Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2

doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2019.26209

Exploring the Purpose of Agricultural Technical Schools in

M. Christelle Calixte T. Grady Roberts J. C. Bunch University of Florida

Abstract Haiti is a country which suffers from food insecurity, therefore, agricultural production and productivity are important to ensure availability of food for the Haitian population. Dissemination of best agricultural practices amongst farmers is crucial, and extension agents bring the scientific discoveries into the rural communities. In Haiti, extension activities are primarily conducted by graduates from agricultural TVETs. However, little is known about the current situation of Haitian TVET within the agricultural system. This study is a basic qualitative research which used constructivism, and backwards design as theoretical framework to explore the purpose of TVET within the Haitian agricultural system. Individual interviews to schools’ directors and teachers, and focus groups conducted with students revealed that respondents thought that TVET helped in students’ social mobility by (a) providing training to disadvantaged youth, (b) helping them get financial independence sooner, (c) provide a path towards higher education, or (d) entrepreneurship; it also allows them to build necessary (e) networking and (f) a reputation for their future. On the other hand, agricultural TVET in Haiti had an important role in improving local communities by (a) ensuring rural development and (b) reducing rural outmigration and poverty. Finally, TVET was also crucial within the agricultural extension system because graduates were responsible for (a) providing technical assistance to farmers, (b) improving production practices, (c) helping protect the environment, and (d) training farmers.

Keywords: Haiti; technical school; training

Funding: This study was made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) under the cooperative agreement # AID-OAA-A-15-00039. The contents are the responsibility of authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

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Introduction in addition to general education, the study of Agriculture is an important activity technologies and related sciences and the because it produces food for human acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, consumption and allows for rural understanding and knowledge relating to development (Moehler, 1997). However, in occupation in various sectors of economic Latin America there are still many life.” This organization also acknowledges malnourished people, particularly in the the role of TVET in employment, Caribbean islands (FAO, IFAD, & WFP, sustainable development, and social justice 2015). Haiti’s situation is one of the most (UNESCO, 2017a). Despite the importance critical in the region, based on its alarming of TVETs in developing countries’ hunger index severity (von Grebmer et al., economy, it has still been reported that they 2016). Therefore, it is crucial to work on are highly unpopular, because they are ways to improve food security status in viewed as pertaining to a specific class of Haiti. Fuglie and Wang (2012) have found people, whom are not expected to enter the that the obstacles which countries have to higher education system for various reasons face for increased agricultural production (King, 1993). In Ghana, enrollment in public are linked to the access and implementation and private TVET have decreased, because of technologies. Extension can play a large graduated lower salaries, and it is perceived role in the technology diffusion. In Haiti, to be reserved for people with poor according to GFRAS (2017), graduates from academic performance (Darvas & Palmer, Technical and Vocational Education and 2014). In Latin America however, TVET Training (TVET) institutions perform most provides much needed training to youth with of the extension work. As operationally disadvantages (King, 1993). Another defined in this study, agricultural TVET complicating factor is the diversity of schools were the tertiary institutions TVETs, which emerges from whether or not providing diploma-level credentialing it is controlled by the state, the private sector leading to employment as agricultural or both (Koudahl, 2010) and the various technicians. Given this important role within types of institutions and outcomes of TVET, the agriculture sector in Haiti, understanding as well as the fact that it can be school-based these TVET institutions as a piece of the or at the post-secondary level (King, 1993). larger capacity building system which Agricultural TVET needs to address human ultimately has implications for the food capacity development, government funding, security situation in Haiti. As previously institutional networking, curriculum noted in the literature (Pierre, Calixte, modifications, and physical infrastructure Moore, Bunch, Koenig, Delva, & Roberts, (Rivera, 2006). However, depending on the 2018), There is very little empirical cultural aspects of TVET in a specific understanding of the Haitian agricultural country, many approaches may be education system. This study adds to the appropriate to ensure quality of TVET literature by providing a baseline (King, 1993). If the focus is put on human examination of a selected group of development, inequality, poverty and other agricultural TVET institutions. environmental and social issues, TVET can lead to sustainable development (McGrath Literature Review & Powell, 2016). UNESCO (2015) also The definition of TVET, according recognizes that TVET is holistic, in that to UNESCO (2017b, p. 1), is all “those beyond job skills, it provides character aspects of the educational process involving,

