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Handbook of Neuroethics

Handbook of

Jens Clausen • Neil Levy Editors

Handbook of Neuroethics

With 31 Figures and 11 Tables Editors Jens Clausen Institute for and History of University of Tubingen€ Tubingen,€ Germany

Neil Levy The Florey Institute of and Mental Health University of Melbourne Parkville, Australia

ISBN 978-94-007-4706-7 978-94-007-4707-4 (eBook) ISBN Bundle 978-94-007-4708-1 (print and electronic bundle) DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4707-4 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014946229

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Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) What Is Neuroethics?

Directly and indirectly, neuroscience touches all of our lives, and its influence can be expected to grow. Mental illness is very common, with a lifetime prevalence of at least 12%, perhaps very much higher (Kessler et al. 2007). The incidence of dementia is growing rapidly, due to our aging population and the fact that more than 30% of all people aged over 80 will suffer from it (Peters 2001). These are problems of the brain/mind, and therefore neuroscience seems to hold out the best hope of understanding them, reducing their incidence, and perhaps even of a cure. Other major health and social problems centrally involve dysfunctions of the brain/mind: think of the enormous problems caused by pathological gambling or drug . Even the worldwide obesity epidemic, which has produced a global population in which there are more obese people than there are undernourished (Macey 2006), might be understood as at least partially a problem that neuroscience can illuminate, insofar as overeating is at least partially to be explained psychologically. Two major initiatives in neuroscience funded by the US and the EU, respectively, are expected to increase our knowledge about how the brain works, our understanding of diseases and how to cure or at least treat them and thereby accelerate the influence of neuroscientific findings on our lives. The European Project (HBP) addresses seven challenges of neuroscience and ultimately aims at computationally simulating the brain (Markram 2013). The US-funded Brain Activity Map (BAM) project seeks “to fill the gap in our knowledge of brain activity at the circuit level, a scale between single neuron and whole brain function” (Alivisatos et al. 2013). Since the brain is embedded in and interacts with a body, and humans act in relation to other human beings, the neuro-essentialist notion that the brain defines who we are might seem a bit far-fetched. However, there is no doubt that the brain is the biological substrate of central human characteristics like and . Indeed, all human behavior must be understood as the behavior of creatures with minds; there is no aspect of our lives that neuroscience cannot, in , help to illuminate. Neuroscience promises to cure disease and perhaps to help us to achieve our goals at a lower cost, but it also promises to help us to understand the kind of creatures we are. By shedding light on the brain, it illumi- nates our prized rationality, our creativity, our capacity to produce and appreciate art, even our capacity for awe and transcendence. Some people find the prospect tantalizing and attractive; others are fearful that in explaining we might explain

v vi What Is Neuroethics? away. Perhaps we will reveal ourselves to be mere automatons, they worry, rather than beings with a . Neuroscience also holds out the promise of using its techniques to improve ourselves. The pharmaceuticals developed for the treatment of disease may be used by people who are not ill, to make them “better than well” (Elliot 2003). This, too, is a prospect that excites and appeals to people in equal measures. Some see the promise of an exciting future of broader horizons and a technological utopia, others recall the warnings of Brave New World and other dystopias. To raise these questions is already to be doing neuroethics. Neuroethics is systematic and informed reflection on and interpretation of neuroscience, and related of the mind (psychology in all its many forms, , artificial intelligence, and so on), in order to understand its implications for human self- understanding and the perils and prospects of its applications. Neuroethics has developed as a response to the increasing power and pervasive- ness of the sciences of the mind. It has been known for centuries that mental function and dysfunction are closely related to neural function and dysfunction (even Rene Descartes, the 17th century who is now much derided by for his that mind was immaterial, made the connection between brain and mind a central part of his theory). Our knowledge of the of the relationship came largely from post-mortem studies of the brains of people known to have particular cognitive problems: Thus, areas responsible for linguistic processing were identified in the 19th century. But it is only recently, with the advent of non-invasive means of studying the living human brain (and especially with the development of functional magnetic resonance imaging, which enables the real-time study of the brain as the person engages in particular tasks), that our knowledge has really begun to expand rapidly. Today the Society for Neuroscience has nearly 42,000 members, all of whom actively working in neuroscience, and holds an annual conference attended by more than 30,000 delegates. There are more than 220 journals dedicated to neuroscience; around 25,000 papers on the brain are published annually. Our knowledge of the brain, and therefore of ourselves, grows rapidly, and with it our powers to intervene in the mind. Neuroethics is at once fascinating and urgent. Neuroethics is commonly held to have two branches, the ethics of neuroscience and the neuroscience of ethics (Roskies 2002). Under the first heading, neuroethics is concerned not only with ethical issues in the practice of neuroscience (ethical issues in subject recruitment, in the conduct of , in the reporting of neuroscientific findings in academic journals and the popular press, and so on), but also with ethical issues in the application of neuroscience and the and techniques it helps to develop, inside and outside the clinic. Under this heading, therefore, fall concerns about the use of psychopharmaceuticals, or other techniques (direct current stimulation or implantable electrodes, say) to treat mental illness or to enhance the capacities of those without a diagnosable illness. By the neurosci- ence of ethics Roskies meant, principally, the ways in which neuroscience might help us to understand morality itself: the by which we reason, the relative contribution of emotional and non-emotional processes to moral thought, and What Is Neuroethics? vii perhaps even the extent to which moral thought sometimes goes wrong. Above, we suggested that neuroethics should not be identified with reflection on neuroscience alone, but be expanded to include reflection on the other sciences of the mind. Correlatively, we suggest that the neuroscience of ethics should also be understood broadly, encompassing not only the ways in which the science of the mind can help us to understand moral reasoning, but also the ways in which it might help us to understand other perennial philosophical issues (the nature of knowledge, the ways in which self-control is exercised and how it may be lost, and the mind/ brain, and so on). This is, in practice, how neuroethics has been conducted in the past, and it is this broad range of issues that are canvassed in this handbook. If neuroethics is not to be overwhelmed by the hype that characterizes too much of the popular coverage of neuroscience, it must have a strong and realistic grasp on what is actually possible, on the nature of the brain and its relationship to the mind, and on how best to understand neuroscientific work. The volume therefore begins by canvassing the philosophical foundations of neuroscience, while another section covers the powers and limitations of , our major source of evidence concerning the brain.

