An overview of donkey utilisation and management in

by

Feseha Gebreabl, Alemu G Wold2, Friew Kelemu3, Abule Ibro4 and Ketema Yilma5

1Faculty of VeterinaryMedicine, University,PO Box 34, Debre Zeit,Ethiopia 2Institute ofAgricultural Research,PO Box 2003,Addis Ababa,Ethiopia 3Institute ofAgricultural Research,Nazareth Research Centre, PO Box 436, Nazareth,Ethiopia 4Adami Tulu ResearchCentre, PO Box 35, Zeway,Ethiopia 5Farm-Africa (Ethiopia),PO Box 5746,Addis Ababa,Ethiopia

Abstract

Ethiopia is a country with one ofthe highest donkeypopulations in the world. The total numberranges from 4-5 million. Four recognizeddonkey types exist, unevenlydistributed in all agro-ecologicalzones and the two landscapepatterns. Thesmall scalefarmers and the Highlands havethe largestshare with 2-3 animalsper family, and with female donkeys being mostcommon (70%). Weaningand breedingages were established to be between4-5 yearsfor places like Awassa, and . In the country as a wholedonkeys provide pack services,carrying overfljieen kinds of commoditiesweighing 60-100 kg and coveringdistances of 15-20 kmfor a duration of4-5 hours. Observations undertakenalong the main roads to andfrom Addis Ababa revealedthat the use ofdonkeys is directly related to the distancecovered. On the Gojam and Dessieroads moredonkeys carried goodsthan people while on theAmbo road morepeople carried goodsthan donkeys.

Therole ofdonkeys in the diversification ofsources ofincome in rural areasis highlighted.In Tigray and the Rift Valley areastheir contribution in terms offirewood trade to the family incomewas found to be in the range of156 to 1404 (ETB) annually(US$1 ==ETB 6.3). In Ejersa,sand is transportedin 20 litre containersfitted on the back ofa donkey.Each day a donkeymakes 80 shuttlesfrom the river basin to the roadsidetransporting a volume ofsand amountingto 4 m3and costingETB 90. Constraintsto improveddonkey use discussed,include health problems, nutrition and policy issues.

Introduction

Number and Distribution

Various sourceshave given differentfigures for the donkeypopulation in Ethiopia.According to FAO it was 3.9 million (FAO, 1985),3.9 million (FAO, 1989)and 5.2 million (FAO, 1994).Jahnke (1983) and Fielding (1991)cited the 3.9 million estimate.As shownin Table 1,donkeys are found unevenlydistributed in all the zonesof the country (Admassie, Abebe,Ezra and Gay, 1993). Whateverthe overallfigure maybe it is necessaryto deductthe 128,700donkeys that now belongto .

Table 1: Donkey populations and densities in the different zones of Ethiopia

Arsi 363 24.6 14.7 Bale 125 34.5 3.6 GarnoGofa 12 20.9 0.6 Gojarn 394 58.1 6.8 Gonder 491 54.9 9.0 Harerghe 226 59.8 3.8 IIubabor 16 15.3 1.0 Kefa 43 32.6 1.3 959 72.9 13.2 Sidarno 125 54.1 2.3 Tigray 468 19.0 24.6 Welega 159 44.2 3.5 Welo 390 38.5 10.1 Total 3771 Source:Admassie et ai, (J993)

The majority of the donkeysare found in the Highlands,with Shewa,Gonder, Tigray, Gojam,Welo and Arsi having the largestpopulations. The densityof donkeysis highestin Tigray, Arsi and Shewa.Areas with middle rangedensities are Gojam and Gonder,with low densitiesin all otherregions. The CentralStatistics Office (1995)reported that 44%, 34% and 19%of the donkeys arefound in ,Amhara and Tigray Regionsrespectively (Table 2).

Table 2: Number and percentage distribution of horses, donkeys, mules and camels used for draft power by type and region for private holdings (1000's).

Tigray 0 0 138 19 4 18 4 66 Afar 0 0

Even though it is difficult at presentto suggestthe critical minimum donkeydensity required per unit of population (Fielding, 1991)to initiate and launchpromotion interventions as part of a national livestock policy, accordingto FAO (1989)there are 27 donkeysper 100people in Ethiopia, which is one of the highestratios in the world.

