Metaphor-Based Advertising Research

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Seeing the Voice of the Customer: Metaphor-Based Advertising Research

Article in Journal of Advertising Research · January 1995

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Seeing the Voice of the Customer: Metaphor-Based Advertising Research

Gerald Zaltman Robin Higie Coulter

Reprinted from the JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH, Vol. 35, No. 4, July/August 1995

Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 33 METAPHOR-BASED ADVERTISING RESEARCH

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34 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 METAPHOR-BASED ADVERTISING RESEARCH Seeing the voice

GERALD ZALTMAN of the customer: met- AND aphor-based ROBIN HIGIE COULTER advertising research

Although improvements in traditional quantitative and qualitative research techniques have enhanced our ability to collect timely, valid, and reliable data, and to analyze these data with greater insights, advertising practitioners continue to search for and experiment with alternative methodologies. We offer seven basic premises for improving advertising research and copy development and then introduce the Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique, ZMET. ZMET is designed to surface the mental models that drive consumer thinking and behavior and characterize these models in actionable ways using consumers, metaphors. We suggest that GERALD ZALTMAN Joseph C. Wilson ZMET is a promising means for improving advertising research. Professor of Business Administration Harvard University

mprovements in traditional tion and further engaging their quantitative and qualitative thought processes. techniques have enhanced our 4. Help codify and organize non- Iability to collect timely, valid, verbal data better. and reliable consumer data and 5. Facilitate the presentation of to analyze these data with greater findings by researchers in ways insight. Many of these improve- that more closely resemble the ments are rooted in advances in end products their clients must the electronic capture of informa- develop, e.g., visual advertis- tion, in new statistical procedures, ing. and in greater computational capacity. However, despite these These needed improvements advances, significant challenges are nowhere more evident than persist in understanding consum- with the development of effective ers, thoughts, feelings, and behav- advertising copy. This important iors. In particular, market research task requires copy developers and methods need to improve in ways the intended audience for advertis- ROBIN HIGIE COULTER that: ing copy to share the same under- Associate Professor of Marketing standing about the ad message. University of Connecticut 1. Provide deeper understanding For an audience to process and about consumers as a basis for understand a message and then advertising and other market- contemplate purchase, the message ing-mix decisions. must capture rational and emo- 2. Do a better job of eliciting tional meanings which comingle at latent and emerging needs. multiple levels of thought (Dama- 3. Provide better guidance for sio, 1994). The message must also capturing consumers, atten- resonate not only with surface knowledge but also with deeper The authors wish to acknowledge the meanings associated with the topic significant support provided by the of interest. Thus, developing effec- Division of Research of the Harvard tive copy requires research meth- Business School. ods that open windows into the

Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 35 METAPHOR-BASED ADVERTISING RESEARCH consumer’s mind and that access difficult for advertisers to capture the cognitive peripheral vision of relevant rational and emotional is- consumers, attention and infor- both researchers and their clients. sues and their interplay. Although mation-processing time. Getting Traditional qualitative tech- many quantitative and qualitative consumers, attention increasingly niques still pose problems when methods are useful in understand- requires managers and advertis- codifying and quantifying how ing how to communicate with ers to have deeper understanding consumers think about a firm’s existing and potential customers, about consumers so that they have offerings and how marketing advertising practitioners continue a richer foundation for building communications affect consumer to search for and experiment with creative communication strate- responses. A manifestation of this alternative methodologies. gies and executions. Deep insights problem occurs in communica- Our purpose is to introduce the are also a source of competitive tions between researchers and their Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation advantage (beyond their value in clients such as advertising creative Technique, ZMET, a patented stimulating creativity) because staffs and product designers. The research tool designed to (1) sur- they are usually less commonly language of traditional research is face the mental models that drive available to one’s competitors. almost exclusively verbal (in- consumer thinking and behavior, cluding quantitative symbols). and (2) characterize these models Creative staffs, on the other hand, in actionable ways using consum- must generally communicate with ers, metaphors. ZMET uses con- . . . important opportunities consumers using nonverbal and sumers, visual and other sensory to learn from consumers are especially visual cues. Thus there images and employs qualitative is often a mismatch between the methods to elicit the metaphors, missed by ignoring verbocentric data collection and constructs, and mental models that nonverbal channels of reporting language researchers drive consumers, thinking and communication as part of commonly use and the nonverbal, behavior. Quantitative analyses of multisensory languages advertisers the data provide information for the research process. and others must use to communi- advertising, promotions, and other cate effectively with consumers. marketing-mix decisions. Before Hence, there is a need for a we proceed with a fuller descrip- method that elicits consumer in- While technological advances tion of ZMET, we briefly discuss formation via multisensory chan- have made traditional research several challenges facing advertis- nels. This method would have the techniques more useful, consum- ing researchers and then provide advantage of increasing researchers, voices are still constrained, for seven basic premises for improv- ers, understanding of consumers, example, by the issues and ques- ing advertising research. thoughts, feelings, and behaviors tions framed by survey designers as related to their products and and focus-group moderators and Challenges Facing services. Additionally, researchers by the manner in which consum- Advertising Researchers would be able to better commu- ers are allowed to respond. Addi- nicate with their clients who, in tionally, the framework in survey Consumers, lives are becoming turn, could produce more creative research and in most qualitative more complex. Their needs and advertising and promotional ma- techniques is verbo-centric, i.e., it states of mind are changing more terials to tap consumers, mental is primarily, if not exclusively, ori- frequently, they are faced with models. ented around words, particularly more and more options concerning in their narrow, literal sense. This products and services and delivery Seven Basic Premises imposes another important con- systems, and nonpurchase-related for Improving straint--incomplete communication demands are vying for their atten- Advertising Research from consumers--since most hu- tion. Thus, many consumers are and Copy Development man communication is nonverbal. experiencing a time famine as they Thus, important opportunities to attempt to deal with their needs, Before presenting ZMET as a learn from consumers are missed sort out their purchase options, and response to these challenges it is by ignoring nonverbal channels of attend to multiple responsibilities. useful to review several premises communication as part of the re- One consequence of this time with strong support in the social search process. Heavy reliance on famine is that it is increasingly and biological sciences and in the verbo-centric techniques narrows