Jens Clausen, Neil Levy Tubingen€ and Oxford, August 2014

References

Alivisatos, A.P., Chun, M., Church, G.M. et al. 2013. The Brain Activity Map. Science 339: 1284–1285. Elliot C. 2003. Better than Well, New York. WW Norton. Kessler, R.C., Angermeyer, M., Anthony, J. et al. 2007. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of mental disorders in the World Health Organization’s World Mental Health Survey Initiative. World Psychiatry 6: 168–176. Markram, H. 2013. Seven Challenges for Neuroscience. Functional 28(3): 145–151. Macye, R. 2006. More fat people in world than there are starving, study finds. Sydney Morning Herald, August 15. Peters, R. 2001. The prevention of dementia. Journal of Cardiovascular Risk 8: 253–6. Roskies, A. 2002. Neuroethics for the New Millenium. Neuron 35: 21–23.

About the Editors

Jens Clausen, Institute for Ethics and History of Medicine, University of Tubingen,€ Tubingen,€ Germany

Jens Clausen, Dr. rer. nat. (PhD), is professor at the Institute for Ethics and History of Medicine, University of Tubingen,€ head of the neuroethics group, and managing director of the Clinical of the University Hospital Tubingen.€ He also is a member of the Center for (CIN) and the research ethics commission. Prof. Clausen studied and in Tubingen€ and was junior researcher and member of the interdisciplinary network project The Status of the Extracorporeal Embryo at the Centre for Ethics and Law in Medicine, Freiburg, Germany, and the Chair for Ethics in Life Sciences, Tubingen.€ From 2004 to January 2008 he headed the Junior Research Group, Human Nature and Its Relevance in Biomedical Ethics, at the University of Freiburg. He is guest editor of a double special issues on ethical aspects of published by Springer in the journal Neuroethics (Vol. 6, No. 3, 2013). He has published, edited, or co-edited eight books and is author of more than 50 papers in renowned journals including Nature, European Journal of Neuroscience, Current Opinion in Psychiatry, and Neuroethics.

ix x About the Editors

Neil Levy, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia

Associate Professor Neil Levy is an Australian Research Council Future Fellow, based at the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Australia. He is also director of research at the Oxford Centre for Neuroethics. Assoc. Prof. Levy is a philosopher with very wide-ranging interests. He has published more than 100 papers, mainly on , free will, and psychology, as well as continental philosophy, , and other topics. He is the author of seven books, include Neuroethics (Cambridge University Press, 2007), Hard Luck (Oxford University Press [OUP], 2011), and Consciousness and (OUP, 2014). In 2009, he was awarded the Australia Museum Eureka Award for Research in Ethics. Section Editors

Franc¸oise Baylis Faculty of Medicine, Novel Tech Ethics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada Adrian Carter The University of Queensland, UQ Centre for , Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital, Herston, QLD, Australia Jens Clausen Institute for Ethics and History of Medicine, University of Tubingen,€ Tubingen,€ Germany Peggy DesAutels Department of Philosophy, University of Dayton, Dayton, OH, USA Juan F. Domı´nguez D. Experimental Research Unit, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia Heiner Fangerau Department of History, Philosophy and Ethics of Medicine, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany Martha J. Farah Center for Neuroscience & Society, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA Bert Gordijn Institute of Ethics, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland Wayne D. Hall Hall The University of Queensland, UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital, Herston, QLD, Australia Sven Ove Hansson Division of Philosophy, Royal Institute of (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden Hanfried Helmchen Department of Psychiatry & Psychotherapy, Charite´ – University Medicine Berlin, CBF, Berlin, Germany Anne J. Jacobson University of Houston Center for Neuro-Engineering and Cognitive Science, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA Neil Levy Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia Reinhard Merkel Faculty of Law, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