Typesof donkeys

The domestic donkey traces its ancestry to the wild assesfound in Egypt, the , Somalia and Ethiopia. The two recognized races of the wild ass are: Equus asinus africanus and Equus asinus soma/iensis. About 2500 wild individuals are present in the Danakil Depression and Nogal Valley in the (Clark, 1974). Based on average size and coat colour four types of donkeys are recognized in Ethiopia: , Abyssinian, and Sennar (Dreyfus, 1976).

Ownershippattern

In the Highlandsof Ethiopia farmersown anaverage of 2-3 donkeysper family. The following is a reviewof various surveysamples: TheShewa sample: Of the 120households surveyed by Wilson (1991), 102 (85%)owned or kept donkeys.The average numberof donkeysper household was 2.72 of which 66%were born on the farm and 30%were acquiredby purchase. The Tigraysample: This studywas also conductedby Wilson (1991). A total of277 householdswere sampledin two areasof centralTigray. Of these,135 (49%)kept donkeys.The averagenumber of donkeysper owning householdwas 1.52. TheDire Dawa and East Oromiasample: Of the 40 householdssurveyed in Dire Dawa by Fesehaand Yoseph(1996),28 (70%)owned a single donkey,6 (15%)owned two, 4 (10%)had three,and 2 (5%)had five. Whereasthe picture in EastOromia, which is locatedin the Highlandsshowed that 30 (75%)owned one,6 (15%)owned two and 4 (10%) ownedthree donkeys. The Gondersample: A total of 400 householdsaround the city of Gonderwas included in this study which was conductedby Fesehaand Aweke (1995). In termsof standardof living 83%of the households were found to be in the categoriesbelow average and poor. They owneda single donkeyand one or two ruminants.The donkey ownership profile amongstthe aboveaverage (17%) was between2 and 4 donkeysper family. The Rift Valleysample: A studyrevealed that donkeysconstitute about 90% of the equinepopulation. Seventypercent of the smallholdersin the areaown one or more donkeysmaking themthe third most kept livestockspecies after cattle and goats.

Sex and Age structure In the Shewasample, of the 277 donkeys,76 (27%)were males and 201 (73%)were females. In the Dire Dawa sample, of the 30 donkeysdifferentiated into their respectivesexes, six weremales and 24 werefemales. In EastOromia 28 were malesand 2 were females.

Biology, nutrition and uses

Breeding

Various observershave asserted that donkeysbreed all the year round. High foaling periodsregistered in the Debre Brehanarea were in the monthsof March, April, June,July and August (Wilson, 1991).In Gonderit was noted that breedingas well as parturitionperiods coincide in mostof the caseswith the onsetof the rainy season(May/June). According to Mohammedand Teketel(1991) mostfoaJings in Awassaoccur in Februaryand March.

Growth

Donkeys reachmature weight at betweentwo andthree years of age.The averageweight of donkeys,males and females combined,transporting goods into Debre Brehan,was approximately105 kg (Wilson, 1991).Breeding age for female donkeysis four-five years in Awassa,three-four years in Dire Dawa(Feseha and Yoseph,1996), and five years in Gonder(Feseha and Aweke, 1995). For malesit is four years in Dire Dawa,and four yearsin Gondar(Feseha and Aweke, 1995).Weaning age has also beenmonitored in someareas. It is 10 monthsin Wolisso, between8 and 10 months in Gonderand 10-12months in Dire Dawa(Feseha and Aweke, 1995).

Nutrition

Numerousobservations confirm that in almostall casesdonkeys are left to forage for themselveswhen not working. For mostof the time they generallymaintain good body condition with the exceptionof the monthsof March and April (Fesehaand Aweke, 1995). In a studyconducted in Gonder,60 donkeyswere examinedin March and another60 in April in orderto determinetheir body condition. In the findings obtained,29 and 32 respectivelywere placed in the poor body condition category.In the area,donkey husbandry is characterisedby inputswhich range from very limited to nil. Feedingof donkeysis entirely basedon grazing on communallyowned grasslands as well as roadsidesthat are overgrazedand whereforage growth is poor. Donkeys,whose feeding is often neglected,survive due to their tremendous capacityto utilise foods of low quality.

