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Capnography for Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in the Emergency Department

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Capnography for Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in the Emergency Department PAIN MANAGEMENT/CONCEPTS Capnography for Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in the Emergency Department Baruch Krauss, MD, EdM From the Division of Emergency Medicine, Children’s Hospital (Krauss); and the Division of Dean R. Hess, RRT, PhD Respiratory Care, Massachusetts General Hospital (Hess), Harvard Medical School (Hess, Krauss), Boston, MA. Although it is standard of care for patient safety monitoring in anesthesia, capnography is not routinely used for emergency department procedural sedation and analgesia. We discuss the use of capnography as a diagnostic monitoring modality for procedural sedation and analgesia, focusing on the physiology and interpretation of the CO2 waveform and recognition of normal, abnormal, and drug-induced ventilatory patterns. [Ann Emerg Med. 2007;50:172-181.] 0196-0644/$-see front matter Copyright © 2007 by the American College of Emergency Physicians. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2006.10.016 INTRODUCTION of expired carbon dioxide shall be performed unless invalidated Procedural sedation and analgesia is the standard of care for by the nature of the patient, procedure or equipment.” the management of acute procedural pain and anxiety in the Capnography provides continuous, real-time, breath-to- emergency department (ED).1 Patient safety monitoring duringbreath feedback on the clinical status of the patient and allows ED procedural sedation and analgesia currently includes pulse the clinician to determine the baseline ventilatory status and 3,6 rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, ECG, track changes over time.Capnography, like ECG, is a and clinical observation. Noninvasive monitoring of ventilation diagnostic monitoring modality because changes in the shape of 2,3 with capnography has been studied as a research tool but is not the waveform are diagnostic of disease conditions.This article part of routine procedural sedation and analgesia monitoring. discusses the use of capnography as a diagnostic monitoring tool Although standard practice in anesthesia, the use of for procedural sedation and analgesia, focusing on the capnography in emergency medicine has primarily been limited physiology and interpretation of the CO2 waveform and to intubated patients for verification of endotracheal tube recognition of normal, abnormal, and drug-induced ventilatory placement and for cardiac arrest. There has been little emphasis patterns. on the use of capnography for assessing ventilatory status and on waveform interpretation in spontaneously breathing patients. TERMINOLOGY Capnography is a well-studied technology in anesthesia and Capnography is the noninvasive measurement of the partial 2,3 has been used in the operating room for more thanpressure 35 years. of carbon dioxide in exhaled breath. The ancient Anesthesiologists and respiratory physiologists began using Greeks believed there was a combustion engine inside the body capnography as a research tool in the 1950s. Modern that gave off smoke (capnos in Greek) in the form of the breath. 4 capnography was developed in the 1940sand by Luft A capnometer is a CO2 monitor that displays a number (ie, commercialized in the 1960s and 1970s after the development end-tidal CO2 [ETCO2]). A capnograph is a CO2 monitor that of mass spectroscopy. Through the pioneering work of displays a number and a waveform. The CO2 waveform or 2 Smalhout and Kalenda,capnography became a routine part capnogramof displays changes in the CO2 concentration during anesthesia practice in Europe in the 1970s and in the United the respiratory cycle. Carbon dioxide measured at the airway States in the 1980s. In 1999, the American Society of can be displayed as a function of time (CO2 concentration over Anesthesiologists issued Standards for Basic Anesthetic time) or exhaled tidal volume (CO2 concentration over Monitoring,5 delineating the role of capnography for all volume).patients This article will discuss the use of time-based receiving general anesthesia: “Every patient receiving general capnography for procedural sedation and analgesia. A discussion anesthesia shall have the adequacy of ventilation continually of volume-based capnography is beyond the scope of this evaluated. Qualitative clinical signs such as chest excursion, article. Moreover, because of certain technology characteristics, observation of the reservoir breathing bag and auscultation of volume-based capnography is not easily adaptable to breath sounds are useful. Continual monitoring for the presence nonintubated subjects. 