the the board board on on installed installed to to have have be be would would
device device the the SMES SMES train train operation, operation, (non-electric) (non-electric) powered powered diesel diesel of of case case the the accelerating. accelerating. In In when when
demand demand power power the the of of some some provide provide to to energy energy this this return return then then and and energy energy braking braking regenerated regenerated
available available absorb absorb to to trainset, trainset, a a board board on on or or wayside, wayside, the the along along installed installed be be conceivably conceivably could could
(SMES), (SMES), system system storage storage energy energy magnetic magnetic superconducting superconducting a a as as such such device, device, storage storage energy energy An An
Applications Applications Railroad Railroad in in Use Use ofMicro-SMES ofMicro-SMES Suitability Suitability - S S Section Section
5-2 5-2
distribution distribution catenary catenary the the into into back back fed fed is is energy energy braking braking Once Once capability. capability. important important this this include include
likely likely most most will will designs designs system system propulsion propulsion modernized, modernized, is is stock stock rolling rolling powered powered electrically electrically
As As . . system distribution distribution power power railroad railroad the the into into back back energy energy braking braking transmitting transmitting easily easily of of capable capable
are are service service revenue revenue . . U.S y y tl in in curren cars cars multiple-unit multiple-unit or or locomotives locomotives railroad railroad electrified electrified Few Few
Systems Systems Storage Storage Energy Energy Wayside Wayside for for Requirements Requirements 5.1- Section Section
quantities. quantities. manufacturing manufacturing in in scale scale of of economies economies
to to due due reductions reductions cost cost for for promise promise have have and and supplies supplies power power battery battery to to alternatives alternatives as as and and
applications applications roadway roadway for for vehicles vehicles electric electric for for developed developed being being are are devices devices smaller smaller These These storage. storage.
energy energy and and augmentation augmentation power power similar similar providing providing of of capable capable flywheels flywheels smaller smaller many many use use would would
designs designs Alternative Alternative pounds). pounds). (22,000 (22,000 kg kg 10,000 10,000 than than less less weigh weigh would would and and available available meters meters
square square 9 9 approximately approximately the the in in fit fit would would alternator, alternator, high-speed high-speed associated associated an an including including device, device, This This
locomotive. locomotive. the the
for for rating rating power power the the doubling doubling roughly roughly acceleration, acceleration, during during minutes minutes two two over over for for power power additional additional
of of 3MW 3MW provide provide to to able able be be and and storage storage energy energy of of kWh) kWh) (166.67 (166.67 600 600 MJ MJ around around have have would would 1999 1999
or or in in 1998 1998 demonstration demonstration for for built built being being system system proposed proposed A A consumption. consumption. fuel fuel high high the the without without
locomotive locomotive high-powered high-powered a a of of performance performance the the provide provide to to be be would would system system ofthe ofthe intent intent The The
. . braking or or cruise cruise during during recharge recharge would would and and acceleration acceleration during during power power provide provide would would flywheels flywheels
paralleled paralleled or or flywheel flywheel The The power. power. installed installed much much as as twice twice with with locomotive locomotive a a of of performance performance
accelerating accelerating the the providing providing engine engine diesel diesel lightweight lightweight a a or or turbine turbine gas gas a a either either from from available available power power
tractive tractive the the augment augment would would system system target target The The locomotives. locomotives. non-electric non-electric speed speed high high to to applied applied as as
systems systems storage storage energy energy flywheel flywheel into into Texas Texas of of University University the the at at research research supporting supporting is is The The FRA FRA
applications. applications. traction traction railroad railroad for for energy energy of of amounts amounts sufficient sufficient storing storing
of of capable capable be be also also may may batteries batteries advanced advanced and and capacitors, capacitors, cryogenic cryogenic Flywheels, Flywheels, time. time. of of period period
indefinite indefinite an an for for energy energy of of amounts amounts large large storing storing of of capable capable technology technology only only the the not not is is SMES SMES
device. device. onboard onboard an an as as practical practical become become
to to likely likely not not is is applications applications storage storage energy energy railroad railroad for for SMES SMES a a reasons, reasons, these these For For minimized. minimized.
be be demands demands power power these these that that critical critical therefore therefore is is It It engine. engine. installed installed locomotive's locomotive's the the by by sUpplied sUpplied
be be must must car car heavy heavy additional additional the the and and cryostat cryostat the the with with associated associated losses losses the the mode, mode, standby standby
in in is is coil coil the the While While movements. movements. coil coil with with associated associated loads loads heating heating the the increase increase will will operations operations
train train steel-wheeled steel-wheeled with with associated associated environment environment vibration vibration and and shock shock The The cold. cold. coils coils the the
keep keep needed needed to to systems systems cryogenic cryogenic the the of of requirements requirements power power state state steady steady the the is is concern concern further further A A
designs. designs. wayside wayside comparable comparable
than than higher higher much much be be to to expected expected would would be be SMES SMES compact compact of of this this type type of of cost cost The The unit. unit. SMES SMES
this this house house to to required required would would car) car) be be power power or or a a locomotive locomotive from from distinct distinct (i.e., (i.e., car car rail rail separate separate
one one least least at at requirements, requirements, footprint footprint and and weight weight estimated estimated these these of of Because Because pounds). pounds). (132,000 (132,000
kg kg of60,000 of60,000 excess excess in in weigh weigh would would and and space, space, of of feet) feet) square square 400 400 (nearly (nearly meters meters square square
35 35 least least occupy occupy to to at at estimated estimated is is unit unit storage storage energy energy SMES SMES MJ MJ 600 600 onboard onboard an an Therefore, Therefore, system, the energy must either be:
•transported and consumed by another traction system load •fed back into the utility power grid for re-use elsewhere •stored in an energy storage device •dissipated as heat in a bank of resistors located in a wayside facility.