xi xii Section Editors

Gualtiero Piccinini Department of Philosophy, University of Missouri – St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA Andrew Pinsent Ian Ramsey Centre for Science and , , Oxford, UK Eric Racine Neuroethics Research Unit, Institut de recherches cliniques de Montre´al, Montre´al, QC, Canada Department of Medicine and Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Universite´ de Montre´al, Montre´al, QC, Canada Departments of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Experimental Medicine & Biomedical Ethics Unit, McGill University, Montre´al, QC, Canada Adina L. Roskies Department of Philosophy, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA Stephan Schleim Faculty of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Theory and History of Psychology, Heymans Institute for Psychological Research, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands Edward H. Spence Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics (an Australian Research Council Special Research Centre), Charles Sturt University, Canberra, Australia 3TU Centre for Ethics and Technology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands Frank W. Stahnisch Department of Community Health Sciences and Department of History, Hotchkiss Brain Institute/Institute for , The University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada Jeremy Sugarman Johns Hopkins University, Berman Institute of , Baltimore, MD, USA Matthis Synofzik Department of Neurology, Centre for Neurology and Hertie- Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tubingen,€ Tubingen,€ Germany Marcos Tatagiba Department of Neurosurgery, Eberhard-Karls University Hospital, Tubingen,€ Germany Gerald Walther Division of Peace Studies, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK Contents

Volume 1: Conceptual Aspects of Neuroethics

Section I Foundational Issues in ...... 1 1 Foundational Issues in Cognitive Neuroscience: Introduction ...... 3 Gualtiero Piccinini 2 Explanation and Levels in Cognitive Neuroscience ...... 9 David Michael Kaplan 3 Experimentation in Cognitive Neuroscience and Cognitive Neurobiology ...... 31 Jacqueline Sullivan 4 Realization, Reduction, and Emergence: How Things Like Minds Relate to Things Like Brains ...... 49 Kenneth Aizawa and Carl Gillett 5 Mental Causation ...... 63 Holly Andersen 6 Neural Representation and Computation ...... 79 Corey J. Maley and Gualtiero Piccinini

Section II Moral Cognition ...... 95 7 Moral Cognition: Introduction ...... 97 Stephan Schleim 8 Beyond Dual-Processes: The Interplay of Reason and Emotion in Moral Judgment ...... 109 Chelsea Helion and David A. Pizarro 9 The Neurobiology of Moral Cognition: Relation to Theory of Mind, Empathy, and Mind-Wandering ...... 127 Danilo Bzdok, Dominik Groß, and Simon B. Eickhoff

xiii xiv Contents

10 Psychology and the Aims of ...... 149 Regina A. Rini 11 Moral Intuition in Philosophy and Psychology ...... 169 Antti Kauppinen 12 The Half-Life of the Moral Dilemma Task: A Case Study in Experimental (Neuro-) Philosophy ...... 185 Stephan Schleim

Section III Neuroscience, Free Will, and Responsibility ...... 201 13 Neuroscience, Free Will, and Responsibility: The Current State of Play ...... 203 Neil Levy 14 Consciousness and Agency ...... 211 Tim Bayne and Elisabeth Pacherie 15 Determinism and Its Relevance to the Free-Will Question ..... 231 Mark Balaguer 16 No Excuses: Performance Mistakes in Morality ...... 253 Santiago Amaya and John M. Doris 17 Free Will and Experimental Philosophy: An Intervention ..... 273 Tamler Sommers

Section IV ...... 287 18 Toward a Neuroanthropology of Ethics: Introduction ...... 289 Juan F. Domı´nguez D. 19 : A Neuroanthropological Account ...... 299 Charles D. Laughlin 20 Free Will, Agency, and the Cultural, Reflexive Brain ...... 323 Stephen Reyna 21 What Is Normal? A Historical Survey and Neuroanthropological Perspective ...... 343 Paul H. Mason

Section V Neuroethics and Identity ...... 365 22 Neuroethics and Identity ...... 367 Franc¸oise Baylis 23 Neurotechnologies, , and the Ethics of Authenticity ...... 373 Catriona Mackenzie and Mary Walker Contents xv

24 Dissociative Identity Disorder and Narrative ...... 393 Marya Schechtman 25 Impact of Brain Interventions on Personal Identity ...... 407 Thorsten Galert

26 Extended Mind and Identity ...... 423 Robert A. Wilson and Bartlomiej A. Lenart

27 Mind, Brain, and Law: Issues at the Intersection of Neuroscience, Personal Identity, and the Legal System ...... 441 Jennifer Chandler