122 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 education such as positive values, understanding of a given phenomenon motivation, and entrepreneurial skills. (Crotty, 1998). Then, an individual’s Previous literature about the personal experiences in that social system agricultural TVET system in Haiti could not inform his or her personal understanding of be found. Recent research has begun to the phenomenon through social examine the agricultural universities in constructivism, which focuses on the social Haiti. Pierre et al. (2018) found that interactions in the learning processes for university faculty generally felt prepared for individuals (Bozkurt, 2017; Doolittle & their teaching roles. Albert, Roberts, and Camp, 1999; Powell & Kalina, 2009). Harder (2017b) examined how university Operationally, the social system was defined faculty viewed the importance of developing as agricultural technical schools in Haiti and extension competencies in their students. the individuals in the system were the school Faculty had mixed views on their roles in directors, teachers, and students. It was developing the competencies noted by assumed that the interactions between these GFRAS (Sulaiman & Davis, 2012). In a people informed each person’s beliefs, similar study, Pierre, Calixte, Moore, Bunch, which in turn informed the broader system and Roberts (2018) found faculty believed and vice versa. university students generally had the The second piece of our theoretical necessary set of competencies at graduation framework was informed by the concept of for employment, but were not competent in backwards design (Wiggins & McTighe, all the GFRAS competency areas. This 2001). As an instructional design approach, potentially means students were ill-prepared backwards design begins the process with to be frontline extensionists. This situation the end goal in mind (i.e. what should could be underlying some of the challenges students be able to do by the end of the note by Zeleya, Harder, and Roberts (2016) program). Curricula decisions are made who found that small-scale farmers had based on trying to achieve this end goal. challenges accessing information and Understanding the end-goal will then allow infrequently relied on extension for their a better understanding of all other aspects of information needs. Although interesting, this a given educational program. Operationally, research does not shed light on the tertiary- understanding the purpose of agricultural level, diploma-granting institutions. In terms technical schools in Haiti will allow for a of workforce development, the agricultural more systematic review of the institutions universities appear to have strengths and and identification of opportunities for weaknesses in meeting the needs of the improvement to the system. agricultural sector. It is, however, unknown Conceptually, the school directors about the roles which agricultural TVET (often founders of the schools), teachers, and schools play in the agricultural sector. This students (adult learners) entered the social study will seek to begin filling this gap. system (the agricultural technical schools) with their own ideas about the purpose of Theoretical Framework the schools. Through their interactions, a This study was designed and socially constructed purpose emerges, which implemented under a lens of social in turn has the potential to inform constructionism (Crotty, 1998). Under this management decisions of the directors, lens, the researchers assumed that the curriculum decisions of teachers, and career interactions between people in a social choices of students. All of this begins with system contribute to a collective

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an understanding of the purpose of these by school and teacher number, for example schools. 02-T1 was teacher 1 from school 2. Additionally, a focus group was conducted Purpose with nine students at each school to provide The goal of this study was to explore input from typical students (Miles, the purpose of Haitian agricultural TVET Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014). Results from schools. This was achieved by synthesizing focus groups were coded as FG-01, FG-02, beliefs of: (a) school directors, (b) teachers, etc. and (c) students. This knowledge can then School 04 presented a deviant case be used as a lens in which to further because it was affiliated with a university. examine these schools. Circumstances at school 04 allowed for only one student to be interviewed. All the Methodology directors and teachers interviewed were This study utilized a basic qualitative male. Most of them were young and study design (Ary, Cheser Jacobs, Sorensen, agronomists. Only three of them had a & Walker, 2012). Sampling, data collection, master’s degree and worked fulltime. Most and data analysis were informed by our of these teachers worked part-time in their theoretical framework. these schools and also had other teaching positions, technician positions, or managed Sample their own businesses. Most of the students The study sampling method was to were male (19 out of 28). They all came select all agricultural technical schools in the from rural communities and reported Ouest department of Haiti (Harding, 2013). familial activities to be mostly agriculture This resulted in four TVET schools. Three and commerce. The age range seemed to schools were located in Petit-Goave (schools include a wide group. Many had worked or 01, 02, and 03). One school was located in studied in a different field before entering Montrouis and affiliated with a university agriculture. (school 04). The schools were technical Data Collection institutions with an agriculture option, As noted previously, school directors except for school 04, which was a university and teachers were interviewed using semi- also offering bachelor’s degrees. School 03 structured interviews. Focus groups were included additional technical options (other conducted with students (although school 04 than just agriculture). The program of study only had one student, so the focus group lasted between two and three years, with a became a defacto interview). Interviews and credit system for school 04. School 03 focus groups were conducted in Creole. required a minimum entry level of 2e, while Interview guides were first written in 01 and 02 only demanded 3e; institution 04 English, and then translated into French and on the other hand required students to have . Interviews and focus groups completed their philo (final year of were audio recorded (Yin, 2016) and secondary school). State recognition (INFP) occurred at participants’ home, office, or was awarded to only school 02. School 04 campus. The researcher also kept a journal was accredited as a university. to record observations, reactions, and The director and three teachers were methodological considerations. interviewed at each school. Directors were coded D01, D02, etc. Teachers were coded