The electric traction power system used in the NEC is a diverse system. The operating characteristics of the traction power system south ofNew York is considerably different than the traction power system north ofNew York. Therefore, energy storage requirements are different for the two portions of the NEC, and will be considered separately.
Section 5.2.1 - Energy Storage Requirements for the South End of the NEC
In the portion of the corridor south ofNew York, the traction power system is electrically continuous. Therefore, regenerated braking energy, which is fed back into the catenary, can be transported and consumed by another traction system load. As mentioned earlier, a continuous, steady state 10 to 15 MW load exists on this traction power system. This load is due to operating losses and inefficiencies of the transmission and distribution system. Therefore any braking energy generated by a decelerating train could be used to offset the energy required to operate the traction power transmission and distribution system. In addition, in the southern portion of the NEC the steady state load, including traction power loads of accelerating trains, is always at least 30 MW, and sometimes in excess of300 MW. Therefore, there will never be a need to store energy or sell power back to the utility in the NEC south ofNew York.
The traction power supply frequency south ofNew York is 25 Hz. The local utilities generate power at 60 Hz. Motor/generator (MIG) sets are used to convert 60 Hz utility power to 25 Hz railroad traction power. The motor/generator sets, currently operating in the portion of the corridor between New York and Washington, cannot send back energy to the utility because of physical limitations in the control systems. Also, the MIG sets are operating at reduced load because of their aged condition, and future plans of the railroads may include replacement ofthese maintenance intensive machines with solid state, modem traction distribution substations which will be capable of converting the utility supplied power into either 25 Hz or 60 Hz energy. With this upgrade, sectionalizing of the existing transmission and distribution system may be required. This capital improvement would make energy sell-back technically feasible.
Section 5.2.2- Energy Storage Require.ments for the North End oftbe NEC
The traction power transmission and distribution system between Boston and New York is electrically segmented. Each traction substation (existing or planned) is connected directly to the utility grid. Each substation provides power for an electrical section of track, which is typically 15 to 25 miles in length. As mentioned previously, the steady state load for each electrical section is expected to be in excess of 500 kW. This load can be attributed to the inefficiencies of the
5-3
5-4 5-4
equipment. equipment. ancillary ancillary other other and and subsystem subsystem refrigeration/cryogenic refrigeration/cryogenic
the the
run run to to required required energy energy the the for for pay pay to to expended expended be be would would savings savings the the all all reality, reality, In In investment. investment.
capital capital the the recover recover to to times times million million 3 3 . 1 almost almost cycled cycled be be to to need need would would devices devices the the mean mean would would
this this costs, costs, maintenance maintenance and and operational operational the the considering considering Without Without . . 3 .3 .3 3 3 2 $ of of savings savings potential potential
a a
has has then then railroad railroad the the unit, unit, SMES SMES the the of of cyc:le cyc:le discharge discharge and and charge charge every every For For kWh. kWh. per per $.07 $.07
(at (at $11.66 $11.66 is is kWh) kWh) 166.67 166.67 or or MJ MJ (600 (600 train train high-speed high-speed a a in in stored stored energy energy kinetic kinetic the the of of value value
the the
device, device, storage storage energy energy SMES SMES MJ MJ 1200 1200 a a with with associated associated costs costs capital capital the the to to comparison comparison In In
million. million. of$30 of$30 excess excess in in to to be be
estimated estimated is is unit unit SMES SMES railroad railroad megawatt megawatt 20 20 megajoule megajoule 1200 1200 a a of of cost cost the the unit, unit, demonstration demonstration
Anchorage Anchorage the the of of costs costs on on i installat and and development development the the upon upon Based Based kWh). kWh). (340 (340 MI MI 1224 1224
to to
up up be be could could energy energy regenerative regenerative total total the the and and 20 20 MW MW about about be be would would device device storage storage energy energy
the the
on on demand demand power power maximum maximum the the then then trains, trains, commuter commuter two two with with braking braking simultaneously simultaneously train train
high-speed high-speed Amtrak Amtrak one one of of scenario scenario the the on on based based sized sized was was system system storage storage energy energy wayside wayside a a If If
MJ. MJ. per per $28,000 $28,000 approximately approximately
be be to to estimated estimated is is megajoule) megajoule) 2000 2000 to to (600 (600 SMES SMES range range mid mid the the of of cost cost the the Therefore, Therefore,
million. million. $50 $50 than than more more cost cost to to expected expected is is utility utility Anchorage Anchorage the the for for developed developed being being unit unit SMES SMES
30 30 MW MW MJ, MJ, 1800 1800 The The [l] [l] . capacity per per MJ MJ $300,000 $300,000 MJ; MJ; about about of of costs costs have have 3 3 to to up up ratings ratings
energy energy
and and 2 2 MW MW to to up up ratings ratings power power have have which which available, available, commercially commercially units units micro-SMES micro-SMES The The
costs. costs. operational operational and and maintenance maintenance yearly yearly the the and and units, units, SMES SMES of of
construction construction and and installation installation the the with with associated associated costs costs capital capital initial initial large large the the offset offset to to significant significant
be be to to
needs needs storage storage energy energy with with associated associated savings savings yearly yearly The The storage. storage. of of cost cost the the versus versus storage storage
by by saved saved be be could could much much how how i.e., i.e., basis, basis, economic economic strict strict a a on on detennined detennined be be would would This This heat. heat.