Section VI and Neuroethics ...... 459 28 History of Neuroscience and Neuroethics: Introduction ...... 461 Frank W. Stahnisch 29 Parkinson’s Disease and Movement Disorders: Historical and Ethical Perspectives ...... 467 Paul Foley 30 History of : From Functional Restitution to Functional Enhancement ...... 489 Jean-Gae¨l Barbara

31 Informed and the History of Modern Neurosurgery ...... 505 Delia Gavrus 32 Nonrestraint, Shock Therapies, and Brain Stimulation Approaches: Patient and the Emergence of Modern ...... 519 Frank W. Stahnisch

33 Historical and Ethical Perspectives of Modern Neuroimaging ...... 535 Fernando Vidal Volume 2: Special Issues in Neuroethics

Section VII Ethical Implications of Brain Stimulation ...... 551 34 Ethical Implications of Brain Stimulation ...... 553 Matthis Synofzik

35 for Parkinson’s Disease: Historical and Neuroethical Aspects ...... 561 Paul Foley xvi Contents

36 Risk and Consent in Neuropsychiatric Deep Brain Stimulation: An Exemplary Analysis of Treatment-Resistant Depression, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, and Dementia ...... 589 Paul P. Christopher and Laura B. Dunn

37 Devices, Drugs, and Difference: Deep Brain Stimulation and the Advent of ...... 607 Joseph J. Fins

38 Deep Brain Stimulation Research Ethics: The Ethical Need for Standardized Reporting, Adequate Trial Designs, and Study Registrations ...... 621 Matthis Synofzik

39 Ethical Objections to Deep Brain Stimulation for Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Enhancement: A Critical Review ...... 635 Anna Pacholczyk

Section VIII Ethical Implications of Brain Imaging ...... 657 40 Neuroimaging Neuroethics: Introduction ...... 659 Adina L. Roskies

41 Detecting Levels of Consciousness ...... 665 Athena Demertzi and Steven Laureys

42 Mind Reading, Detection, and ...... 679 Adina L. Roskies

Section IX Ethical Implications of Brain–Computer Interfacing ...... 697 43 Ethical Implications of Brain–Computer Interfacing ...... 699 Jens Clausen 44 Brain–Machine Interfaces for in Complete Paralysis: Ethical Implications and Challenges ...... 705 Surjo R. Soekadar and Niels Birbaumer 45 Ethical Issues in Brain–Computer Interface Research and Systems for Motor Control ...... 725 Donatella Mattia and Guglielmo Tamburrini 46 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Improving Performance Through Brain–Computer Interface ...... 741 Imre Bárd and Ilina Singh Contents xvii

47 Real-Time Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging– Brain-Computer Interfacing in the Assessment and Treatment of Psychopathy: Potential and Challenges ...... 763 Fabrice Jotterand and James Giordano

Section X Ethical Implications of Sensory Prostheses ...... 783 48 Ethical Implications of Sensory Prostheses ...... 785 Sven Ove Hansson

49 Ethical Issues in Auditory Prostheses ...... 799 Thomas R. McCormick

50 Ethical Issues in Cochlear Implantation ...... 815 Linda Komesaroff, Paul A. Komesaroff, and Merv Hyde

51 Sensory Enhancement ...... 827 Karim Jebari

Section XI Ethical Implications of Cell and ...... 839 52 Ethical Implications of Cell and Gene Therapy ...... 841 Heiner Fangerau 53 Neural Transplantation and : A Contemporary History of Moral Concerns Regarding Cerebral and Gene Therapy ...... 845 Heiner Fangerau and Norbert W. Paul 54 Gene Therapy and the Brain ...... 859 Christian Lenk

Section XII Ethics in Psychiatry ...... 871 55 Ethics in Psychiatry ...... 873 Hanfried Helmchen

56 Strengthening Self-Determination of Persons with Mental Illness ...... 879 George Szmukler and Diana Rose 57 Compulsory Interventions in Mentally Ill Persons at Risk of Becoming Violent ...... 897 Norbert Konrad and Sabine Muller€ 58 Relationship of Benefits to Risks in Psychiatric Research Interventions ...... 907 Hanfried Helmchen xviii Contents

Section XIII Ethics in Neurosurgery ...... 929 59 Ethics in Neurosurgery ...... 931 Marcos Tatagiba, Odile Nogueira Ugarte, and Marcus Andre´ Acioly

60 Neurosurgery: Past, Present, and Future ...... 937 Marcos Tatagiba, Odile Nogueira Ugarte, and Marcus Andre´ Acioly

61 Awake Craniotomies: Burden or Benefit for the Patient? ...... 949 G. C. Feigl, R. Luerding, and M. Milian

62 Ethics of Epilepsy Surgery ...... 963 Sabine Rona

63 Ethics of Functional Neurosurgery ...... 977 Robert Bauer and Alireza Gharabaghi

Section XIV Addiction and Neuroethics ...... 993 64 What Is Addiction Neuroethics? ...... 995 Adrian Carter and Wayne Hall