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Data Analysis most teachers, and in the focus groups as Data were analyzed in Creole by the well, under various forms: (a) training and lead researcher directly from the audio education for the youth, (b) a step toward recordings (Green, Franquiz, & Dixon, higher education, (c) financial 1997). A constant comparative method with independence, (d) entrepreneurship, (e) open coding was used to identify initial networking, and (f) reputation. The director codes (Saldaña, 2016). Axial coding was D-02 explained the idea of social mobility then used to organize initial codes into clearly, when he said: “professional schools themes and sub themes (Saldaña, 2016). can start a future” or with teacher 01-T2 Results were translated to English after affirming that he is “preparing [his students] analysis was completed. Direct quotes were to replace him tomorrow and better face pulled from recordings and translated to life.” English to provide a voice to participants. Train the youth. Participants Rigor viewed these schools as improving the lives Multiple steps were undertaken to of youth. For nearly all the teachers, one ensure the rigor of this study. First, to ensure director, and in two of the focus groups, the trustworthiness in the data analysis, two role of technical schools was mentioned as a interviews were randomly selected and way to help the youth and provide them with reviewed by two peers not involved in this training that will allow them to get ahead in study who speak Haitian Creole to ensure life. It is also a way to help the country as a accuracy in the analysis (Creswell & Miller, whole through helping its youth’s future. 2000). Second, member checking was For teacher 01-T2, the objective of his accomplished by sending a summary of the teaching is to “prepare the students to help analysis to the school directors (Cho & themselves then to contribute to the Trent, 2006; Hoffart, 1991). Third, the development of the country” or as 01-T3 design of this study allowed for triangulation expressed “we want to train the youth for of data sources from (a) directors, (b) tomorrow, for the country.” Education is an students, and (c) teachers as well as data important gift to the youth because “in Haiti collection approaches of (a) interviews/focus the question of training in agriculture is groups, (b) field notes, and (c) observations problematic” (03-T1). During focus group (Carter, Bryant-Lukosius, DiCenso, Blythe, FG-03, a student felt that the head of the & Neville, 2014). Fourth, the researcher school was his model because “he is kept a journal to allow for confirmability responding to a need” through opening the through an audit trail (Lincoln & Guba, technical school, because he recognizes that 1985). Finally, the peer debriefing was to “have more people trained and giving accomplished through regular interactions good service is better,” particularly given during data collection and analysis between that “the educational system in our country the lead researcher and the co-authors of this is very difficult.” Teacher 04-T3 got study. involved in education because he “wants to help improve the level and type of education Findings being given in the country” reinforces this idea that the current situation is difficult. In Social Mobility of Students FG-01, a student felt the same way and This idea of social mobility appears “saluted the intellectual committee of the in the interviews with many directors, from school who are working for the community

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and practically in a voluntary basis.” because in all the focus groups the bachelor Director D-01 felt that “training the youth or was mentioned at some point. Many anybody interested” will give them “more students have an agronomist as a model not financial autonomy.” Researcher notes a technician; in the case of FG/E04 it is reveal that empowerment of the youth or someone with a master’s degree in people seemed to be at the core of this aquaculture. According to a student in FG- director’s speech for opening a technical 02 “I loved agronomy but I am taking the school. All of the teachers interviewed, technical before.” A bachelor is regarded in except one (02-T2), shared this sentiment. It both FG-01 and FG-03 as a possible was also noticed that even the teachers who outcome for students in the future. It helps are not teaching agriculture classes felt that them in choosing the school to attend, they are motivated to teaching in these because “if we wanted to pursue our schools because the “students have studies” (FG-03) the students would need to difficulties” in a set of skills that they can choose a school, which delivers a diploma help with such as “writing their recognized by the state. Most directors are methodology” (02-T3). Another teacher also aware of the intent to pursue higher commented that one of his “objectives for degrees and embrace this notion fully as D- teaching was to train people” and that “the 02 explained: “professional schools help more people are trained in a domain the people start a future and help for university more doors are open for positive things to as well.” D-04 understands this situation too, occur” for them (04-T2). This training is and the school has decided from the even more important for those students who beginning to present “same content, have not obtained their Baccalauréat (Bacc) evaluation and exams” to students on the II which is an exam some fail at the end of technical path “so students do not have their studies. D-04 said some students anything preventing them from continuing choose a technical diploma because they the program” towards a bachelor. Or as D- “may not have passed bacc II.” Bacc II is the 02 goes to the length of “affiliating” the government issued high-school diploma school with universities. However, at least needed to access higher education after the one teacher 03-T1 saw it as an alternative to last class called philosophie or philo “the the bachelor; he supported that “those who reason I did not go to agronomy is that I was do not want to go in the sciences go to the stuck in philo and if I waited until I passed I technical.” Additionally, if the reason for may never go” (FG-03). This statement also starting with a technical diploma may be a represents another role in social mobility for lack of Bacc II, it is often due to financial students, which is a step toward the license reasons. FG/E-04 exemplified this situation (bachelor’s degree). because “I aimed for a license [bachelor] at the beginning, I didn’t aim for a diploma,” Higher education/bachelor. which he was then forced to pursue due to Participants viewed these schools as being lack of funding; he wasted his money in a stepping stone to further education. One university that was not “recognized.” form of social mobility linked to lack of Bacc II, which appeared a lot in the Financial independence. interviews, is that the technical school is a Participants viewed these schools as a tool step toward the bachelor’s degree in to provide financial independence for agricultural sciences. It even seems to be an students. As perfectly stated by D-04, important aspect for the students themselves, “students choose agricultural technic 80% of