as as
dynamically dynamically energy energy this this dissipate dissipate or or device device storage storage · energy energy wayside wayside a a in in energy energy regenerated regenerated
this this
store store to to chose chose could could railroads railroads the the trains, trains, of of energy energy braking braking to to receptive receptive not not is is grid grid the the If If
grid. grid. utility utility the the of of "stiffitess" "stiffitess"
relative relative or or loads loads and and capacity capacity high high the the to to due due minimal minimal be be should should Northeast Northeast the the in in grid grid power power
utility utility
the the on on power power regenerative regenerative of of 10 10 MW MW to to 3 3 of of impact impact The The lines. lines. transmission transmission the the by by supplied supplied
area area the the of of characteristics characteristics load load typical typical the the by by detennined detennined is is grid grid utility utility the the of of receptivity receptivity The The
grid. grid. power power utility utility the the into into energy energy backfeed backfeed to to modified modified be be also also could could substations substations
traction traction
Older Older grid. grid. power power utility utility the the into into back back energy energy transfer transfer could could designed, designed, appropriately appropriately if if
substations, substations,
traction traction proposed proposed new new the the York York New New and and Boston Boston between between NEC NEC the the of of portion portion the the In In
heat. heat. as as dissipated dissipated or or stored, stored,
grid, grid,
utility utility the the to to returned returned be be to to need need would would energy energy additional additional the the section, section, electrical electrical the the on on load load
the the
than than greater greater is is power power regenerated regenerated the the If If energy. energy. regenerated regenerated the the by by part, part, in in least least at at provided, provided,
be be
could could block block same same the the in in accelerating accelerating train train any any of of load load the the and and system, system, transmission transmission the the of of load load
state state
steady steady the the section, section, electrical electrical same same the the in in operating operating is is train train another another If If utility. utility. the the by by supplied supplied
energy energy of of amount amount the the reduce reduce to to system system transmission transmission the the to to supplied supplied be be could could energy energy energy, energy,
braking braking train train of of regeneration regeneration the the During During system. system. distribution distribution and and transmission transmission power power traction traction The commercially available 3 Ml micro-SMES units have cryogenic loads in excess of30 kW. The cryogenic loads of the 1800 Ml Anchorage SMES unit are not known at this time but are estimated to be proportional to the energy, power and duty cycle of the unit. A 1200 M1 SMES unit developed for railroad duty cycles could be expected to have cryogenic steady state loads of at least l.S MW. The annual operational costs of this cryogenic system would be approximately $920,000. To recover just the operating costs, the SMES unit would need to cycle 108 times per day. To achieve this level of discharge and charge cycles, 108 high-speed trainsets and 216 commuter trains would have to traverse the electrical section. Train traffic densities of this magnitude are not encountered on any electrical section north ofNew York. Current traffic densities are less than 40 percent of that required to recover the operating costs of a SMES unit.
Because of the demanding duty cycle on a railroad, current designs of the cryogenic subsystem would consume much of the regenerated energy to remove the heat generated by the AC losses during each charge and discharge cycle. Advancements in conductor design are required to minimize the AC losses associated with the charge and discharge cycle. Other improvements are also required to reduce the size, weight, efficiencies and safety of SMES systems.
In power quality applications, many industrial customers are willing to run the SMES units at a net energy loss because interruption of power and subsequent uncontrolled shutdown is extremely costly. In contrast, because momentary loss of traction power does not affect the safety of the railroad passengers, the capital investment for any energy storage device can only be justified through whatever cost savings may exist, if any.
Section 5.3 - Safety and Environmental Issues Associated with SMES Systems
The magnetic fields generated by superconducting magnetic energy storage systems and the cryogenic subsystem associated with SMES units introduce potential safety and environmental issues into the railroad environment.
Various technical summaries provided by Federal (USAF, DOE) and private-nonprofit (e.g., EPRI or HARC) sponsors of SMES technology development efforts, as well as prospectus information from manufacturers of commercial micro-SMES units (Superconductivity, Inc., American Superconductor, Intermagnetics General, Babcock & Wilcox) mention the following environmental advantages over competing alternatives:
•no air pollutant emissions compared to diesel generators for backup power, •no toxicity concerns associated with lead acid batteries.
However, they omit to mention the specific environmental and potential safety hazards associated with high magnetic fields. Relatively large (5- 10 meters mentioned for commercial designs) "exclusion radius" or safe standoff zones are required where the magnetic fields are above the recommended 5 to 10 gauss. Within the "exclusion zone" rather high static magnetic fields and rapidly time-varying magnetic fields, due to rapid charge/discharge cycles, are present which can
5-5
5-6 5-6
units. units. SMES SMES
using using if if operations operations transit transit and and rail rail for for plan plan safety safety system system new new a a and and workers workers maintenance maintenance trained trained
require require would would quenching, quenching, coil coil magnet magnet superconducting superconducting and and blowoff, blowoff, potential potential and and off off boil boil helium helium
pressurized pressurized hazards}, hazards}, embrittlement embrittlement materials materials and and bums bums (cold (cold fluids fluids cryogenic cryogenic handling handling with with
associated associated hazards hazards the the that that suggested suggested findings findings analysis analysis The The [1] [1] Incorporated. Incorporated. Superconductivity, Superconductivity,
for for Wisconsin Wisconsin of of University University the the and by by and Force, Force, Air Air U.S. U.S. the the for for (SAIC) (SAIC) Corporation Corporation
International International Applications Applications Science Science the the by by performed performed were were analyses analyses safety safety system system addition, addition, In In
subsystems. subsystems.