172 Annals of Emergency Medicine Volume , . : August Krauss & Hess Capnography for Procedural Sedation TECHNOLOGY from an average of 35 to 42 mm Hg (average oxygen saturation Most capnography technology is built on infrared radiation decreased from 98% to 94%). Physicians and nurses were not techniques. These techniques are based on the fact that CO2 blinded to capnography, and no definition of respiratory molecules absorb infrared radiation at a very specific wavelength depression was given. Patients did not receive supplemental (4.26 ␮m), with the amount of radiation absorbed having a oxygen during sedation. 8 close to exponential relation to the CO2 concentration present In 1997, Hart studiedet al the incidence of respiratory in the breath sample. Detecting these changes in infrared depression during procedural sedation and analgesia in a radiation levels, using appropriate photodetectors sensitive in convenience sample of 42 children receiving intravenous this spectral region, allows for the calculation of the CO2 fentanyl and midazolam or intramuscular meperidine, concentration in the gas sample. promethazine, chlorpromazine compound. Respiratory Carbon dioxide monitors are designed in mainstream or depression was defined as SpO2 less than or equal to 90% for sidestream configurations. Mainstream devices measure CO2 greater than 1 minute or ETCO2 greater than or equal to directly from the airway, with the sensor located on the 50 mm Hg. Respiratory depression occurred in 8 of 42 (19%) endotracheal tube. Sidestream devices measure CO2 by patients. Of these 8 patients, 6 had ETCO2 greater than 50 mm aspirating a small sample from the exhaled breath through Hg without hypoxemia and 2 had ETCO2 greater than 50 mm tubing to a sensor located inside the monitor. Mainstream Hg with SpO2 less than or equal to 90. Clinicians were not systems, because the sensor is located on the endotracheal tube, blinded to capnography results. are configured for intubated patients. Sidestream systems, Miner et 9-11al conducted 3 studies between 2001 and 2003, because the sensor is located inside the monitor, are configured using capnography to detect the presence of respiratory for both intubated and nonintubated patients. The airway depression during ED procedural sedation and analgesia. interface for intubated patients is an airway adapter placed Respiratory depression was defined as SpO2 less than 90%, between the ventilator circuit and the endotracheal tube. For ETCO2 greater than 50 mm Hg, an absolute change in ETCO2 nonintubated patients, a nasal-oral cannula is used that allows greater than 10 mm Hg, or loss of the capnogram. This concomitant CO2 sampling and low-flow oxygen delivery. expanded definition of respiratory depression was able to Carbon dioxide monitors can either be quantitative or identify ventilatory abnormalities with both low and high qualitative. Quantitative devices measure the precise ETCO 2 ETCO2, whereas previous studies were designed to capture either as a number or a number and a waveform. Qualitative ventilatory abnormalities with high ETCO2 only (see section on devices measure a range in which the ETCO2 falls (eg, 0 to drug-induced hypoventilation for further discussion of the types Ͼ 10 mm Hg, 35 mm Hg) as opposed to a precise value (eg, of hypoventilation). 38 mm Hg). The predominant qualitative capnometric device is In the first study, respiratory depression occurred in 33 of 74 the colorimetric ETCO2 detector. This device consists of a piece (45%) patients using methohexital, fentanyl and midazolam, of specially treated litmus paper that turns color when exposed propofol, or etomidate9 In. the second study, respiratory to CO2. Its primary use is for verification of endotracheal tube depression occurred in 44 of 108 (41%) patients using placement and position. If the tube is in the trachea, the methohexital, fentanyl and midazolam, propofol, or resultant exhalation of CO2 will change the color of the litmus etomidate.10 In the third study, respiratory depression occurred paper, whereas the tube in the esophagus with no CO2 in the in 50 of 103 (48%) patients using methohexital11 or propofol. breath will result in no color change. Subclinical respiratory depression occurred in 41% to 48% of patients in the 3 studies, and capnography identified patients EMERGENCY MEDICINE STUDIES ON with respiratory depression undetected by pulse oximetry. As CAPNOGRAPHY USE IN PROCEDURAL expected (see section on drug-induced hypoventilation), SEDATION AND ANALGESIA subclinical respiratory depression detected by capnographic Research on the use of capnography for ED procedural changes was not always associated with oxygen desaturation. 12 sedation and analgesia has shown that capnography can In 2006, Burton etinvestigated al the temporal frequently identify respiratory depression and airway relationship between changes in capnography and pulse complications before clinical observation. oximetry in the detection of acute respiratory events during The first ED study investigating the use
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