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the time for economic reasons” in his having personal activities to live leads to school. A student at his institution, FG/E-04 less poverty in the country,” (D-01). In this agreed that “reason is financial” for him to sense, agricultural TVET in Haiti is switch from a bachelor to a technical important to combat poverty for the diploma. This idea is supported indirectly by graduates, by enabling them to start a new all the other directors when they mentioned business. Entrepreneurship seems to be that “students do not really pay the school” viewed as an essential vocation of tuition (D-02) since “they do not have agricultural TVET to many respondents money, reality is very precarious” (D-01). (FG/E-04; FG-03; FG-01; D-01; 04-T2; 03- This situation is not easily solved because, T1; 03-T3;01-T1). Many students had an according to D-03, “you cannot ask them to entrepreneur as a model. For example, pay too much because if you do they leave.” during FG-03, an agronomist who “has fish” As a result, “some [of his] students to date ponds was described as a great role model have not paid anything to the school” and for students. In FG-01, entrepreneurship is are about to graduate after the two-year described as an inherent characteristic of program. This explains why, for so many of “the technician [whom] cannot wait for the them, the shorter program constitutes a state” to provide jobs, because “if you are a benefit. As a teacher 04-T1 explained, technician you must be able to produce technical diplomas “facilitate financial without the state.” Many teachers felt the independence.” Graduating early has same way as well. 04-T2 claimed for him advantages as “parents invest a lot of money “in the Haitian agricultural system the in their kids’ high school and expect technical training” “should be about creating something from them early” because “we jobs, every technician should be an must see Haiti as a poor country” (04-T1). entrepreneur.” 03-T3 said “I believe in that a The situation is such that 04-T3 claimed that lot” referring to the fact that “students can “in Haiti, due to economic situations, many create own activity,” because “students must students start but cannot finish” the program not wait” for jobs. This idea of but they are able to “work as technicians.” entrepreneurship was prevalent across all Therefore, technical diplomas are helping schools visited and for all levels of young people to be financially secure interviewees. sooner/faster “shorter training,” and “enter the job market faster” (04-T1). Some Networking. Participants believed students may even finance their bachelor these schools expanded the social networks studies as well with the technical diploma. of students. Networking is essential to FG/E-04 intended to finance his bachelor technical schools and technicians, both as a upon completion of technical studies. A way to get to the school, and for the teacher (01-T1) reported that his former connections the student is able to create student has told him that he is currently through the school. A few teachers and “paying for my own tuition, not my parents directors have mentioned bringing guest with [legumes] parcels.” teachers or taking the students to practices in the areas where they know they may be able Entrepreneurship. Participants to create bonds with important people and viewed these schools as a way to develop organizations working in the agricultural entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship was sector (D-04; D-02; 03-T2; 03-T3; 01T1; mentioned as another path to financial 01-T2). Moreover, some students are independence. After all, “the more people connected to TVET because of work