Usesof donkeys In small scalefanning operationsdonkeys are used for transportand work as follows: .grains from fields to fannsteads .grains to local marketsor pick-up-points .agricultural inputs from distributioncentres to fannsteads .fuel wood, animal dung and charcoalfor the rural and urban sectors .water for the rural as well as the urban sector .relief suppliesfrom distributioncentres to fannsteads .cash crops suchas khat, potatoes,onions and othervegetables from fields to local marketsor pick-up points .sick, aged,dead and disabledpersons .threshing cerealcrops and beansby trampling .building materialssuch as stones,sands, tree polesand teff straw .earthenware suchas potsand plates .animal food suchas hay, teff and wheat straw .war hardwareand ammunition .weeding in maizefields .plowing of land in associationwith oxen.

Loads and activity patterns

Most donkeysare used as packanimals. Along the Koka-Awassaroute a considerablenumber are seenpulling carts. Table 3 showsthe results of studiesof load and activity patternsof donkeysat four sites.A study by lLRI in 1988as cited by Crossley(1991) has revealed that donkeysare utilised an averageof39 hours/year(h/y) in the DebreBrehan areafor transportof crops from field to farmstead,plus 46 h/y for threshing(with other equines),plus 40 h/y for hay transportgiving a total of 125h/y. Transportto marketoccupies 308 h, bringing the grandtotal to 433 h/y (average8.3 h/week).According to Crossley(1991) these figures are undoubtedlyabove the nationalaverage, but still representa relatively low utilisation. Table 3: Activity patterns and load size for donkeys at various sites in Ethiopia

Source: Fesehaand Yoseph(J99~

Another studyfocusing on countingthe numberof personsand donkeysentering the city of Addis Ababato sell produce suchas firewood, leaves,hay and dung wasconducted by Boswall in 1984.Donkeys entering Addis Ababa from the suburbscarry seventypes of load,these are: eucalyptus,hay, straw,dung, charcoal, teffand maize.The resultsobtained are shown in Table 4.

Table 4: Comparison of numbers of human and donkey loads in June 1984 on the main roads leading into Addis Ababa

Source: Boswall (1984)

On the Gojarn and roads significantly more donkeys carry goods than do people, while on the Ambo road significantly more people carry goods than donkeys. The most likely explanation for this is that donkeys can carry goods longer than humans and therefore further. So if there was a greater use of donkeys it would suggest that more of the goods were coming from a greater distance. In an observational study undertaken by Wilson (1991) of the 1130 pack loads being transported by donkeys along the south eastern route out of Addis Ababa, 49% were sacks of grains, 19% were firewood, 8% were water and 4% were charcoal. In the Dire Dawa zone, charcoal, fuel wood and water were the most frequently carried commodities while grains, khat leaves, potatoes and onions dominated the loads in East Oromia (Feseha and Yoseph, 1996).

Incomegeneration

In countriessuch as Mexico, India and Ethiopia, it is difficult for mostfarmers to afford horsesand mules. In fact in the lattertwo countriessome low incomepeople are wholly dependenton donkeysfor sustenance.In Tigray a 160 kIn journey is travelled by heavily ladencaravans, which include donkeys,from the salt plain to the main town in four days. Donkeys transport49 kg of salt per animal per trip (Wilson, 1991).Excise duty of ETB 0.75 was levied on donkeysand over threeEthiopian fiscal years,from 1971to 1974,revenue from this sourceaveraged ETB 60,680(US$ 1 = ETB 6.3). Mules contributed40%, equivalentto ETB 172,093.It needsto be borne in mind that without donkeysthere would be no mules and,therefore, the real contributionof donkeysshould be consideredto be in excessof 50% (Wilson, 1991).

As for the contributionof donkeysto the householdeconomy, Wilson (1991)reported a surveyof 58 village households situatedabout 15km from Mekele. Seventeenof the householdsearned their entire living from cutting and transporting wood to Mekele,carrying an averageof nine donkeyloads per week perhousehold. The other41 householdsusually transportedone load per week. In addition,village consumptionamounted to about3000 kg or 2.4 m3per week. The contributionof donkeysto the village in termsof fuel transportalone was685.6 t or 548.5m3, equivalent to just over 13,000journeys. The grossrevenue from commercialexploitation was ETB 30,254/year.This gavean annualearning of ETB 1404per family for householdswhich were commercialtraders in firewood and ETB 156 for thosewho traded only occasionally(Wilson, 1991).According to K. Friew (Personalcommunication) of the Institute for Agricultural Research, sandis transportedin Ejersa,which is locatedbetween Modjo and Koka, using four containersof20 litres capacityfitted on the back of a donkey. Eachday a donkeymakes 80 shuttlesfrom the river basinto the roadsidetransporting a volume of sandamounting to 4 m3and costing ETB 90. In the Rift Valley donkey drawncarts arerented out at ETB 10 per day, thus helping farmersdiversify their incomes.