power power and and instrumentation instrumentation monitoring monitoring shielded shielded for for or or nonmagnetic nonmagnetic for for need need the the • •
and and
fields; fields; electro-magnetic electro-magnetic from from media media electronic electronic and and magnetic magnetic protect protect to to need need the the • •
injury; injury; worker worker causing causing potentially potentially magnet magnet the the to to "fly-oft" "fly-oft" tools tools the the having having avoid avoid
to to order order in in zone, zone, stand-off stand-off the the within within used used be be to to tools tools nonmagnetic nonmagnetic for for need need ' the the • •
including: including:
fields, fields, magnetic magnetic static static high high with with associated associated concerns concerns safety safety work work and and operational operational are are There There
system. system. of of complexity complexity and and size size the the to to add add
but but exist, exist, do do options options management management field field Static Static capacity. capacity. current-carrying current-carrying and and size, size, solenoid solenoid design, design,
micro-SMES micro-SMES specific specific the the on on depending depending meters, meters, of of tens tens several several to to few few a a from from range range can can zone zone
standoff standoff this this of of radius radius The The gauss). gauss). 5-10 5-10 of of limit limit (standoff (standoff required required be be may may warnings warnings perimeter perimeter
posting posting by by area area field field high high the the to to restrictions restrictions Access Access fields. fields. magnetic magnetic of of control control and and mitigation mitigation
of of objective objective the the with with modeled modeled be be must must strength strength field field magnetic magnetic static static the the design, design, SMES SMES any any For For
fields. fields. (external) (external) stray stray to to rise rise giving giving
thereby thereby cycles cycles charge/discharge charge/discharge the the from from conductors conductors and and structure structure metallic metallic the the into into induced induced
currents currents eddy eddy and and transients transients with with associated associated also also are are fields fields AC AC problem. problem. field field static static the the manage manage to to
better, better, fields fields the the confine confine which which configurations configurations toroidal toroidal or or fields, fields, bucking bucking with with coils coils several several involve involve
designs designs Some Some coil. coil. superconducting superconducting the the from from distance distance the the and and configuration configuration design, design, current, current,
size, size, coil coil coils, coils, magnet magnet of of number number the the on on depending depending vary vary strengths strengths field field The The magnet. magnet. core core iron iron
an an with with as as circumstances circumstances ordinary ordinary in in obtained obtained be be can can more more than than times times several several gauss), gauss), 55,000 55,000 or or
Tesla Tesla S.S S.S to to up up (pouibly (pouibly fields fields magnetic magnetic static static strong strong very very on on depend depend SMES SMES units units anticipated anticipated The The
system. system.
the the of of weight weight and/or and/or cost cost the the to to add add which which installations, installations, mitigation mitigation and and management management field field for for need need
the the and and individuals, individuals, susceptible susceptible protect protect to to controls controls area area and and warning warning of of posting posting fencing, fencing, special special
requires requires installation installation SMES SMES a a Therefore, Therefore, hazards. hazards. compatibility compatibility electronic electronic and and health health both both create create
5-7 5-7
1995. 1995. July July Corporation, Corporation, International International Applications Applications Science Science Thomas Thomas R. R. Abe~ Abe~
Base," Base," Force Force Air Air Tinker Tinker at at Program Program Insertion Insertion Technology Technology (SMES) (SMES) Storage Storage Energy Energy Magnetic Magnetic
Superconducting Superconducting Micro Micro For For Plan Plan Safety Safety System System Site Site SMES SMES and and Plan Plan Program Program Safety Safety "System "System 1. 1.
- References References 5.4 5.4 Section Section
Section- 6 Fiodinp and Conclusions
At the request of the U.S. Congress, the FRA, with technical support from the Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, has undertaken a review of the current technical literature on micro-SMES concepts, materials, designs, and of cost/benefit projections. Well-reasoned inputs from recognized experts in government, industry, and academia, backed up by technical supporting information, were also provided to and considered by the FRA in assessing micro-SMES technology maturity and suitability to railroad operations on the Northeast Corridor.
Section 6.1 - Findings
1. Research, design and development of superconducting magnetic energy storage systems have occurred through public and private funding since the 1970's. The initial public thrust of SMES development was to provide load leveling for utilities. The U.S. DOD focus was to provide energy to a ground-based free-electron laser weapon system.
2. Micro-SMES device concepts have been defined by industry consensus as devices with capacities less than 20 MJ. Currently available, through several SMES vendors, are micro-SMES devices rated up to 3 MJ.
3. To be useful for intercity and commuter railroad applications, as an onboard energy storage device, 3 MW of peak power and 500 MJ of energy capacity would be desirable.
4. Modifications would be required to the propulsion systems of existing rolling stock operating ori the NEC if braking energy is to be returned to the catenary.
5. Amtrak's new high-speed trainset, the American Flyer, will have braking energy regeneration capability.
6. The footprint of the micro-SMES systems, rated up to 3 MJ, are typically up to 400 square feet. The power-conditioning unit of the micro-SMES system consumes the largest portion of this space.
7. University researchers have identified design improvements which may lead to improvements in cost, efficiency, manufacturability, and size of SMES system and subsystems.