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relationships in the agricultural sector. Reputation. Participants believed According to D-04, “some students are these schools helped develop the promised a job by someone to study professional reputations of students. Being a agricultural technic.” This director even said technician is a tool towards success. D-02 that “some [students] are funded by their mentioned that agricultural TVET is “a big employer” or “family members may work in tool” in the Haitian agricultural system and a program that will need technicians and 01-T1 that “technicians are tools” in the train them for that.” Nonetheless, if this agricultural sector. Being a technician situation seemed to be particular to school legitimates decisions in the field as well. For 04 in which “most students we have example, this student who was encouraged studying technical are financed by to enter a technical program by his farming organizations,” there were students from father who “recognized my ideas but told other schools who were simply inspired to me he would prefer I do agriculture get a technical diploma because of technician.” Another student who claimed agriculture-related organizations and that when farmers argue with him, he “tell[s] programs working in their communities. A them I am a technician if you don’t do as I student in FG-01 said that he knew about the say you won’t get results.” It gives standing school because “FAO came with the in the rural communities like this student in [agricultural] field in the area with Mrs FG-03 who decided to study because he [name removed] who came with a “can be like the technicians” he sees during movement about farming in the region.” his work as agricultural agent. This standing Most students have been encouraged by and reputation can be essential in building a someone in the agricultural sector to pursue career. In FG-03 someone mentioned “in a diploma in that field, whether that is a agricultural technic you study animal health; family member, a teacher or director at the by studying animal health, you can become school like a teacher, or current/former a great veterinarian, not only for the students. In certain cases, the opportunities commune but for the whole country.” that exist in their communities have According to 03-T2, “some technicians in prompted a demand for technical studies. D- the city […] have a good reputation; 02 explained that “the weekend option has sometimes have received plaque of honor.” more students [attendance] than during the However, the search for standing and week” because “they find a job while reputation was deemed problematic by studying here especially the ones from Cote- teacher 04-T3 who wondered “what kind of de-Fer.” “The school has a lot of students relationship should exist between from Cote-de-Fer” because “many agronomists and agricultural technicians.” [agricultural] projects go to Cote-de-Fer, He raised this question because technicians which explains the high demand” of students may “present an inferiority complex.” His from this region. The situation is such that personal experience working “in our reality “we have demand in Cote-de-Fer for [the particularly the rural communities [where] school] to have an annex there.” It seems the technicians present themselves as that wherever people are actively working in agronomists” has prompted him to realize agriculture, is where the youth are most that “they may not know what their job is; in likely to know about and decide to attend an their training they receive no orientation in agricultural technical school. that regard.” D-02 explained “although they’re not agronomists, they get called agro

128 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 in the field; only they know that they don’t where the farmers are, which is in the have a 5-year bachelor.” mountains because Haiti is a “mountainous land” (D-01). Therefore, as mentioned Improving Local Communities during FG-02, “we will see if the technicians The sentence “an agricultural want to go up the mountains or stay in the technician is someone who has an extremely cities, they will see they pay the important role not just for the farmers we consequences for that.” Not going in the can say even in the cities” (FG-03) depicts mountains means not working closely with some of the various ways in which a the farmers and not contributing to rural technician is expected to contribute to development in that sense. D-01 says is best society’s welfare. The technician (a) “extension activities on agriculture-related supports rural development and (b) helps knowledge will allow for rural development reduce poverty and migration. in the mountains.” The technicians must go in the mountains, as mentioned many times Rural development. Participants because their “final objective is to increase expressed how these schools helped develop farmers’ income/revenue” (01-T1); and the rural communities. Helping farmers and mountains is where the peasants do agronomists working in the field is agriculture in Haiti. Their work is necessary contributing to rural development. Teacher because it provides services that are needed. 01-T1 thought, “It is the most important for According to 01-T3, agricultural sciences the development of the country” while “first aims at protecting the environment and speaking of agricultural TVET’s role within secondly its objective or goal is to change the Haitian agricultural system. 01-T2 stated the lives of all the people living in the that “agricultural technic is extremely communities.” important in the development of the country, may it be on the environmental level, Migration/poverty. Participants saw vegetal, and why not animal breeding.” 01- a connection between the schools and a T1 also cared to explore “how to increase reduction on poverty and related rural revenue for farmers” in his courses because outmigration. Helping rural development he believes that is what a technician is called means helping farmers stay in the rural to do. Students also know that this is a future communities, therefore, it means combating endeavor for them as agricultural rural migration and poverty, “because technicians. During FG-02 a student someone who does agriculture can’t be poor recognized that “our role […] is to give tomorrow” (FG-02). The reality though, is them [the farmers] the technique that we that “the population leaves the mountains have to help them get ahead” economically. and comes to the city” (FG-01) because they A student in FG-01 explained it best by are poor and that “farming is not stating that “a technician has a lot of productive” for them (FG-01). Low importance because a technician is first an productivity in agriculture is the reason agent of development.” The importance of farmers “come to the cities, form the slums TVET in the agricultural sector in Haiti is but there are no means, so they have to beg” linked to the essential role that technicians (FG-01). FG-01 “Sometimes some of them play within it because, like a few do not even have a job; they’re forced to respondents pointed out, “this country is walk in the streets rather than work in the primarily/essentially agricultural” (D-03; mountains.” Somehow the students mostly, FG-01; 03-T3). The technician belongs and a few teachers as well (04-T1; 01-T1;