65 Neuroscience Perspectives on Addiction: Overview ...... 999 Anne Lingford-Hughes and Liam Nestor

66 Ethical Issues in the Neuroprediction of Addiction Risk and Treatment Response ...... 1025 Wayne D. Hall, Adrian Carter, and Murat Yucel€ 67 Ethical Issues in the Treatment of Addiction ...... 1045 Benjamin Capps, Adrian Carter, and Yvette van der Eijk 68 Drug Addiction and Criminal Responsibility ...... 1065 Jeanette Kennett, Nicole A. Vincent, and Anke Snoek 69 Using Neuropharmaceuticals for Cognitive Enhancement: Policy and Regulatory Issues ...... 1085 Jayne Lucke, Brad Partridge, Cynthia Forlini, and Eric Racine

Section XV Human Brain Research and Ethics ...... 1101 70 Human Brain Research and Ethics ...... 1103 Jeremy Sugarman 71 Clinical Translation in Central Nervous System Diseases: Ethical and Social Challenges ...... 1107 Jonathan Kimmelman and Spencer Phillips Hey Contents xix

72 Ethics of Sham Surgery in Clinical Trials for Neurologic Disease ...... 1125 Sam Horng and Franklin G. Miller 73 Research in ...... 1139 Michael L. Kelly and Paul J. Ford 74 Brain Research on Morality and Cognition ...... 1151 Debra J. H. Mathews and Hilary Bok

Section XVI Neuroenhancement ...... 1167 75 Neuroenhancement ...... 1169 Bert Gordijn 76 Ethics of Pharmacological Mood Enhancement ...... 1177 Maartje Schermer

77 Smart Drugs: Ethical Issues ...... 1191 Alena Buyx 78 Ethics of Brain–Computer Interfaces for Enhancement Purposes ...... 1207 Fiachra O’Brolcháin and Bert Gordijn 79 The Morality of Moral Neuroenhancement ...... 1227 Thomas Douglas 80 Reflections on Neuroenhancement ...... 1251 Walter Glannon Volume 3: Neuroethics and Society

Section XVII ...... 1267 81 Neurolaw: Introduction ...... 1269 Reinhard Merkel 82 A to Remember, a Right to Forget? Memory Manipulations and the Law ...... 1279 Christoph Bublitz and Martin Dresler 83 Cognitive or the International Human Right to ...... 1309 Christoph Bublitz

84 Neuroimaging and Criminal Law ...... 1335 Reinhard Merkel

85 Responsibility Enhancement and the Law of Negligence ...... 1363 Imogen Goold and Hannah Maslen xx Contents

86 The Use of Brain Interventions in Offender Rehabilitation Programs: Should It Be Mandatory, Voluntary, or Prohibited? ...... 1381 Elizabeth Shaw

Section XVIII Feminist Neuroethics ...... 1399 87 Feminist Neuroethics: Introduction ...... 1401 Peggy DesAutels 88 Feminist and Neuroethics ...... 1405 Robyn Bluhm 89 and Neuroethics ...... 1421 Peggy DesAutels 90 A Curious Coincidence: Critical Race Theory and Cognitive Neuroscience ...... 1435 Anne J. Jacobson and William Langley 91 Sex and Power: Why Sex/ Neuroscience Should Motivate Statistical Reform ...... 1447 Cordelia Fine and Fiona Fidler

Section XIX Neuroscience, Neuroethics, and the Media ...... 1463 92 Neuroscience, Neuroethics, and the Media ...... 1465 Eric Racine 93 Popular Media and Bioethics Scholarship: Sharing Responsibility for Portrayals of Cognitive Enhancement with Prescription ...... 1473 Cynthia Forlini, Brad Partridge, Jayne Lucke, and Eric Racine 94 Neuroethics Beyond Traditional Media ...... 1487 Chiara Saviane 95 Traumatic Brain Injury and the Use of Documentary Narrative Media to Redress Social Stigma ...... 1501 Timothy Mark Krahn

Section XX Neurotheology ...... 1525 96 Neurotheology ...... 1527 Andrew Pinsent

97 The Contribution of Neurological Disorders to an Understanding of Religious Experiences ...... 1535 Michael Trimble Contents xxi

98 Cognition, Brain, and Religious Experience: A Critical Analysis ...... 1553 Aku Visala 99 Model-Based Religious Reasoning: Mapping the Unseen to the Seen ...... 1569 Adam Green 100 Divine Understanding and the Divided Brain ...... 1583 Iain McGilchrist 101 Neurotheological ...... 1603 Andrew Pinsent

Section XXI ...... 1619 102 Ethics of Neuromarketing: Introduction ...... 1621 Edward H. Spence 103 Neuromarketing: What Is It and Is It a Threat to Privacy? . . . . 1627 Steve Matthews 104 Ethics of Implicit in Pharmaceutical Advertising ...... 1647 Paul Biegler, Jeanette Kennett, Justin Oakley, and Patrick Vargas

