Perspectives In Learning

Volume 17 | Number 1 Article 5

9-27-2018 The fficE acy of Concept Mapping as a Learning Tool in Life-Span Development Classes Joseph A. Mayo Gordon State College, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: https://csuepress.columbusstate.edu/pil Part of the Psychology Commons

Recommended Citation Mayo, J. A. (2018). The Efficacy of Concept Mapping as a Learning Tool in Life-Span Development Classes. Perspectives In Learning, 17 (1). Retrieved from https://csuepress.columbusstate.edu/pil/vol17/iss1/5

This Research is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at CSU ePress. It has been accepted for inclusion in Perspectives In Learning by an authorized editor of CSU ePress.

MAYO

The Efficacy of Concept Mapping as a Learning Tool in Life-Span Development Classes

Joseph A. Mayo Gordon State College

Abstract

The effectiveness of concept mapping on learning has been reported in research across a number of undergraduate disciplines. The purpose of the present investigation was to add to the existing literature on concept mapping in the teaching of psychology through systematic comparisons of learning in undergraduate life-span development classes. In one group, students completed concept-mapping assignments. In another group, they completed written assignments with features of relationship-identification shared with concept mapping. The combined results of quantitative and qualitative comparisons favored concept mapping over the more traditional learning assignments. Implications for future classroom research are discussed.

Over a 12-year span beginning in the most abstract to increasingly more specific; late 1970s, Joseph D. Novak led a group of and cross-links are connections between researchers at Cornell University who initially discrete concepts in distant parts of pioneered concept mapping as a graphic the that illustrate recognition of broad organizational and meta-learning strategy linkages within a topic (Mayo, 2010; Novak that assists in knowledge configuration (see & Cañas, 2008). The one- or two-way Novak, 1990). He borrowed from Ausubel’s directional links between subordinate (1963, 1968) meaningful theory of learning concepts, along with the descriptive in which knowledge acquisition occurs connecting words, depict an understanding of through assimilation of new concepts into semantic or ideational relationships between existing conceptual frameworks. With concepts in a learner’s knowledge set concept mapping, the learner organizes (Novak, 1998). networks of concepts in a resembling a hierarchical flow that In the context of higher education, proceeds from the most-inclusive general Hay, Kinchin, and Lygo-Baker (2008) concept to more-specific subordinate ones discussed ways in which concept mapping (Novak, 2010). In a , nodes can be used to “transform abstract knowledge represent concepts by means of labels and understanding into concrete visual containing a keyword or short phrase; links representations that are amenable to are directional lines indicating temporal or comparison and measurement” (p. 295). The causal relationships between concepts; efficacy of concept mapping in teaching propositions are two or more concepts applied concepts has a longstanding history connected with descriptive words to form in the research literature within the natural meaningful statements; hierarchies are row- and physical sciences (e.g., Arnaudin, arranged levels within the map that flow from Mintzes, Dunn, & Shafer, 1984; Cilburn,

46 CONCEPT MAPPING

1990; Wallace, Mintzes, & Markhan, 1992), class (as graphic organizers for each including more recent applications to textbook-based chapter). Although they did college-level chemistry (Singh & Moono, not implement formal measurement of 2015), biology (Bramwell-Lalor & Rainford, students’ responses to concept mapping, they 2013), geology (Englebrecht, Mintzes, did find overall indications that students Brown, & Kelso, 2005), and physics responded favorably when were (Martinez, Perez, Suero, & Pardo, 2013). targeted for a future assignment or possessed Dating back to the early 1990s, applicability to other learning scenarios. undergraduate nursing is another academic discipline in which the benefits of concept Purpose mapping have been widely reported (see Daley, Morgan, & Black, 2016, for a In the early 2000s, I had co-conducted historical literature review). Although to a a collaborative pilot investigation that comparatively lesser degree, the pedagogical examined concept mapping of the human utility of concept mapping has also been nervous system as a learning assignment in shown within undergraduate classes in other multiple sections of both introductory academic disciplines, including accounting psychology and biology classes. Visual (Simon, 2007), management (Gray, 2007), inspection of students’ work from this cross- technology (Alhomaidan, 2015), and teacher disciplinary study showed that concept education (Buldu & Buldu, 2010). mapping provided students in all class sections with an organizational platform from In my own teaching discipline, which to comprehend the basic structures and researchers have explored the use of concept functions of the human nervous system mapping in the undergraduate psychology (Mayo & Salata, 2002). Following my curriculum. However, the incidence of this involvement in this investigation, I have research has been relatively sparse. To my applied concept mapping more extensively best knowledge, there have been no empirical throughout my own introductory psychology or anecdotal reports in the research literature and several other undergraduate psychology for more than a decade. In the framework of classes. Although I have continued to observe teaching introductory psychology, Jacobs- anecdotal confirmation of the teaching and Lawson and Hershey (2002) compared learning benefits associated with concept students’ concept maps at the beginning mapping, I have become increasingly (pretest) and end (posttest) of the semester, interested in determining whether I might concluding that concept mapping is effective uncover empirical evidence in my own at assessing students’ knowledge. Similarly, classes to support my more informal in examining concept mapping in a classroom observations. I designed the sophomore-level personality theories course, present investigation to satiate this growing Anthis (2005) found a significant increase in personal interest, and at the same time, to add the number of quantitative items in students' to the existing research literature on concept concept maps from pretest to posttest. More mapping within the teaching of psychology. recently, Carnot and Stewart (2006) used More specifically, in the current study I will concept mapping in both a sophomore-level undertake a systematic comparison between cognitive psychology class (as advance a learning condition where one group of organizers for class lectures and discussions) undergraduate life-span development and a senior-level culture and psychology students completes concept-mapping