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01-T3), felt that these conditions can be fieldwork. “As an agricultural technician our improved with more technicians properly role is to accompany the agronomists in the imparting knowledge to the population. field” recognizes a student in FG-02, However, the migration occurs also from the because “agronomists may conduct a study cities to the rest of the world. 01-T2 attested but when implementing in the field they “I have some [students] currently in require technicians” (01-T1). Their role doing graft.” while accompanying the agronomist is Therefore, in that regard, agricultural TVET crucial “when he [an agronomist] has has not been able to stop the migration. This technicians [with him in the field] he migration problem is noticed by 03-T2 who realizes what he wants to” according to 01- saw that “in [the city] some youth have T3. “A technician is [also] there to fill in for contempt and are not interested to go to an agronomist” (03-T3) because “in the technical schools because they do not see absence of the agronomist the technicians themselves in Haiti; they are turning to other are here, and the work continues well” (01- places.” T3). They are also there to help/accompany farmers “the role of an agricultural Agricultural Extension technician is to accompany the farmers” (03- Many respondents emphasized that T3). According to 04-T3 “it is more than “a technician is an extensionist for the necessary to have more trained agricultural peasants, growers mostly” (FG-03). The technicians, so the farmers may get the extension work agricultural technicians support they need.” This notion of ought to perform are multiple but can be helping/accompanying the farmers is so summed by (a) providing technical entrenched in the subculture that many assistance, (b) improving production students use the same wording when practices, (c) protecting the environment, (d) reflecting upon the work they project to do increasing food security, and (d) training. after graduation, like this one during FG-01 who wants “to go to [his] rural section to Provide technical assistance. accompany the farmers.” Teachers like 01- Participants thought these schools gave T3 also viewed the students’ future work as students the ability to provide technical “to help the peasants.” assistance that complemented the agronomists. The role of a technician is to Improving production practices. provide technical assistance was shared by Participants believed the schools could nearly all respondents. However, whom they ultimately help improved agricultural assisted may vary. For some, “we may production in Haiti. Students viewed the consider an agricultural technician as an purpose of their future work as “help[ing] auxiliary to an agronomist” (FG-04), them [the farmers] farm better” (FG-01). because the “agronomist may need support There seemed to be a consensus amongst the and this support is no other than a students on the fact that Haitian farmers technician” (01-T3). As 01-T2 puts it engage in activities that are detrimental to bluntly “technicians are auxiliary to agricultural productivity. In FG-03 a student agronomists,” idea that is supported by D-04 described the fact that “they [the farmers] do “agricultural technicians are here to apply not realize that they don’t properly maintain what agronomists tell them.” However, the the space they are cultivating” because the importance of the technicians seemed to farmers cultivate the land but yields keep ascribe primarily to their mastering of going down, which is explained not by the

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low quality of the , like they claim, but an ecological farm” or another one who was by the bad practices they are attached to inspired to become a technician by watching generationally. It is the job of a technician to other technicians at work “talking about show them a better way in order for the reforestation” to the farmers. He was deeply production to yield more. According to impacted by this training he had participated students in FG-02, there needs to be in and decided to pursue studies in the field “someone in the zone who’s an agricultural as a result. Therefore, ecology is an technician, who can enable the peasants to attractive component of the job to these plant better.” This person is necessary as students and they feel that they are the most mentioned earlier “because their farming is prepared to face these issues. For example, not efficacious” (FG-02). In FG-01, “as an agricultural technician, I can say that someone took an example on their own the reforestation campaigns are not done” families: “our parents used to work very criticized someone from FG-03. According badly, now with the training I have, I make to students from the same focus group, “the them […] progress in the sector.” The bad erosion that degrades the mountains create practices Haitian farmers currently use make problems in the city” as well. So, their their yield lower but seems to affect the contribution to the environmental issues is environment, which subsequently lowers the not limited to the rural areas, as ecology is productivity more, in a vicious cycle. FG-02 holistic in nature. Reforestation is “reforestation matters and make them work particularly a focal point as attested by this the land [farm] in a different manner” student during FG-02 “our dream is to go because the way they farm is not being help the farmers in terms of how they productive nor does it respect the deforest.” environment. Increase food security. Participants Protecting the environment. thought these schools could have an impact Participants believed what was learned at the on food insecurity in Haiti. A student in FG- schools could help better protect the 01said “after graduating, it is about helping environment in Haiti through better the farmers know about how to plant and production practices. Environmental issues have higher yields,” which, according to are therefore a huge component of a FG/E-04 “can help the country develop in technician’s role or even of the science at terms of food security” referring to large, as proposed by 01-T3 “agronomic technicians’ starting own activity. In FG-02, sciences are beautiful and first aim at the “vision for the future is to accompany protecting the environment,” that is the peasants so they can make the soil have imperative in Haiti because “we have a more yield.” If deforestation and other cheap vegetal cover.” Many students want to destructive practices give lower yields, it is get involved, upon graduation, in the technician’s primary goal to, “as a environmental issues, particularly in trained agricultural technician show the reforestation campaigns. Like this student peasants how to work to see improvements from FG-01 whose “dream is to work in in soil” productivity (FG-02). So, “if I help environmental issues and reforestation.” them with my knowledge, what I have, I Other students were inspired by people think their farms will have more yields” working for the improvement of the (FG-01). By improving agricultural yields environment. In FG-03, a student mentioned and productivity, agricultural technicians a role model who is an “agronomist who has also tackle the topic of food insecurity in the