8. Commercially available micro-SMES units are not now suitable as onboard energy storage devices because the low energy density of the units and because coil vibration and movement will cause heating which would reduce the effective storage capacity and could lead to a loss of superconductivity.
6- 1
6-2 6-2
device. device. storage storage energy energy railroad railroad a a of of requirements requirements
expected expected the the upon upon based based be be should should improvements improvements These These . . program demonstration demonstration
any any of of initiation initiation the the to to prior prior required required be be would would designs designs existing existing to to Improvements Improvements 7. 7.
demonstration. demonstration. in-service in-service any any to to prior prior evaluated evaluated
be be must must fields fields magnetic magnetic high high the the and and system system cryogenic cryogenic the the regarding regarding concerns concerns Safety Safety 6. 6.
. . industry railroad railroad the the into into migration migration the the determine determine
will will place place market market the the that that and and application application mature mature relatively relatively a a is is this this that that assumed assumed have have
we we Further, Further, report. report. this this for for directed directed scope scope the the beyond beyond as as viewed viewed was was this this as as addressed, addressed,
been been not not has has systems systems control control train train for for supply supply power power uninterruptible uninterruptible an an as as SMES SMES S. S.
loss. loss. energy energy net net a a at at operate operate routinely routinely devices devices These These evaluation. evaluation. and and test test under under still still
are are and and applications applications quality quality power power facilities facilities critical critical or or utility utility for for enVironment enVironment commercial commercial
the the to to introduced introduced been recently recently only only have have prototypes prototypes micro-SMES micro-SMES Existing Existing premature. premature.
is is rail" rail" commuter commuter and and both both Amtrak Amtrak for for (NEC) (NEC) Corridor Corridor Northeast Northeast the the along along capability capability
savings savings energy energy and and regeneration regeneration cost-effective cost-effective "provide "provide to to program program insertion insertion technology technology
micro-SMES micro-SMES a a that that appears appears it it analysis, analysis, technical technical and and review review preliminary preliminary this this on on Based Based 4. 4.
grid. grid. commercial commercial the the into into back back power power the the feed feed then then exists, exists, load load railroad railroad
no no and, and, if if load load railroad-related railroad-related a a with with energy energy the the consume consume to to first first seek seek would would NBC NBC
the the on on operator operator system system power power other other any any or or Amtrak Amtrak Rather, Rather, it. it. store store to to reason reason apparent apparent
no no is is there there catenary catenary the the to to fed fed is is energy energy once once practices, practices, operating operating current current on on Based Based 3. 3.
train. train. a a board board on on fit fit to to large large too too is is train train single single a a of of energy energy
absorb absorb to to required required capacity capacity the the with with device device SMES SMES a a technology, technology, current current upon upon Based Based . . 2
. . years five five next next the the
in in significantly significantly change change to to expected expected not not is is situation situation this this limits, limits, technological technological fundamental fundamental
to to Due Due application. application. railroad railroad a a in in storage storage energy energy braking braking regenerated regenerated wayside wayside or or onboard onboard
either either for for required required capacity capacity storage storage energy energy the the have have now now not not do do devices devices Micro-SMES Micro-SMES 1. 1.
Condusions Condusions - 6.2 6.2 Section Section
designs. designs. refrigeration refrigeration current current the the by by handled handled efficiently efficiently be be not not
may may railroad railroad a a on on cycles cycles discharge discharge and and charge charge continuous continuous nearly nearly the the by by superconductor superconductor
the the within within generated generated heat heat The The industry. industry. utility utility the the of of requirements requirements quality quality power power the the
than than different different significantly significantly are are applications applications storage storage energy energy for for requirements requirements Railroad Railroad 9. 9. Section- 7 References and Industry Feedback
A literature search was conducted to identify articles related to research and development activities associated with superconducting magnetic energy storage systems. In addition to this literature search, the FRA solicited infonnation and comments from a number of organizatioD$ with expertise in SMES technology and/or railroad operations. In response to this solicitation for comments and infonnation, 17 industry representatives of government, industry, or academia provided feedback to the FRA.
In addition to the information provided by these individuals, the literature search identified over 20 additional articles relevant to SMES and micro-SMES research, design and development.
Section 7.1- List of Articles- Organized by Industry/Government/Academia Representative
American Superconductor Corporation
"HTS SMES Magnet Design and Test Results," S.S. Kalsi, D. Aized, B. Connor, G. Snitchler, J. Campbell, R.E. Schwall, and J. Kellers, American Superconductor Corp., Th. Stephanblome and A Tromm, Germany, P. Winn, Applied Engineering Technologies.
Mtecbnology, Inc.
"The Future Prospects for Large Scale Applications of Superconductivity," D. Bruce Montgomery, MIT, Plasma Fusion Center, 1996.
Iotermagnetics ·General Corporation
"Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage for Substation Applications," Michael Parizh, A. Kamal Kalafala, and Robert Wilcox, lntermagnetics General Corporation. Presented at Applied Superconductivity Conference, Pittsburgh, PA 1996.
"Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage for Power Quality Applications," A.K. Kalafala, F.S. Murray, M.B. Parizh, M.W. Sampson, E.A. Scholle, and R.E. Wilcox, Intermagnetics General Corporation. Presented at the International Workshop on High Magnetic Fields, 1996.
"Micro Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) System for Protection of Critical Industrial and Military Loads," A.K. Kalafala, J. Bascunan, D.D. Bell, L. Blecher, F.S. Murray, M.B. Parizh, M.W. Sampson, and R.E. Wilcox, Intermagnetics General Corporation, 1995.