36 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 METAPHOR-BASED ADVERTISING RESEARCH humanities. These interrelated in the context of human evolution sound images, olfactory images, premises are underutilized bases and written language developed and so on. for improving our capacity to even more recently. Thus, the hu- understand the voice of the con- man brain did not evolve to favor The second insight comes from sumer. Research methods rooted verbal functions, especially not Steven Pinker (1994), director of in these premises are more likely written communication functions. the Center for Cognitive Neurosci- to elicit valid and usable market Rather, emphasis was placed on ence at MIT. He notes that con- information, especially for com- the elaborate production of non- trary to popular wisdom, thoughts munication purposes. verbal channels of communication. are merely couched in words when Most Communication Is (For an interesting perspective on it becomes necessary to convey Nonverbal. The first premise is this see Fincher, 1976; Glucks- them to others: that most human communication berg, 1988; and Synnott, 1991.) is nonverbal (Burgoon et al., 1989; This is not surprising since most Is thought dependent on words? Knapp, 1980; Seiter, 1988; Weiser, stimuli reaching the brain are . . . The idea that thought is the 1988; Mehrabian, 1971; Bird- nonverbal and most mental images same thing as language is an whistell, 1970). One of the classic people use in daily life are visual example of what can be called a works on nonverbal communica- (Kosslyn et al., 1990). conventional absurdity . . . there tion is Edward T. Hall’s The Silent It is important to add that non- is no scientific evidence that lan- Language which identifies 10 verbal communication includes guages dramatically shape their primary message systems involved paralanguage, or the tone, pitch, speakers, way of thinking. in human communication. Only and other speech qualities that de- one system--interaction--and then termine whether we literally mean Thus a second premise is that only part of that system involves what we say (generally not) or just thoughts are images, and only verbal language. All other systems the opposite or even something infrequently verbal images. Con- involve nonlinguistic forms of else (Gibbs, 1994). Paralanguage sequently, it is important to en- communication (Hall, 1959). can in fact be very subtle with ma- able consumers to represent their Although no formal research jor differences in meaning being images in nonverbal terms, thus provides direct documentation, the conveyed quite effectively by dif- bringing researchers “closer” to rule of thumb among communica- ferent subtleties (Poyatos, 1993). the state in which thoughts occur tions specialists is that about 80 Literal verbal language is certainly and thus able to learn more about percent of all human communica- important and the task facing them. Although verbal language tion is nonverbal. Much of the market researchers is how to deal is an indispensable part of this meaning of verbal language also with both verbal and nonverbal process, it is linked directly with is determined by nonverbal cues language more effectively. specific nonverbal images. The (Poyatos, 1993). Moreover, when Thoughts Occur as Images. combination of verbal language there is an apparent contradiction, Thoughts typically occur as non- and nonverbal images (in contrast nonverbal cues tend to be believed verbal images even though they to verbal language only or even over verbal ones (Knapp, 1980). are often expressed verbally. Thus primarily) helps consumers convey The growing understanding the way in which thoughts occur to researchers deeper and more of the role of all basic senses in may be very different from the varied internal representations or learning and communication pro- way in which they are communi- meanings. cesses reinforces the assumption cated. Consider the following two Metaphors as Essential that nonverbal communication is insights. The first is provided by Units of Thought. The third dominant (Montagu, 1986; Stoller, neurobiologist Antonio R. Dama- premise is that metaphors are the 1989; Howes, 1991). An important sio (1994): key windows/mechanisms for part of this understanding is the viewing consumer thought and growing knowledge of the role [Brains] still have no mind, if feelings and for understanding of interactions (called synesthe- they do not meet an essential behavior. “The essence of a meta- sia) among sensory modalities in condition: the ability to dis- phor,” according to Lakoff and our “making sense” of our world play images internally and to Johnson, “is understanding and (Marks, 1978; Classen, 1993). It order those images in a process experiencing one kind of thing in is also of significance that verbal called thought. The images are terms of another” (1980). For the language developed only recently not solely visual; there are also most part, it is only through their

Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 37 METAPHOR-BASED ADVERTISING RESEARCH metaphors that we can understand mental models which are the inter- consumer thinking and behavior related ideas (concepts or con- and thus learn how to develop Often, important stories structs) held by an individual or and market goods and services are latent or hidden and group about a market experience. successfully. Even behavior and surfacing them is a special Often, important stories are latent thoughts are themselves metaphors or hidden and surfacing them is a for one another. In fact, there is challenge for researchers. special challenge for researchers. an emerging consensus that meta- A mental model of consumer phors are the essential units of thinking contains the dominant thought and of communication constructs (factors, variables) (Ortony, 1993). that drive consumer thought and Metaphors are not only ways of viduals can communicate their vi- action. However, knowing only hiding and expressing thoughts, sual metaphors is via pictures, for the constructs is like knowing they actively create and shape example, photographs, pictures in what cities one would like to visit thought. We cannot know anything magazines, drawings, or artwork. without having an itinerary and unless it is perceived as an in- Pictures typically represent basic road map for going from one to stance of one thing and not another concepts and therefore are useful the other. The connections among (Lakoff, 1987). Thought is more tools for understanding consumers, constructs represent the reasoning inherently figurative than it is liter- thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. processes whereby one construct al (Gibbs, 1994). Consequently, by Pictures, then, can serve as entry affects another. These reasoning paying more attention to the visual points for exploring other consum- processes are the most funda- and other sensory metaphors cus- er concepts and represent a natural mental and important units we tomers use to express their images, and efficient way for consumers can have for segmenting markets. researchers can learn more about to convey higher order constructs Moreover, knowing how con- their thoughts and feelings. (Weiser, 1988; Ball and Smith, structs interact via various reason- Sensory Images as Meta- 1992). Some clinical psycholo- ing mechanisms allows us to know phors. A fourth premise is that gists use a client’s photographs as which constructs might be the best our senses provide important a central part of the therapeutic vehicles for influencing others and metaphors. The senses are “. . . the counseling process (Entin, 1981; which constructs might be affected gates and windows to the mind, Krauss and Fryrear, 1983; Weiser, unintentionally by efforts to influ- through which all new informa- 1988), and art therapy has a long ence other constructs. tion passes; so that there can be no tradition as a clinical tool. Thus, as A challenge for managers is to thoughts, ideas, conceptions in our researchers, it appears that access- animate to bring to life appropriate head that do not derive originally ing visual as well as other sensory stories or mental models among from our experience of surface (e.g., tactile, auditory) images consumers. Since stories are meta- stimuli impinging on our bodies” would provide useful insights into phors for knowledge and often (Humphrey, 1992). Accordingly, consumers, thoughts, feelings, and describe one’s reasoning process, sensory-based metaphors are po- behaviors. specific metaphors are important tentially important devices for un- Mental Models as Repre- sources of insight about consum- derstanding consumers, thoughts sentations of Stories. A fifth ers. Specific metaphors are also and behavior. Current thinking premise is that consumers have laden with symbols and imagery in several fields that cognition is mental models which represent that might be used creatively grounded in embodied experience their knowledge and behavior. An in implementing decisions that supports the salience of sensory integral part of this premise is that will animate or bring appropriate images as metaphors (Johnson, “. . . the major processes of memo- reasoning processes and mental 1987; Gibbs, 1994; Damasio, ry are the creation, storage, and re- models to life. It is important, 1994; McAdams and Bigand, trieval of stories” (Schank, 1990). therefore, to have a research tool 1993; Varela et al., 1991). Stories, of course, are metaphors that identifies or elicits the im- Many metaphors are mental for knowledge. They provide the agery consumers use to tell their images and, as discussed, the relationships between constructs stories. majority of these images are visual and as such can be captured by Deep Structures of Thought (Arnheim, 1969; Kosslyn et al., researchers and displayed as dia- Can Be Accessed. All con- 1990). One means by which indi- grams. These diagrams represent sumers have relevant conscious

38 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 METAPHOR-BASED ADVERTISING RESEARCH thoughts that they need special of sensation: “. . . thinking takes in thinking. There is also a top- help in articulating. Addition- place in the realm of the senses” down processing of information. ally, all consumers have relevant (Arnheim, 1969). An uncon- In this case, existing concepts hidden thoughts: ideas they are scious cognitive process maps the and abstract thought stored in not aware of possessing but are physiology of sensory perception memory influence our images and willing to share once discovered. onto abstract thinking. Abstract metaphors (image schema) which, A sixth premise is that these thought, then, is necessarily an in turn, influence what sensory hidden or deep structures can be extension of sensory experience. stimuli we perceive and how we accessed. A variety of techniques Figure 1 presents, in a neces- do so. Thus higher level percep- such as those used in art therapy, sarily approximate “as if” way, tions influence the interpretation and especially phototherapy, can the connection between sensory of lower level, sensory perceptions be very effective in surfacing such perception and concepts. Sensory (Goldman, 1986). thoughts (Weiser, 1993; Ziller, perceptions are transformed into Because metaphors reveal our 1990). images which, in turn, are translat- thoughts, and shape them as well ed into metaphors which describe (Black, 1993), metaphorizing may What a person notices [in a these images. The metaphors are even be the central or most ele- picture! will always mirror then mapped onto abstract thought mental creative force of the imagi- the inner map that she or he is and/or specific concepts. This is nation and hence can be a source unconsciously using to organize a process known as bottom-up of ideas. Since human thought and understand what the senses processing in which information appears to be metaphorbased are perceiving (Weiser, 1993). flows from small perceptual pieces (Danesi, 1990; Ortony, 1993), it is to larger ones (Goldman, 1986). not surprising that mental models The Comingling of Reason Abstract thoughts are stored in are best elicited and understood and Emotion. A seventh prem- memory and are connected to through metaphors, especially ise is that it is both more accurate specific concepts as we engage visual metaphors. Importantly, (from a neurological standpoint) and more productive (from a copy development standpoint) to consider emotion and reason as forces Figure 1 which comingle. Hence as deep Mapping of Sensory Perceptions onto Abstract Thought thought structures are surfaced, we must consider reason and emotion together rather than stressing one over the other. Consequently we need techniques that elicit both, particularly when they are linked to one another (de Sousa, 1987; Varela et al., 1991). Framework for Understanding Sensory Perception and Thinking

These premises and still other research suggest that abstract thought is grounded in the senses (Arnheim, 1969; Danesi, 1990; Classen, 1993; Humphrey, 1992). In fact, the world of thought is modeled in terms of the world