Section XXII Developmental Neuroethics ...... 1669 105 Developmental Neuroethics ...... 1671 Martha J. Farah 106 Neuroethical Issues in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Children with Mood and Behavioral Disturbances ...... 1673 Josephine Johnston and Erik Parens 107 Prediction of Antisocial Behavior ...... 1689 Andrea L. Glenn, Farah Focquaert, and Adrian Raine 108 Mind, Brain, and Education: A Discussion of Practical, Conceptual, and Ethical Issues ...... 1703 Daniel Ansari 109 Normal Brain Development and Child/Adolescent Policy ...... 1721 Sara B. Johnson and Jay N. Giedd 110 Neuroscience, Gender, and “Development To” and “From”: The Example of Toy Preferences ...... 1737 Cordelia Fine xxii Contents

111 Neuroethics of Neurodiversity ...... 1757 Simon Baron-Cohen

Section XXIII Weaponization of Neuroscience ...... 1765

112 Weaponization of Neuroscience ...... 1767 Gerald Walther 113 Biosecurity Education and Awareness in Neuroscience ...... 1773 Masamichi Minehata and Gerald Walther 114 Neuroscience Advances and Future Warfare ...... 1785 Malcolm Dando 115 International Legal Restraints on Chemical and Biological Weapons ...... 1801 Catherine Jefferson 116 Biosecurity as a Normative Challenge ...... 1813 Tatyana Novossiolova 117 Neuroethics of Warfare ...... 1827 Gerald Walther Index ...... 1839 Contributors

Marcus Andre´ Acioly Division of Neurosurgery, Fluminense Federal University, Nitero´i, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Division of Neurosurgery, Andaraı´ Federal Hospital, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Department of Neurosurgery, Eberhard–Karls University Hospital, Tubingen,€ Germany Kenneth Aizawa Rutgers University - Newark, Newark, NJ, USA Santiago Amaya Department of Philosophy, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia Holly Andersen Philosophy, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada Daniel Ansari Numerical Cognition Laboratory, Department of Psychology & Brain and Mind Institute, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada Mark Balaguer Department of Philosophy, State University, Los Angeles, CA, USA Jean-Gae¨l Barbara Universite´ Pierre et Marie Curie, CNRS UMR 7102, Paris, France Universite´ Paris Diderot, CNRS UMR 7219, Paris, France Imre Bárd London School of Economics and Political Science, London, UK Simon Baron-Cohen Autism Research Centre, Psychiatry Department, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK Robert Bauer Translational and Functional & Restorative Neurosurgery, Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Tubingen,€ Tubingen,€ Germany International Centre for Ethics in the Sciences and Humanities, University of Tubingen,€ Tubingen,€ Germany Franc¸oise Baylis Faculty of Medicine, Novel Tech Ethics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada

xxiii xxiv Contributors

Tim Bayne Philosophy, School of Social Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK Paul Biegler Centre for Human Bioethics, School of Philosophical, Historical and International Studies Monash University Faculty of Arts, Clayton, VIC, Australia Niels Birbaumer Institute of Medical Psychology and Behavioral Neurobiology, Tubingen,€ Germany IRCCS, Ospedale San Camillo, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico, Lido di Venezia, Italy Robyn Bluhm Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA Hilary Bok Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA Christoph Bublitz Faculty of Law, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany Alena Buyx Centre for Advanced Studies in Bioethics, University Hospital Munster€ and University of Munster,€ Emmy Noether Research Group Bioethics and Political Philosophy, Munster,€ Germany School of Public Policy, University College London, London, UK Danilo Bzdok Institut fur€ Neurowissenschaften und Medizin (INM-1), Julich,€ Germany Benjamin Capps Centre for Biomedical Ethics, National University of Singapore Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Singapore Adrian Carter The University of Queensland, UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital, Herston, QLD, Australia Jennifer Chandler Faculty of Law, Common Law, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada Paul P. Christopher Department of Psychiatry & Human Behavior, Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA Jens Clausen Institute for Ethics and History of Medicine, University of Tubingen,€ Tubingen,€ Germany Malcolm Dando Division of Peace Studies, School of Social and International Studies, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK Athena Demertzi Coma Science Group, Cyclotron Research Center & Neurology Department, University of Lie`ge, Lie`ge, Belgium Peggy DesAutels Department of Philosophy, University of Dayton, Dayton, OH, USA Contributors xxv