"Micro SMES and Its Role in Improving Power Quality," White Paper No. 1, Kalafala, Kamal, Ph.D., Intermagnetics General Corporation, 1995.
"Frequently Asked Questions Regarding Intermagnetics' Micro SMES System," White Paper
7- 1
7-2 7-2
Stephen Stephen Huang, Huang, Xianrui Xianrui Applications," Applications," Utility Utility for for Program Program SMES SMES Wilcox Wilcox Babcock Babcock MW MW "30 "30 & &
Wilcox Wilcox & & Babcock Babcock
1994. 1994. Bechtel, Bechtel, Luongo, Luongo, Cesar Cesar and and Dynamics Dynamics General General
Mix, Mix, Craig Craig Systems," Systems," Storage Storage Energy Energy Magnetic Magnetic Superconducting Superconducting for for Structures Structures "Composite "Composite
1994. 1994. Bechtel, Bechtel, Partain, Partain, D. D. Kenneth Kenneth and and Change, Change,
Chih-Lien Chih-Lien Luongo, Luongo, A. A. Cesar Cesar SMES/CICC," SMES/CICC," the the to to Applicable Applicable Model Model Quench Quench Computational Computational "A "A
1995. 1995. Bechtel, Bechtel, Luongo, Luongo, A. A. Cesar Cesar Energy," Energy," Magnetic Magnetic as as Electricity Electricity "Storing "Storing
1994. 1994. Slovenia, Slovenia, Ljubljana, Ljubljana,
Of Of Univ. Univ. Zeljemov, Zeljemov, Miljutin Miljutin ofLLNL, ofLLNL, Hassenzahl Hassenzahl William William V. V. ofBechtel, ofBechtel, Bulc Bulc M. M. Ales Ales Shunt," Shunt,"
Dump Dump and and Conductor Conductor Separated Separated with with Coil Coil SMES SMES a a in in Quench Quench During During Redistribution Redistribution "Current "Current
1995. 1995. Corp, Corp, Bechtel Bechtel Luongo, Luongo, A. A. Cesar Cesar Overview," Overview," An An Systems: Systems: Storage Storage "Superconducting "Superconducting
1994. 1994. Luongo, Luongo, Cesar Cesar Zeigler, Zeigler,
C. C. John John Peck, Peck, D. D. Scott Scott Application," Application," SMES SMES for for Conductor Conductor Cable-in-Conduit Cable-in-Conduit 200kA 200kA a a on on "Tests "Tests
1995. 1995. Team, Team, SMES SMES Bechtel Bechtel the the and and Luongo Luongo Cesar Cesar Unit," Unit,"
Demonstration Demonstration Technology Technology a a for for Plans Plans Future Future and and Design Design SMES SMES Team's Team's Bechtel the the of of "Review "Review
Bechtel Bechtel
1995. 1995. ofWisconsin-Madison, ofWisconsin-Madison, University University Center, Center, Superconductivity Superconductivity Applied Applied Abdelsalarn, Abdelsalarn,
K. K. Mostafa Mostafa Applications," Applications," Field Field Stray Stray Reduced Reduced for for Configurations Configurations Magnet Magnet SMES SMES "Micro "Micro
1995. 1995. Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin-Madison, of of ofUniv. ofUniv. Waldrop Waldrop S. S. . J and and Lokken, Lokken,
O.D. O.D. Abdelsalam, Abdelsalam, M.K. M.K. Pfotenhauer, Pfotenhauer, lM. lM. Center, Center, Technology Technology and and Science Science ofWestinghouse ofWestinghouse
Marschik Marschik D. D. and and Kupiszewski, Kupiszewski, T. T. Daly, Daly, E.F. E.F. Christianson, Christianson, O.R. O.R. Scherbarth, Scherbarth, D.W. D.W. Experiment)," Experiment),"
ofPrinciple ofPrinciple (Proof (Proof POPE POPE SMES SMES Team Team EBASCO EBASCO the the During During Petformance Petformance Joint Joint "Conductor "Conductor
1994. 1994. WISCOnsin-Madison, WISCOnsin-Madison, Univ. Univ. Of Of Center, Center, Superconductivity Superconductivity Applied Applied Abdelsalam, Abdelsalam, K. K. Mostafa Mostafa
and and Sean Sean He He Modeling," Modeling," Element Element Finite Finite Using Using Magnets Magnets SMES SMES Micro Micro for for Design Design Shield Shield "Yoke "Yoke
1995. 1995. Wisconsin-Madison. Wisconsin-Madison. of of Univ. Univ. Center, Center, Superconductivity Superconductivity Applied Applied AbdelsaJam, AbdelsaJam,
K. K. Mostafa Mostafa Applications," Applications," Field Field Stray Stray Reduced Reduced . . For Configurations Configurations SMES SMES Magnet Magnet "Micro "Micro
Wisconsin-Madison Wisconsin-Madison of of Univenity Univenity
1995. 1995. Corporation, Corporation, General General Intennagnetics Intennagnetics Ph.D., Ph.D., Kamal, Kamal, Kalafala, Kalafala, No.2~ No.2~ F. Kral, Gregory Lehmann, Yury M. Lvovsky and Minfeng Xu, Babcock & Wilcox, 1995.
"Superconducting Power Delivery Systems For Transmission and Distribution Applications," S.F. Kral, M. Aslam, P.F. Ribeiro, X. Huang, M. Xu, Babcock & Wilcox, Accelerator & Magnet Systems, Lynchburg, VA 24502.