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products, and companies, brand The personal interview involves equity, product concepts and de- a guided conversation which we . . . metaphors are especially signs, product usage and purchase believe can yield more valid, more important for eliciting a experiences, life experiences, reliable, and, importantly, more consumption context, and attitudes relevant insights than traditional mental model shared by a toward business. Clearly, these is- structured interview approaches market segment or group. sues are important for the develop- (Holstein and Gubrium, 1995; ment of strategic communications McCracken, 1988; Mishler, 1986). agendas and for the development Because ZMET has consumers and implementation of advertising collect their own pictures, the con- metaphors are acquired through copy and executional elements. sumers (not the researchers) are in a socialization process so that, In the following sections we control of the stimuli used in the at some level, their meaning is describe ZMET, use an interview guided conversation. shared within a culture or commu- from a study on intimate apparel The guided conversation is a nity. Thus, metaphors are especial- to illustrate various ZMET steps, personal, one-on-one interview ly important for eliciting a mental and then use data generated in that takes approximately two model shared by a market segment the study to demonstrate how the hours, and it is audiotaped. The or group. findings might be used to develop two-hour time frame and the Based upon these premises and ad copy and executional elements. interview format afford an op- framework, we suggest that there Further, we provide a discussion portunity for a properly trained is need for a research tool that: of reliability and validity issues as interviewer to learn not only about they relate to ZMET. people’s initial thoughts (much as Taps nonverbal channels of Implementing the Tech- might be obtained by a structured communication in a manner that nique. Typically 20 individu- questionnaire or focus group) but produces rich, deep, and repre- als are recruited to participate also about the deeper meaning sentative insights about consum- in a project. After qualifying for of a topic. The guided conversa- ers. participation (based on screeners), tion includes a variety of steps, Makes use of metaphors which participants are given a set of in- only a subset of which are used are fundamental to learning and structions and guidelines about the in any particular project. Inclu- communication. research topic, e.g., a brand name, sion of steps in any particular Generates core constructs and a corporate identity, a service project and the manner in which the reasonings that connect concept, product use, or product they are implemented are based on them to form the mental models design. They are instructed to the nature of the problem and the driving consumer thought and take photographs and/or collect intended use of the data. We use an action. pictures (from magazines, books, interview with Elizabeth, a par- Provides information in a way newspapers, or other sources) that ticipant in a study about intimate which is highly useful to copy indicate what the topic means apparel, to illustrate 10 ZMET developers, creative staffs, prod- to them. A personal interview is steps. A variety of probes based uct-design teams, strategic plan- scheduled approximately seven to on art therapy theory and practice, ning groups, and other ultimate ten days hence. Participants typi- although not used in this example, users of market research. cally engage in five to six hours of also have proven to be extremely preparation for the interview. Our useful in many projects. All of this, of course, has to be experiences indicate that study Step 1, Storytelling, provides done while meeting appropriate participants, regardless of such participants with an opportunity standards of validity, reliability, demographic characteristics as to tell their stories. Because hu- timeliness, and cost effectiveness. formal education, age, or occu- man memory and communication pational experience, successfully is story-based (Schank, 1990) The Zaltman Metaphor engage in each step of the process and participants have been think- even those (e.g., sensory images ing about the topic for a week to Elicitation Technique and the summary image) that a 10 days, it is not surprising that priori may seem difficult because participants come to the inter- ZMET is useful in understand- the tasks are unfamiliar. view with a particular agenda or ing consumers, images of brands, The Guided Conversation. story they want to tell. Elizabeth

40 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 METAPHOR-BASED ADVERTISING RESEARCH brought in 13 images and de- 1988; Valette-Florence and Rapac- scribed how each of her pictures chi, 1991). The Kelly Repertory related to this type of intimate Grid Technique is an effective To understand what apparel. For example, one of method of eliciting constructs something is, it is also Elizabeth’s photographs was of which underlie thinking and ac- a microwave oven with a tele- tion. The interviewer uses the necessary to know phone (its cord very twisted) on Kelly Grid technique (identifying what it is not. it. Elizabeth said that this picture how any two of three stimuli are served to illustrate the twisted, hot, similar but different from the third uncomfortable feeling of wearing stimulus) to elicit constructs from this particular article of intimate participants. In other words, the used to obtain an understanding of apparel. Kelly Grid technique surfaces the the deeper meanings of physical In Step 2, Missed Issues and variables that participants use to discomfort and beauty as related Images, the interviewer asks the make sense about, or literally “sort to Elizabeth’s wearing of this participant to describe any issues out,” the meaning of a product garment. Elizabeth reported that for which she or he was unable category, a specific brand, or other some components of the garment to find a picture and to describe a consumption-related situation. made her physically uncomfort- picture that would represent the The laddering procedure is es- able which in turn made her feel issue. This is an important step pecially useful for eliciting causal imprisoned. In addition, she noted because it allows the participant patterns among the constructs that the vase represented tallness to address issues that might have identified by the Kelly Grid tech- and thinness and that the flowers come to mind either after gather- nique. Laddering, a set of thought represented beauty; both of these ing the pictures or during the inter- probes, tends to surface variables factors related to the elegance that view process. Elizabeth indicated in a means-end chain consisting she could feel when wearing this that she would have liked to take of attributes, consequences, and garment. a photograph of a “nice painting values, thereby providing a set In Step 5, Most Representative with a scratch on it, or a glass with of causally connected constructs. Image, Elizabeth indicated that a crack” to represent a tear in the Using both techniques together the picture that most represented article of intimate apparel. is an effective mechanism for her feelings was her picture of two In Step 3, Sorting Task, the par- getting consumers to articulate African masks that had necklaces ticipant is asked to sort his or her the constructs and the relation- around their elongated necks, pictures into meaningful piles and ships among constructs (Reynolds shown in Exhibit 2. She reported to provide a label or description and Gutman, 1988). Moreover, that the masks expressed both the for each pile. There are no restric- the techniques complement one positive (elegance) and negative tions on the number of piles or the another: the Kelly Grid increases (constrained) feelings that she had number of pictures in each pile. the likelihood of surfacing rel- about wearing this article of cloth- The sorting task is useful because evant constructs, and the laddering ing. it helps to establish the major technique increases the likelihood In Step 6, Opposite Image, the themes or constructs relevant to that associated ideas and relevant interviewer asks the participant the participant. Elizabeth sorted connections among constructs are about pictures that might describe her images into five groups reflect- being understood. the opposite of the task they were ing both positive and negative To illustrate we provide one given. To understand what some- feelings: (1) elegant, (2) conform- of Elizabeth’s triads. During the thing is, it is also necessary to ing, (3) constricted, (4) tortured, Kelly Grid, Elizabeth randomly know what it is not. Indeed, there and (5) twisted up. selected three pictures, shown in is convincing argument that any Step 4, Construct Elicitation, Exhibit 1. She indicated that the concept or construct contains the employs a modified version of two pictures on the left (trees with footprint or trace of its opposite the Kelly Repertory Grid tech- bands around the trunks and fenc- meaning (Brunette and Wills, nique and the laddering technique ing tightly wrapped in cellophane) 1989). When the interviewer asked (Kelly, 1963; Shaw and McKnight, represented physical discomfort Elizabeth what images conveyed 1980; Gutman, 1982; Lewis and and the other picture (flowers in the opposite of her image of inti- Klein, 1985; Reynolds and Whit- a nice vase) represented beauty. mate apparel, she responded with lark, 1995; Reynolds and Gutman, The laddering process then was a flock of birds soaring around the