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country. As teacher 01-T3 evoked “it will peasants” (D-02), that the technician is “the also allow them to help the whole person who’s going to live with the population with a series of food they need peasants, so the technician has a very tight for their bodies,” speaking about agricultural link with this” idea of being in the field technicians who choose entrepreneurship. engaging the people (03-T2). In conclusion, The reason is after all, “I can’t be eating as stated by 03-T3, “the role of the things I don’t know; what I eat I must seek agricultural technician is to accompany the to produce it” says teacher 01-T1. But farmers and to train them as well.” Students according to 01-T1 it is not an obvious goal, also understood their role as such. They “because there are no institutions that do identified with role models who are agriculture in Haiti; it is a country that “agricultural technicians [who] used to come mostly imports things from abroad.” to the zone and [give] some training” which However, the students felt it was their the peasants benefitted from. “I remember responsibility to tackle the food security that I participated in a training” of theirs issue in Haiti, despite the state’s failure in shared someone from FG-03. In FG-01 that regard. After all, “there is no another student revealed that he “want[s] to agricultural policy, no infrastructure and no train other people who may lack knowledge environmental protection policy” (FG-01). in this sector because cultivating requires a The way in which these agricultural minimum of training.” FG/E-04 wanted to technicians will attain the objectives is gain all the skills necessary for him to be through proper training of the farmers and able to “push through with my lessons and other agricultural producers. Examples of allow people to learn from me.” FG-03 was technicians doing this type of work existed inspired from “when I used to go to the for some of these students, for instance in activities with the peasants [as an FG-03, who recalled “the way they train the agricultural agent] I used to see how the peasants who used to farm badly so these technicians do the conventions” and he was farmers may have more yields and more working towards his diploma to do just that food.” This is what they want to do in the as well. All of these dreams and aspirations agricultural sector in Haiti. point in the same direction, that “the agricultural technician’s role is extremely Training. Participants expressed high; he is a teacher for the peasants” (FG- how these schools created trainers to work 03). with farmers. Improvement in food security status in the country means that the “role of Conclusions, Recommendations & technician is to accompany and guide the Implications farmers for intensification of agriculture” Results from this study revealed that according to teacher 02-T1. This idea was agricultural technical schools in Haiti supported by 04-T2, “the agricultural increase social mobility of students, improve technician’s job is to work with people local communities, and enhance the building models” which will increase yield extension capacity in the country. Meaning- and he must show people “better ways to do making is socially constructed, context- it [agriculture].” Many teachers and bound and is sensitive to cultural context directors (D-02; D-01; 04-T1; 04-T2; 04-T3; (Doolittle & Camp, 1999; Powell & Kalina, 02-T1; 02-T2; 03-T1; 03-T2; 03-T3; 01-T3) 2009). In Haitian context, TVET’s purpose agreed that “when you say agricultural has meanings that are inherent to the cultural technician that means working with

132 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 context in which it was constructed by the terminal and non-terminal TVETs (King, different stakeholders within it. 1993).