Juan F. Domı´nguez D. Experimental Neuropsychology Research Unit, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia John M. Doris Philosophy-Neuroscience-Psychology Program and Philosophy Department, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA Thomas Douglas Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Martin Dresler Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Laura B. Dunn Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Simon B. Eickhoff Institut fur€ Neurowissenschaften und Medizin (INM-1), Julich,€ Germany Heiner Fangerau Department of History, Philosophy and Ethics of Medicine, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany Martha J. Farah Center for Neuroscience & Society, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA G. C. Feigl Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Tubingen,€ Tubingen,€ Germany Fiona Fidler Australian Centre of Excellence for Risk Analysis (ACERA), Environmental Science, School of , University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC, Australia Cordelia Fine Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences & Melbourne Business School & Centre for Ethical Leadership, University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC, Australia Joseph J. Fins Division of Medical Ethics, New York Presbyterian–Weill Cornell Medical Center, Weill Medical College of , New York, NY, USA Consortium for the Advanced Study of Brain Injury (CASBI), Weill Cornell Medical College & Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA Farah Focquaert Bioethics Institute Ghent, Department of Philosophy and Moral Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium Paul Foley Unit for History and Philosophy of Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, Sydney, NSW, Australia xxvi Contributors

Paul J. Ford Department of Bioethics, NeuroEthics Program, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA Cynthia Forlini Institut de recherches cliniques de Montre´al (IRCM), Neuroethics Research Unit, Montre´al, QC, Canada UQ Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia Thorsten Galert German Reference Centre for Ethics in the Life Sciences, Bonn, Germany Delia Gavrus Department of History, University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, MB, Canada Alireza Gharabaghi Translational and Functional & Restorative Neurosurgery, Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Tubingen,€ Tubingen,€ Germany International Centre for Ethics in the Sciences and Humanities, University of Tubingen,€ Tubingen,€ Germany Jay N. Giedd National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA Carl Gillett Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, USA James Giordano Neuroethics Studies Program, Pellegrino Center for Clinical Bioethics, Division of Integrative Physiology; Department of Biochemistry and Integrative Program in , Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA Human Science Center, Ludwig Maximilians Universita¨t, Munich, Germany Walter Glannon Department of Philosophy, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada Andrea L. Glenn Center for Prevention of Youth Behavior Problems, Department of Psychology, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA Imogen Goold Faculty of Law, University of Oxford, St Anne’s College, Oxford, UK Bert Gordijn Institute of Ethics, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland Adam Green Department of Philosophy, Azusa Pacific University, Azusa, CA, USA Dominik Groß Medical School, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany Contributors xxvii

Wayne D. Hall The University of Queensland, UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital, Herston, QLD, Australia Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia Sven Ove Hansson Division of Philosophy, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden Chelsea Helion Department of Psychology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA Hanfried Helmchen Department of Psychiatry & Psychotherapy, Charite´ – University Medicine Berlin, CBF, Berlin, Germany Spencer Phillips Hey Biomedical Ethics Unit, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada Sam Horng Department of Neurology, Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, NY, USA Merv Hyde Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia Anne J. Jacobson University of Houston Center for Neuro-Engineering and Cognitive Science, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA Karim Jebari Department of Philosophy, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden Catherine Jefferson Department of Social Science, Health & Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK Sara B. Johnson Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA Josephine Johnston The Hastings Center, Garrison, NY, USA Fabrice Jotterand Institute for Biomedical Ethics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland David Michael Kaplan Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia Antti Kauppinen Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland Michael L. Kelly Department of Neurosurgery, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA xxviii Contributors

Jeanette Kennett Department of Philosophy, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia Jonathan Kimmelman Studies for Translation, Ethics and Medicine (STREAM), Biomedical Ethics/Social Studies of Medicine/Department of Human , McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada Linda Komesaroff Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, VIC, Australia Paul A. Komesaroff Monash Centre for Ethics in Medicine and Society, Monash University, Caulfield East, VIC, Australia Norbert Konrad Institut fur€ Forensische Psychiatrie, Charite´ – Universita¨tsmedizin, Berlin, Germany Timothy Mark Krahn Novel Tech Ethics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada William Langley University of Houston Center for Neuro-Engineering and Cognitive Science, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA Charles D. Laughlin Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada Steven Laureys Coma Science Group, Cyclotron Research Center & Neurology Department, University of Lie`ge, Lie`ge, Belgium Bartlomiej A. Lenart Department of Philosophy, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada Christian Lenk Ulm University, Ulm, Germany Neil Levy Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia Anne Lingford-Hughes Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK Jayne Lucke University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia R. Luerding Department of Neurology, University of Regensburg Medical Center, Regensburg, Germany Catriona Mackenzie Department of Philosophy, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia Corey J. Maley Department of Philosophy, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA Hannah Maslen Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Contributors xxix