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wants to include in the summary Exhibit 1 image and then on the participant’s “Intimate Aparel” Triad for Elizabeth direction creates the digital image. (The Kelly Repertory Grid Technique The digital image management process contains many special effects options and enables the participant to rearrange or alter the subject, foreground, background, or specific elements including col- or, object sizes, shapes, positions, and even textures appearing within pictures to be more expressive of the concept. The use of digital imaging is intended to stimulate or at least help to express thinking rather than to develop an aestheti- cally pleasing image or an image skies (representing freedom to do intimate apparel included: the taste that is creative for its own sake. as they pleased). of medicine, but not dessert; the In Step 7, Sensory Images, the feel of sandpaper and silk, but not Elizabeth’s digital image, Ex- participant is asked to use other of cream; the sound of static, but hibit 3, consisted of components senses to convey what does and not that of a waterfall; the smell of of five of her pictures and visually does not represent the concept sulfur, but not of roses; the color depicted her story about intimate being explored. People think brown, but not red; the feeling of apparel, which she described as by means of all their senses, anxiety, but not of peacefulness. follows: and sensory thoughts are im- The meaning of each image is ages (MacDougall, 1992; Howes, explored with each participant to The background is a flowing 1991; Bone and Jantrania, 1992; surface relevant constructs. chocolate colored dress that Danesi, 1990; Classen, 1993); In Step 8, The Mental Map, thus, we believe that such im- the interviewer reviews all of the illustrates freer movement, ages are important to capture and constructs discussed and asks the smooth, silky, and beautiful. analyze. Each individual tells what participant if the constructs are ac- The gash through the dress is and is not the taste, touch, smell, curate representations of what was represents a run or a tear and color, sound and emotional feel- meant and if any important ideas the frustration, wasted money, ing related to the concept being are missing. Then the participant embarrassment, and appre- explored. Elizabeth’s nonvisual creates a map to illustrate the con- hension associated with that. sensory images of this article of nections among important con- The cookie cutter in the center structs as they relate to the topic. illustrates conformity wear- An abridged (for presentation ing what everyone has to wear, Exhibit 2 purposes) version of Elizabeth’s no freedom of choice, women Elizabeth’s Most mental map is illustrated in Figure having to be a certain way. The Representative Image 2. mask in the cookie cutter’s head (African Masks) In Step 9, The Summary Image, the participant creates a summary illustrates two diverse feelings image or montage using his or her when wearing the article of inti- own images (sometimes augment- mate apparel-first, the elongated ed by images from an image bank) neck indicates a sense of feeling to express his or her important taller, thinner, and elegant; in issues. Digital imaging techniques facilitate the creation of the digital the second, the necklaces repre- image. sent feelings of physical dis- To begin the process, a graphics comfort and being constricted. technician scans into the computer The tangled garden hose in the the pictures that the participant cookie cutter’s mid-section rep-

42 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 METAPHOR-BASED ADVERTISING RESEARCH

Figure 2 Mental Map of Intimate Care

resents the anxieties associated feelings: fume, the doorbell rings and with wearing the item. Finally, he arrives with champagne St. Catherine’s wheel around It’s a rainy spring day, and I’m and roses. the cookie cutter represents the feeling a little sad. Some new torture and physical discomfort age music is playing on the Identification of Key of wearing the item. stereo. The telephone rings, Themes. Once all of the and a friend who I hadn’t seen interviews are completed, the People think differently when research team reviews each in months is on the line. My they think “in motion” than interview transcript to identify when they think in still images mood changes at the sound key themes or constructs. The or pictures. In Step 10, The of his voice. He asks me out identification of themes or con- Vignette, the participant is asked to dinner and says he’ll come structs (i.e., summary categories or overarching ideas capable to create a vignette or short to get me in an hour. I look video that helps to communicate of a range of different values and in my drawers for my most dimensions) is an onerous task. important issues related to the elegant intimate apparel and However, several streams of re- topic under consideration. Eliz- then into my closet for a sexy search, particularly categorization abeth’s vignette about wearing theory (Rosch, 1978) and theories this article of intimate apparel dress. I put them on and feel of emotion (Izard, 1977; Plutchik, expressed her more positive beautiful. As I put on my per- 1980), have provided guidance in