Social Mobility Improve Communities Agricultural TVET increases social Agricultural TVET schools also mobility of students through (a) additional improve local communities through training and education, (b) providing a step supporting rural development, reducing toward higher education, (c) helping poverty, and rural outmigration. In establish financial independence, (d) Honduras, it has been found that there is a developing entrepreneurship skills, (e) direct correlation between TVET and higher building networks, and (f) establishing a rural productivity and incomes (Atchoarena, solid professional reputation. The various Wallace, Green, & Gomes, 2003). TVET in experiential learning activities provided to Haiti also helped the youth to get out of students during their training have allowed poverty as it did in India (Bisariya & them to enhance the utility, purposefulness Mishra, 2015), notably by allowing young and practicality of the skills they have people to find employment faster. Beyond acquired for better competitiveness after students being direct beneficiaries of TVET, their graduation, as TVET creates a the findings also suggest that, according to connection between education and real life the participants interviewed, it also had the (Buchmann & Schwille, 1983; Cantor, potential to help the country’s economy in a 1997). sustainable way. According to Edokpolor The findings from the interviews and and Owenvbiugie (2017), Nigerian TVET focus groups with various stakeholders had the potential to help youth develop this within the Haitian agricultural TVET, have developing country’s economy sustainably. revealed that TVET had potential to help As this position was prevalent in teachers vulnerable young people receiving training and certain directors, it can be inferred that when they may not have had the formal it is an inherent part of their responsibilities possibility to gain any skills otherwise. as TVET educators. Finnish TVET teachers Developing countries, in Latin America “took responsibility for enlightenment and particularly, used this level of training to for promoting economic and social progress; meet the needs of disadvantaged youth this is clearly present in agriculture and (King, 1993). The youth enrolled in these forestry, but also in commerce” (Heikkinen, schools, was found to have less schooling 1997, p. 420). and therefore would face issues being admitted into the universities. Most of the Enhance Extension schools selected for the study required lower Agricultural TVET schools also play educational levels for admission than a crucial role in developing the capacity for universities, which was also reported by extension-type activities in the country like: King (1993). Those graduates often were (a) providing technical assistance, (b) able to finance their higher education improving production practices, (c) themselves, although the majority of the protecting the environment, (d) increasing schools, except the university, have a food security; and (d) training. The tradition of non-terminal TVET (King, agricultural technicians are to help the rural 1993; Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010). In Latin world, through the training they ought to America, as it was found that there are both provide to the farmers about food production and environmental issues. These roles are

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crucial for Haiti’s farmers, as Albert, programs should be in place. Third, these Roberts, and Harder (2017a) found that schools lack infrastructure and resources. environmental issues and resource The may be able to limitations are significant barriers for intervene in that regard, since many of them farmers. Many countries employ graduates could conglomerate into learning centers from agricultural schools, rather than with other technical and vocational options university graduates, to do the field-level offered. Finally, given that the training extension activities (Swanson & Rajalahti, provided in these schools could be non- 2010). In developing countries, the terminal, articulation agreements with government agencies train these workers for universities should be explored to allow their own agricultural field level extension students to naturally progress towards a services in many areas like forestry, bachelor’s degree if they have obtained their fisheries, etc. (Atchoarena et al., 2003). Bacc II. Internally at the schools, other Recommendations for Research recommendations should target the various Recommendations for research trainings for teachers and curriculum would be to further investigate private adjustments needed in the TVET schools. TVETs in other geographic departments of The curriculum should better address the the country. It would also be interesting to roles of technicians in the agricultural understand Haitian TVET from the teachers’ system, particularly their relationship with standpoint, the different types of teachers, agronomists. The curriculum should also the characteristics of their educational address organic and other sustainable institutions and their professional practices so as to better inform the farmers development as it relates to INFP. It would they train. Their work with farmers also also be important to investigate EMAs, creates needs for them to know about adult which are the public agricultural TVET education principles and diverse schools under the ministry of Agriculture, communication skills. rather than the ministry of Education that supervises the private TVET schools References examined in the current study. This study Albert, B., Roberts, T. G., & Harder, A. did not include the view of farmers and rural (2017a). Barriers faced by small communities on the work of technicians, so scale farmers in the North it would also be interesting to explore the Department of Haiti. Journal of beliefs of these stakeholders. International Agricultural and Extension Education, 24(3), 8-19. Recommendations for Practice doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24302 Recommendations for practice stem Albert, B., Roberts, T. G., & Harder, A. from the participants themselves, who have (2017b). Faculty perceptions of expressed the need for the state to provide students’ extension competency more support to the sector through the needs within Haiti’s agricultural ministry of Agriculture. Externally, it would universities. Journal of International make sense, first to clearly define the Agricultural and Extension relationship between these schools and the Education, 24(3), 67-79. doi: ministry of Agriculture. Second, given the 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24206 emergence of a focus on entrepreneurship, Ary, D., Cheser Jacobs, L., Sorensen, L. K., sufficient agricultural microfinance & Walker, D. A. (2012).

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