Paul H. Mason Woolcock Institute of , Glebe, NSW, Australia Debra J. H. Mathews Johns Hopkins Berman Institute of Bioethics, Baltimore, MD, USA Steve Matthews Plunkett Centre for Ethics (St Vincent’s and Mater Health Sydney), Department of Philosophy, Australian Catholic University, Sydney, NSW, Australia Donatella Mattia Clinical , Neuroelectrical Imaging and BCI Laboratory, Fondazione Santa Lucia IRCCS, Rome, Italy Thomas R. McCormick Department Bioethics and Humanities, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Iain McGilchrist The Bethlem Royal and Maudsley Hospital, London, UK Reinhard Merkel Faculty of Law, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany M. Milian Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Tubingen,€ Tubingen,€ Germany Franklin G. Miller Department of Bioethics, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA Masamichi Minehata Division of Peace Studies, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK Sabine Muller€ Department for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy CCM, Charite´ – Universita¨tsmedizin, Berlin, Germany Liam Nestor Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK Tatyana Novossiolova Bradford Disarmament Research Centre, Division of Peace Studies, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK Justin Oakley Centre for Human Bioethics, School of Philosophical, Historical and International Studies Monash University Faculty of Arts, Clayton, VIC, Australia Fiachra O’Brolcháin Institute of Ethics, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland Elisabeth Pacherie Institut Jean Nicod – UMR 8129, ENS, EHESS, CNRS, Paris, France Anna Pacholczyk Centre for Social Ethics and Policy, School of Law, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK Institute for Science Ethics and Innovation, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK Erik Parens The Hastings Center, Garrison, NY, USA xxx Contributors

Brad Partridge University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia Norbert W. Paul History, Philosophy, and Ethics of Medicine, Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany Gualtiero Piccinini Department of Philosophy, University of Missouri – St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA Andrew Pinsent Ian Ramsey Centre for Science and Religion, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK David A. Pizarro Department of Psychology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA Eric Racine Neuroethics Research Unit, Institut de recherches cliniques de Montre´al, Montre´al, QC, Canada Department of Medicine and Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Universite´ de Montre´al, Montre´al, QC, Canada Departments of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Experimental Medicine & Biomedical Ethics Unit, McGill University, Montre´al, QC, Canada Adrian Raine Departments of Criminology, Psychiatry, and Psychology, Jerry Lee Center of Criminology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA Stephen Reyna Max Planck Institute of Social Anthropology, Halle, Germany Regina A. Rini University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Sabine Rona Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital, Eberhard Karls University, Tubingen,€ Germany Diana Rose Health Service and Population Research Department, King’s College London Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK Adina L. Roskies Department of Philosophy, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA Chiara Saviane Interdisciplinary Laboratory for Advanced Studies, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste, Italy Marya Schechtman University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA Maartje Schermer Department Medical Ethics and , Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands Stephan Schleim Faculty of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Theory and History of Psychology, Heymans Institute for Psychological Research, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands , Munich Center for Neurosciences, Ludwig–Maximilians– University Munich, Munich, Germany Contributors xxxi

Elizabeth Shaw School of Law, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK Ilina Singh Department of Social Science, Health & Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK Anke Snoek Philosophy Department, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia Surjo R. Soekadar Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Applied Lab/Institute of Medical Psychology and Behavioral Neurobiology, University Hospital Tubingen,€ Tubingen,€ Germany Tamler Sommers University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA Edward H. Spence Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics (an Australian Research Council Special Research Centre), Charles Sturt University, Canberra, Australia 3TU Centre for Ethics and Technology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands Frank W. Stahnisch Department of Community Health Sciences and Department of History, Hotchkiss Brain Institute/Institute for Public Health, The University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada Jeremy Sugarman Johns Hopkins University, Berman Institute of Bioethics, Baltimore, MD, USA Jacqueline Sullivan Department of Philosophy and Rotman Institute of Philosophy, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada Matthis Synofzik Department of Neurology, Centre for Neurology and Hertie- Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tubingen,€ Tubingen,€ Germany George Szmukler King’s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK Guglielmo Tamburrini DIETI – Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettrica e Tecnologie dell’Informazione, Università di Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy Marcos Tatagiba Department of Neurosurgery, Eberhard-Karls University Hospital, Tubingen,€ Germany Michael Trimble Institute of Neurology, London, UK Odile Nogueira Ugarte Division of Neurosurgery, Andaraı´ Federal Hospital, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Postgraduation Program in Neurology, Federal University of the State of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Yvette van der Eijk Centre for Biomedical Ethics, National University of Singapore Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Singapore xxxii Contributors

Patrick Vargas Department of Advertising, University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign, IL, USA Fernando Vidal ICREA (Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies), CEHIC (Center for the History of Science, Autonoma University of Barcelona), Barcelona, Spain Unitat d’Histo`ria de la Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, M6/130, Universitat Auto`noma de Barcelona, Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain Nicole A. Vincent Philosophy Department, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA Philosophy Section, Technische Universiteit Delft, Delft, The Netherlands Aku Visala Department of Anthropology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA Faculty of , University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland Mary Walker Department of Philosophy, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia Gerald Walther Division of Peace Studies, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK Robert A. Wilson Department of Philosophy, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada Murat Yucel€ Monash Clinical and Imaging Neuroscience, School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

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