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Project 15, a brand equity study Exhibit 3 for a snack food, was less involv- Elizabeth’s Digital Image of Intimate Apparel ing. Twenty-seven constructs were mentioned by at least two of the ten participants, and the number of constructs mentioned by any one participant ranged from twelve to twenty-four; the average was sev- enteen. Also, with regard to Proj- ect 15, the 18 constructs included in the map were mentioned by at least five of the ten participants. Coding the Data. Once the list of key themes has been developed, data are coded in terms of paired- construct relationships. A construct pair is the causal relationship between two constructs. For example, the construct pair “being attractive/unattractive to others” and “having/lacking selfconfidence” suggests that one’s perceived level of attractiveness to others affects one’s self-confidence. Typically, construct pairs are elicited from the Storytelling, Missed Issues and understanding the important issues key themes or constructs derived Images, and Construct Elicitation related to categorizing tangibles from the examination of interview steps. and feelings, respectively. Based transcripts serves as the starting Constructing the Consen- on this theoretical grounding, point for coding participants, re- sus Map. In an attempt to under- social scientists involved with sponses. The construct list may be stand the “three mosts,” i.e., most qualitative data have established supplemented during the course of of the thinking of most people guidelines for developing clas- coding should previously unidenti- most of the time, we analyze the sification schemes and coding of fied constructs be found (Spiggle, occurrence of the construct pairs data (Glasser and Strauss, 1967; 1994). across participants (Noblit and Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Miles The number of constructs gener- Hare, 1988), and these data are and Huberman, 1984; Strauss and ated varies from project to project, used to create the consensus map. Corbin, 1990). Recently, Spiggle and from participant to partici- Specifically, two criteria are used (1994) elaborated on issues re- pant, depending on the level of for including constructs and con- lated to analyzing qualitative data, the participants, involvement with struct pairs in the consensus map- specifically focusing on categori- the topic of interest. For example, -the number of participants who zation, abstraction of categories, regarding Project 20, usage experi- mention a construct or theme and comparison of instances within the ences with new technologies, 50 the number of participants who data, and dimensionalization of constructs were mentioned by a mention a relationship between the data. This area of research has least 5 of the 21 participants (see two constructs. These criteria been particularly valuable in the Table 1). The number of constructs consistently are used to derive the analysis of ZMET data. mentioned by any one partici- consensus map in a ZMET project. All ZMET constructs are bi- pant ranged from 21 to 43; the The actual number of mentions polar, for example, satisfaction average was 33. Also with regard necessary for either a construct or encompasses both “very satisfied” to Project 20, the 26 constructs a construct pair to be included on a as well as “very dissatisfied” and included in the consensus map consensus map varies per project, the range of responses between were mentioned by at least 11 of depending upon the number of those two “endpoints.” The list of the 21 participants. In contrast, participants involved and the na-

44 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 METAPHOR-BASED ADVERTISING RESEARCH

ture of the project (i.e., the extent Table 1 to which consumers have narrow Number of Participants in 20 Most Recent Projects Required or broad-based understandings of to Generate 80 Percent or More of the Consensus Mapa and feelings about the research topic). Table 1 (column 4) indicates that the number of constructs retained in the consensus map for the 20 projects ranged from 18 (Projects 16 and 19) to 59 (Project 5). Typically, for a construct to be included on the consensus map, it must have been mentioned by at least one-third third of the participants and a construct pair must have been mentioned by at least one-quarter of the participants. As a consequence, the consensus map, on average, captures 80 percent of the constructs mentioned by each participant. The consensus map generated from these data is a diagram show- ing the linkages among the elicited constructs. Direct and indirect connections between constructs (or themes) represent a reasoning chain or thinking process show- ing how one idea leads to another. These associations are important because addressing one construct will have a ripple or multiplier effect on those with which it is causally connected. A somewhat abridged example of a consensus map involving the experience of wearing an item of intimate apparel is shown in Exhibit 5. Each construct is bi- polar, that is, “physical comfort” signifies both physical comfort and discomfort. The consensus map shown is based on 25 participants, and illustrates the construct pair relationships mentioned by at least 5 participants. The arrows on the consensus map represent links between constructs. Some constructs are originating points (shown as circles on the map) in a reasoning process and lead to other constructs, and other constructs are destination or ending points (shown as rectangles on

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Table 1 Number of Participants in 20 Most Recent Projects Required to Generate 80 Percent or More of the Consensus Mapa

the map) in a reasoning process. understanding of how these two terlude--want to feel pretty.” Connector constructs (shown constructs affect projection of self as diamond shapes on the map) image, elegance, happiness, sexi- Thus, although the consensus serve as transmitters or linkages ness, having a coordinated look, map clearly indicates negatives as- between originator, destination, being perceived as attractive to sociated with this garment, in par- and other connector constructs. others, and self-confidence: ticular physical discomfort and its Because originator and connector consequences, there are numerous constructs trigger other constructs, “. . . special details . . . are fun- themes that serve as the starting care should be taken to address -they add to the total outfit and point for developing meaningful these issues in communication help me to express myself. “ advertising copy and executional strategies. “. . . when you’re all dressed up elements. The intimate apparel consen- you feel like a queen--elegant, Observations about the sus map (Figure 3) illustrates royal, expensive in [garment] Consensus Maps. After the the relationships among relevant with a nice sheen, soft, sheer, data are processed to develop the constructs that have particular and maybe a design.” consensus map, participant files relevance for the development of “. . . when you’re dressed up, are selected at random and the ad copy for “variety of product [garment] makes you feel confi- number of constructs mentioned designs” and “garment quality.” dent.” by each successive file but not Comments made by participants “. . . fancy lingerie is sexy, mentioned by the previous file(s) in the study help to provide an pretty, nice, racy--romantic in- is noted. That is, we answer the