''Protection Study of the Babcock & Wilcox SMES Coil," Xianni Huang ofBabcock & Wilcox, 1995.
"Transient Stability of SMES Monolith Conductor with Nonnal Stabilizer," Yury M Lvovsky, Joseph A Waynert, Stephen F. Kral, Babcock & Wilcox, 1995.
"Design of a High-Temperature Superconductor Current Lead for Electric Utility SMES," RC. Niemann, Y.S. Cha, J.R Hull of Argonne National Laboratory, C.M. Rey, K.D. Dixon of Babcock & Wilcox, 1995.
''B&W/ ML&P SMES System," Ron Kunz, SMES Project Manager, Babcock & Wilcox, January 13, 1997.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
"Field Analysis for a SMES Magnet with Radial Force Balance," Joseph L. Smith, Jr., Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1995.
Lockheed Martin·
"Global Cost Optimization of 1-10 MWh Toroidal SMES," Dennis W. Lieumace, Lockheed Martin Advanced Development Operations.
"Design and Cost Studies for Small Scale Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) Systems," D. Lieurance, F. Kimball, and C. Rix ofMartin Marietta, and Cesar Luongo ofBechtel, 1995.
US Air Force PCCIE Materiel Group
''US Air Force Micro Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Technology Insertion Program," Joe Burgan, USAF, Thomas R. Abel, SAIC.
"Air Force Micro-SMES Program Demonstrates Successful Application Of the Dual Use Initiative," Lt. Col. Michael Gravely, Air Force PCCIE Materiel Group, Power Quality Assurance Magazine, Jan/Feb 1995.
"System Safety Program Plan and SMES Site System Safety Plan For Micro Superconducting
7-3
7-4 7-4
1995. 1995. Agency, Agency,
Nuclear Nuclear Defense Defense Ullrich, Ullrich, W. W. George George Program," Program," Development Development SMES SMES DNA DNA the the of of "Summary "Summary
1995. 1995. Laboratory, Laboratory, National National Ridge Ridge Oak Oak Lue, Lue, J.W. J.W. and and Lubell Lubell M.S. M.S. Systems," Systems," (S:MES) (S:MES)
Storage Storage Energy Energy Magnetic Magnetic Superconducting Superconducting Size Size Intermediate Intermediate for for Scaling Scaling Cost Cost and and "Structure "Structure
1995. 1995. Laboratories, Laboratories, National National
Sandia Sandia of of Bickel Bickel T.C. T.C. Associates, Associates, Schafer Schafer ofW.J. ofW.J. Bieri Bieri R.L. R.L. and and Schoenung Schoenung S.M. S.M. ofSMES," ofSMES,"
Applications Applications High-Duty-Cycle High-Duty-Cycle in in Superconductors Superconductors Temperature Temperature High- Using Using of of Advantages Advantages "The "The
1995. 1995. Austria, Austria, Graz, Graz, University, University, Technical Technical Conversion, Conversion, Energy Energy ofElectromagnetic ofElectromagnetic
Institute Institute Gerhold, Gerhold, Juergen Juergen and and Schonwetter Schonwetter Gerald Gerald Field," Field," Stray Stray Reduced Reduced with with SMES SMES of of ''Design ''Design
1995. 1995. ofMunich, ofMunich, University University Technical Technical
Lorenzen, Lorenzen, W. W. Hans Hans and and Brammer Brammer Uwe Uwe SMES," SMES," Power Power High High Small Small of of Shielding Shielding "Magnetic "Magnetic
Co., Co., 1995. 1995. Power Power Electric Electric ofTohoku ofTohoku Tatsuki Tatsuki T. T. Honma, Honma, University, University, H. H. oflwate oflwate
Noto Noto K. K. Matsukawa, Matsukawa, M. M. Kouno, Kouno, Ltd, Ltd, Y. Y. ofFujikura ofFujikura Kohno Kohno Saito, Saito, T. T. 0. 0. Goto, Goto, K. K. Uchiyama, Uchiyama, K. K.
Sadakata, Sadakata, N. N. SMES," SMES," for for Switch Switch Current Current Persistent Persistent Magnetic Magnetic of of Characteristics Characteristics Switching Switching "Fast "Fast
1995. 1995. ofMunich, ofMunich, University University Technical Technical
Schottler, Schottler, and and R R Schaller Schaller J. J. Rosenbauer, Rosenbauer, F. F. Lorenzen, Lorenzen, H. H. Kamer, Kamer, J. J. Temperature," Temperature," Cryogenic Cryogenic
at at Working Working Semiconductors Semiconductors Power Power with with SMES SMES Power Power High High Small Small for for System System Protection Protection "A "A
Steel, Steel, 1994. 1994.
and and Iron Iron African African South South of of Stielau Stielau Oskar Oskar and and ofWuppertal, ofWuppertal, University University the the of of Stamm Stamm Michael Michael
Holtz, Holtz, Joachim Joachim Thyristors," Thyristors," Tum-Off Tum-Off Fast Fast as as Operated Operated GTOs GTOs ofHigh-Power ofHigh-Power Performance Performance "The "The
1995. 1995. Hydro-Quebec, Hydro-Quebec, ofiREQ, ofiREQ, Kamwa Kamwa I. I. (Quebec), (Quebec), ofLaval ofLaval University University of of Simo Simo Unit," Unit," J.B. J.B.