With the productionof more marketablesurpluses the role of donkeysin the transportof farm produce,crop residues, and agriculturalinputs is going to be evengreater. The intensificationof the useof donkeysas work animalsneeds to be promotedwith muchmore emphasisbecause: they require little attentionregarding fodder and care they are easyto train and canbe handledby children their marketprice makesthem accessible to a large numberof farmers.

Constraints to improved donkey nse

Health Problems

Even though donkeys have often been described as sturdy animals, they succumb to a variety of diseases and a number of other conditions. Most important are parasites of the gastrointestinal tract such as the large and small strongyles, Trichostrongylus axei and Parascaris equorum. The worms have a debilitating effect in general, while helminths such as Strongylus vulgaris, the predominant one of the large strongyles, often causes severe damage in the form of a thrombi- embolic process of the anterior mesenteric artery and its branches. In a study conducted by Feseha, Mohammed and Yilma in 1991 quantitative and qualitative faecal examinations were done on 1075 samples from Debre Zeit and 810 from Menagesha. Only two donkeys from Debre Zeit were found to be negative for parasites. All the others were shown to harbour ova and/or larvae of large and small strongyles, ascarids, pinworms, bots, stomach worms, lung-worms, tapeworms and flukes. Out of810 donkeys examined at Menagesha, 465 (57%) had an eggs per gram of faeces (epg) of over 2500 and 195 between 100-2500, indicating massive infestations (Feseha et ai, 1991).

Cases of saddle sores (back sores) are widespread. In one study, of 2020 donkeys examined, 680 (34%) were found to have saddle sores (Yilma, Feseha, Svendsen and Mohammed, 1991). The sores were caused by the total lack of any type of saddle or protection for the donkeys' backs. Other wounds that are frequently seen include abrasions due to friction with improper harness and harnessing materials such as nylon ropes and strips of car tyres. Lacerated wounds inflicted by hyena bites, barbed wire or any other sharp object are also encountered. Sarcoids, a common skin tumor in equids, has been detected in 33 (3%) of 1090 working donkeys at Debre Zeit (Yilma et ai, 1991).

Nutrition

Donkeysare not provided with anytype of concentratefood. In most of the casesthey are left to scavenge.It is anticipatedthat with systematicand betteruse of donkeysfor packand operationsother than pack, suchas carting (entailing a possible 10 fold increasein the load factor),the use of capstansfor seeddecorticating, oil milling, lifting waterand threshing etc,coupled with the understandingof the energyrequirements of donkeysfor work, there will be progresstowards improved care and feedingprogrammes.

Policyissues

Even thoughthe donkeymakes a major contributionto transportin Ethiopia thereis no governmentpolicy on its use and no attentionis given to its promotion.One reasonfor this is the fact thatthe donkeyprovides many services with no inputs or coststo its owner. In comparisonwith farm ruminantsone of its major limitations, albeit not of its own doing, is the fact is that its meatis not eaten.Thus at the end of its life it is thrown away or left to die. In promoting its useand bettercare, areas that require attentionand researchare many. For instance,there is little useof donkeysfor pulling carts, cultivation and weedingoperations. Experiences from othercountries in Africa have shownthe usefulnessof donkeys in land preparation,seeding and weeding activities,particularly in dry areaswith light sandysoil, which implies the need for specialiseddonkey-drawn implements. In additionthere is a needto launchan extensionprogramme regarding the proper breeding,nutrition, housingand utilisationof donkeys.

References

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FAD, 1989. Production YearBook 42. Food and Agriculture Organization,Rome, Italy.

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Yilma J M, FesehaG, SvendsenE D and MohammedA, 1991. Health problemsof working donkeysin Debre Zeit and Menagesha Regionsof Ethiopia. pp. 151-155in: Fielding D and PearsonRA (eds),Donkeys, mules and horsesin tropical agricultural development.Proceedings of colloquium held 3-6 September1990, Edinburgh, Scotland. Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh,UK. 336p. ISBN 0907146066.