46 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 METAPHOR-BASED ADVERTISING RESEARCH question, “How many new con- consequences--”anger,” “concern,” ent characteristics, the particular structs are added by each random- “physical imprisonment,” and problem being addressed, and ly selected file?” Table 1 contains “emotional discomfort”--in the the purpose of the research. For information about consensus maps visual dictionary for the study on instance, different criteria may be from 20 recent applications (some intimate apparel. Additionally, the appropriate and/or be given more applications did not call for con- sensory dictionary includes non- or less weight when a tool is being sensus maps). The data in Table 1 visual sensory images (e.g., taste, used for exploratory rather than (columns 5, 6, and 7, respectively) touch, and smell) that participants confirmatory purposes. Even the indicate the number of randomly have used to describe a key con- basic concepts of validity and reli- selected participant files needed to struct or theme and sensory imag- ability are defined or operational- account for 80 percent, 90 percent, es that participants have indicated ized differently, depending on the and 100 percent of the constructs do not describe the key construct aim of the research, assumptions identified on the consensus maps. or theme. Finally, the digital im- about the nature of facts, and the For example, as related to Project ages and vignettes provide the researchers’ goals (Lauder, 1984). 3, at least 80 percent of the con- participants’ own summary repre- Indeed, many have cautioned that structs in that project’s consensus sentations of important themes and we use appropriate criteria (not map were captured after the fourth construct relationships. criteria established for, for ex- participant (randomly selected); These data are presented in a ample, survey research) to assess at least 90 percent of the con- number of forms depending on qualitative research (Holstein and structs were captured after the fifth client interests and needs. For Gubrium, 1995; Wallendorf and participant and 100 percent were example, the visual, sensory, and Belk, 1989). captured by the eighth participant. digital images along with vignettes ZMET is a hybrid methodology On average, it took six participant are presented in an interactive CD. grounded in a broad body of lit- files to account for 100 percent This data configuration enables erature which lends support to the of the constructs identified on the the user to “click” on a construct technique’s validity and reliability. consensus maps. In essence, every presented on a screen and see a For example, the use of photogra- interview selected at random after sample of visual and other sensory phy as a research tool (Worth and the sixth (on average) serves as metaphors that represent how con- Adair, 1972) has a 50-year history validation for the elicited consumers understand and/or experi- that crosses many disciplines, and structs. Thus, there is a high level ence that construct. The images the validity and reliability of pho- of consensus among participants in are coupled with the participant’s tography as a general research tool each of the projects. vocal description of the relevance has been discussed extensively by of the pictures, tactile sensations, Denzin (1989). Additionally, the Illustrating Important Con- and so forth. Additionally, this data in-depth personal conversation structs and Construct Rela- form allows the user to click on a has significant merit in its own tionships. The important con- line connecting two constructs and right (Mishler, 1986; McCracken, structs and construct relationships see images representing especially 1988), and other research conduct- are illustrated in a variety of ways. important reasoning or thinking ed by Griffin and Hauser (1992), For example, visual and other processes linking them. Digital Silver and Thompson (1991), sensory dictionaries, as well as images created by participants Robinson (1991), and Fern (1982) digital images and vignettes, help along with their audio description suggests that personal interviews to communicate the metaphors of their summary pictures also can are more efficacious than focus participants associate with the key be accessed. Illustrating these data groups. Further, the validity and constructs. The visual diction- on video, in addition to or in lieu reliability of the Kelly Repertory ary includes pictorial images that of the interactive CD, is an option. Grid and laddering technique as represent constructs and reasoning means for eliciting constructs are chains that are important to par- Evaluating ZMET also well-established (Kelly, 1963; ticipants. Thus, for example, the Gutman, 1982; Reynolds and Gut- man, 1988; Shaw and McKnight, picture of the trees with the bands The task of evaluating a new 1980). around the trunks and the picture technique is as important as it is It is also important to note that of the fencing tightly wrapped in demanding. The appropriate evalu- the ZMET research team plays an cellophane (Exhibit 1) might illus- ative criteria for any technique important role in providing valid trate “physical discomfort” and its vary with the technique’s inher-

Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 47 METAPHOR-BASED ADVERTISING RESEARCH and reliable data. In particular, the fore, point-of-purchase advertis- research approach. staff develops a purposive sam- ing and product display strategies Second, the technique is very la- pling plan and exchanges insights needed to be reconsidered. bor intensive. Post-interview data with interviewers both during and analyses, the creation of animated after data collection. Throughout Product-purchase and product- versions of selected vignettes, and the procedure, we employ steps usage experiences interact and the development of a final report to establish credible qualitative hence overall communication involving sensory dictionaries is research based on the guidelines strategy had to be reconsidered. demanding. Relatedly, the process set forth by Wallendorf and Belk Consumer perceptions of a of managing images and creating (1989), Webb et al. (1981), Miles company did not match how an interactive CD and associated and Huberman (1984), Lincoln key managers understood their videotape requires expertise with and Guba (1985), Kirk and Miller public image. certain hardware and software. (1986), and Strauss and Corbin An advertising concept con- Third, although ZMET identi- (1990). Specifically, we: (1) en- tained two important dimensions fies important factors influencing gage participants in a personal, in- that had not been uncovered consumers and clarifies both the depth conversation that averages previously. positive and negative experience two hours in length, (2) triangulate A more useful way to think of these factors, it does not provide across methods as evident by the about creating advertising copy. (because of sample size) estimates multiple steps used in the ZMET A unique way of advertising a of the percentage of a larger popu- interviews, (3) regularly interact new product concept. lation who feel negatively and with interviewers to discuss the A new understanding of how positively. Further, quantitative interview structure, constructs consumers perceive innovations. estimates of the relative strength elicited, etc., (4) triangulate across A new positioning for an exist- of association between constructs researchers, reviewing the inter- ing product. are not possible. view transcripts and audiotapes Finally, the pictures participants of the participants, and (5) have Although ZMET addresses bring to the interview and the vari- participants verify the constructs many limitations of other tech- ous sensory images they discuss elicited, and those not elicited, niques it has limitations of its own. are representative of the kinds of during the interview. First, proper data analysis requires images they find familiar and are To date, our research has in- researcher familiarity with the dis- likely to elicit certain concepts. volved over 1,400 consumers. ciplinary foundations of the tech- They are not, however, a substitute During the course of our research, nique. This is more than a modest for creative thinking about visual clients have shared proprietary start-up cost for the researchers and other images that could be still data previously collected on their and being unfamiliar with these more impactful in activating the respective topics using standard literatures can result in misuse of common mental model (consensus quantitative and qualitative tools. the tool and data. Additionally, in- map). These clients have indicated that terviewers have an important role ZMET has provided results consis- during data collection, since each Conclusion tent with the results other methods step can be introduced in different produced, but also added value by ways and individual differences Market researchers can develop surfacing unique insights which among participants may call for tools that provide still more usable the clients considered to be impor- somewhat different approaches. and valid knowledge about the tant. For projects that focused on Skill is required to make the marketplace by making use of the issues that had not been previously judgment of when and how to do premises discussed at the outset investigated, companies found the this. Further, interviewers play an of this article. These premises ZMET data useful in a number of integral role in the analysis of each are derived from diverse fields of ways. A sample of action-produc- participant’s data. Thus, ZMET in- inquiry in the social and biological ing insights that clearly have ad terviewers require special training sciences copy implications (although that beyond that associated with typical and in the humanities about may not have been the driving personal interviewing. Also, the how people make sense of and force behind the research) include: graphics imaging technicians must communicate about their personal ß A product believed to be an be well versed in digital-imaging and social worlds. The technique impulse purchase is not and, there- technologies as well as the basic introduced here draws upon these