SMES SMES a a by by Stabilized Stabilized System System ofMultimachine ofMultimachine behavior behavior Dynamic Dynamic the the of of Assessment Assessment "Exploratory "Exploratory
1994. 1994. ofMunich, ofMunich, University University Technical Technical
Schottler, Schottler, RM. RM. Helium," Helium," Supercritical Supercritical Flow Flow Forced Forced with with System System SMES SMES Small Small of of "Cooling "Cooling
1995. 1995. Conference, Conference, Power Power American American the the of of Proceedings Proceedings 1731, 1731,
- pgs. pgs. 1724 1724 Tison, Tison, Ken Ken Baldwin, Baldwin, L. L. Thomas Thomas Dr. Dr. Enough," Enough," Good Good is is Not Not Power Power Reliable Reliable "When "When
Other Other
July July 1995. 1995. Corporation, Corporation, International International Applications Applications Science Science Abel, Abel, R. R. Thomas Thomas
Base," Base," Force Force Air Air Tinker Tinker at at Program Program Insertion Insertion Technology Technology (SMES) (SMES) Storage Storage Energy Energy Magnetic Magnetic "Input Circuit of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage for DC Lines," K. Takeno, S. Ohtsu, and T. Yamashita ofNTT Interdisciplinary Research Laboratories, 1994.
"SMES Solenoids with Reduced Stray Field," Gerald Schonwetter, Institute ofElectromagnetic Energy Conversion, Technical University, Graz, Austria, 1994.
"An Application of Dual-Time-Scale Simulation to Power System Problems Including Power Electronics Devices," F. Naito and J. Toyoda, Dept. ofElectrical Engineering, Tohoku University, 1995. ·
"Quench Initiation and Propagation Study (Quips) for the SMES-CICC," C.A Luongo and K.D. Partain of Bechtel, J.R Miller and G.E. Miller ofNational High Magnetic Field Laboratory, M. Heiberger of General Atomics, and A Langhom ofStartech, Inc., 1994.
"A Soft Switching AC/DC Converter with Energy Recovery Snubber Circuit for Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage," T. Ise, M. Nakade, andY. Murakami, Dept. ofElectrical Engineering, Research Center for Superconducting Materials and Electronics, Osaka University, 1994.
''Power Equipment Market Growing In Size, Tension," New Technology Week, Mark Crawford, October 28, 1996.
7-5
7-6 7-6
Pfotenhauer Pfotenhauer John John Dr. Dr. ofWisconsin, ofWisconsin, University University 17. 17.
Wiesman Wiesman Richard Richard Dr. Dr. and and Cope Cope David David Dr. Dr. Inc., Inc., Miller, Miller, Foster Foster 16. 16.
Group Group Rail Rail Speed Speed High High Electrification, Electrification, Director Director Program Program Popoff, Popoff, John John Amtrak, Amtrak, S. S. 1 1
Technology Technology of of Director Director Wheeler, Wheeler, Sam Sam Energy, Energy, WestPlains WestPlains United, United, Utilicorp Utilicorp 14. 14.
Manager Manager Sales Sales National National Losleben, Losleben, P. P. James James Inc., Inc., Superconductivity, Superconductivity, 13. 13.
ofEngineering ofEngineering Director Director Buckles, Buckles, . . E Warren Warren Inc., Inc., Superconductivity, Superconductivity, 12. 12.
Montgomery Montgomery Bruce Bruce Dr. Dr. Inc., Inc., Mtechnology, Mtechnology, 11. 11.
Thornton Thornton . . D Richard Richard Dr. Dr. Science, Science, Computer Computer
and and Engineering Engineering ofElectrical ofElectrical Department Department Technology, Technology, of of Institute Institute Massachusetts Massachusetts 10. 10.
Iwasa Iwasa Yuki Yuki Dr. Dr. Center, Center, Fusion Fusion Plasma Plasma Technology, Technology, of of Institute Institute Massachusetts Massachusetts 9. 9.
Minervini Minervini Joseph Joseph Dr. Dr. Center, Fusion Fusion Plasma Plasma Technology, Technology, of of Institute Institute Massachusetts Massachusetts 8. 8.
Steckly Steckly John John Dr. Dr. Corporation, Corporation, General General Intermagnetics Intermagnetics 7. 7.
Mann Mann L. L. Thomas Thomas
Laboratory, Laboratory, Development Development Technology Technology (HAR.C}, (HAR.C}, Center Center Research Research Advanced Advanced Houston Houston 6. 6.
Luongo Luongo Dr. Dr. Cesar Cesar Bechtel, Bechtel, S. S.
Gilleland Gilleland R R Dr. Dr. John John Bechte~ Bechte~ 4. 4.
Manager Manager Project Project Kunz, Kunz, SMES SMES
Ron Ron Department, Department, Development Development Product Product Division, Division, Fuel Fuel Nuclear Nuclear Naval Naval & & Wilcox, Wilcox, Babcock Babcock 3. 3.
Analyst Analyst Business Business Senior Senior Kuzmin, Kuzmin, Keith Keith Corp., Corp., Superconductor Superconductor American American 2. 2.
Manager Manager Program Program
Energy Energy Alternative Alternative SMES/ SMES/ Micro Micro Burgan, Burgan, (Joe) (Joe) Launce Launce SM-ALC/LIET, SM-ALC/LIET, Force, Force, Air Air 1. 1.
Received Received Responses Responses Academia Academia and and Industry Industry Government, Government, 7.'1.- Section Section