48 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH - JULY/AUGUST 1995 METAPHOR-BASED ADVERTISING RESEARCH fields and illustrates how efforts Birdwhistell, R. L. Kinesics and de Sousa, Ronald. The Rationality to engage consumers in nonverbal Context: Essays on Body Motion of Emotion. Cambridge, MA: The communication and understand the Communication. Philadelphia, PA: MIT Press, 1987. meaning of metaphors can elicit University of Pennsylvania Press, rich stories from which representa- 1970. Entin, A. D. “The Use of Pho- tive mental models can be extract- tographs and Family Albums in ed. These mental models reveal Black, Max. “More About Meta- Family Therapy.” In Questions and basic reasoning processes and phor.” In Metaphor and Thought, Answers in the Practice of Fam- provide deep, useful insights about 2d ea., Andrew Ortony, ed. New ily Therapy, A. Gurman, ed. New consumers and their latent and emerging needs. Such insights can York, NY: Cambridge University York, NY: Brunner Mazel, 1981. provide developers of advertising Press, 1993. copy and creative staff guidance Fern, Edward F. “The Use of for capturing consumer attention Bone, Paula F., and Swati Jantra- Focus Groups for Idea Generation: and engaging their thought pro- nia. “Olfaction as a Cue for Prod- The Effects of Group Size, Ac- cesses. uct Quality.” Marketing Letters 3, quaintanceship, and Moderator on 3 (1992): 289-296. Response Quantity and Quality.”

GERALD ZALTMAN is the Joseph C. Wilson Journal of Marketing Research 19, Professor of Business Administration, Har- Brunette, Peter, and David Wills. 1 (1982): 1-13. vard University. He has a Ph.D. in sociology from the Johns Hopkins University and an ScreenlPlay: Derrida and Film MBA degree from the University of Chicago Theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Fincher, J. Human Intelligence. He has authored or edited 27 books and over 100 journal articles Dr Zaltman has re- University Press, 1989. New York, NY: G. P. Putnam’s ceived the American Marketing Association’s Sons, 1976. Richard D Inwin Distinquished Educator Award, the Association for Consumer Burgoon, Judee K.; David B. Research’s Fe low Award, and the Knowl- Buller; and W. Gill Woodall. Gibbs, Raymond W., Jr. The Poet- edge Utilization Society’s Scientific Achieve- ment Award. He has been cited in numerous Nonverbal Communication: The ics of Mind: Figurative Thought, surveys as one of the leading thinkers in marketing and in consumer behavior. Unspoken Dialogue. New York, Language, and Understanding. NY: Harper and Row, 1989. New York, NY: Cambridge Uni- ROBIN HIGIE COULTER is associate professor of marketing in the School of versity Press, 1994. Business Administration at the University Classen, Constance. Worlds of of Connecticut. She received her Ph D and M.B.A from the Joseph M. Katz Graduate Sense: Exploring the Senses in Glasser, Barney G., and Anselm L. School of Business, University of Pittsburgh. History and Across Cultures. New Strauss. The Discovery of Ground- Her research interests include advertising effects, research methods, and consumer York: Routledge, 1993. ed Theory. Chicago, IL: Aldine, decision-making Professor Coulter has been 1967. pubished in such Journals as the Journal of Applied Psychology, the Journal of Advertis- Damasio, Antonio R. Descartes’ ing, the Journal of Advertising Research, and the Journal of Retailing. Howes, David, Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Glucksberg, Sam. “Language and ed. The Varieties of Sensory Experience: Human Brain. New York, NY: G. Thought.” In The Psychology of A Sourcebook in the Anthropology of the Senses. Toronto, Canada: University of P. Putnam’s Sons, 1994. Human Thought, R. J. Sternberg Toronto Press, 1991. and E. E. Smith, eds. Cambridge, Danesi, Marcel. “Thinking Is Great Britain, 1988. Seeing: Visual Metaphors and the References Nature of Abstract Thought.” Se- Goldman, Alvin I. Epistemology miotica 80, 3/4, (1990): 221-237. and Cognition. Cambridge, MA: Arnheim, Rudolf. Visual Thinking. Harvard University Press, 1986. Berkeley, CA: The University of Denzin, Norman K. The Research California Press, 1969. Act: A Theoretical Introduction Griffin, Abbie, and John R. Haus- to Sociological Methods, 3d ed. er. The Voice of the Customer. Ball, Michael S., and Gregory W. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Report Number 92-106, March. H. Smith. Analyzing Visual Data. Hall, 1989. Cambridge, MA: Marketing Sci- Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publica- ence Institute, 1992. tions, 1992.

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