47

MAYO

assignments and another condition in which Procedure a different group of these students completes more traditional written assignments with In both the Mapping and the Control elements of relationship-identification shared conditions, I chose the same 10 with concept mapping. Consistent with developmental theorists as the focal points of previous research findings on the favorable 5 total hours of classroom instruction. I impact of concept mapping on learning, I selected these theorists as leading predict that those students in the concept- representatives of these major developmental mapping learning condition will demonstrate perspectives: ethological (Konrad Lorenz); greater learning gains than those in the contextual (Urie Bronfenbrenner); comparison condition. psychodynamic (Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson); learning (B. F. Skinner, Albert Methods Bandura); humanistic (Abraham Maslow); cognitive (Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg); Participants and sociocultural (Lev Vygotsky).

Participants were 126 college In the Mapping condition, I freshmen and sophomores (79 women and 47 conducted 30 minutes of preliminary training men) enrolled in one of four sections of a life- on how to properly construct a concept map span developmental psychology course. based on a pre-existing, concept-mapping Their ages ranged from 17 to 56 years (M = training module (Mayo, 2010). Following 25.84). this training and the aforementioned classroom instruction on the targeted Design developmental theorists, I asked students to generate concept maps to portray their As part of an independent two-group comprehension of the work of each theorist. quasi-experimental design, I compared Completed maps were due in class on an student performance in two course sections exam day one week after completion of the receiving concept-mapping assignments classroom instruction. In grading the maps, I (Mapping condition) with similar followed an established grading scheme performance in a Control condition (Mayo, 2010) in which I assigned specified consisting of two other course sections in point values to accurate nodes, links, which I gave no such assignments. Over two hierarchies, and cross-links. consecutive semesters, I randomly assigned intact classes to either the Mapping (n = 67) Students individually completed the or Control (n = 59) condition. There were no concept maps—each worth 1% of the final appreciable differences between conditions course grade—outside of class as hand- on the basis of age, gender, GPA, and SAT drawn assignments. I elected for a hand- and/or ACT scores. Except for the presence drawn over a computer-generated mode of or absence of the concept-mapping completion so as to avoid the need for assignments, I held the course content, additional student training on constructing testing format, and other pertinent concept maps electronically. As an instructional variables constant between illustrative example, Figure 1 shows a conditions, including the fact that I served as student-generated concept map for instructor for all class sections. Bronbrenner’s (1979) bioecological

48 CONCEPT MAPPING

(contextual) theory. Although this map was Mapping condition. At the root of concept originally hand-drawn, for optimum mapping is the depiction of conceptual presentation clarity I have re-constructed it connections. Consequently, the written electronically through CmapTools (Florida assignments in the Control condition were Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, aimed at addressing conceptual relationships 2018), which is a cost-free, downloadable, between core features of the work of each online software toolkit that allows users to selected theorist. Each assignment consisted construct, navigate, share, and critique of a maximum 350-word synopsis associated concept maps. with each chosen theorist. Parallel to the procedures followed in the Mapping condition, students in the Control condition individually completed the synopses outside of class after receiving an equal amount of classroom instruction on the work of the developmental theorists in question. Moreover, each synopsis was worth 1% of the final course grade, with all synopses due in class on an exam day 1 week following classroom instruction.

Results and Discussion

As the dependent measure for use in comparative statistical testing, I used academic performance on an exam that representatively canvassed the work of the targeted developmental theorists. In both conditions, this exam was administered one week after completion of classroom instruction on the developmental theorists. In order to minimize the possibility of experimenter effects in composing and grading this exam, I selected 50 multiple- choice questions from conceptually based, Figure 1. Computer-Generated Version of an test-bank items. In the dual interest of test Originally Hand-drawn, Student-Composed security and alternate-form test reliability, I Concept Map of Bronfenbrenner’s matched questions on content and level of Bioecological Theory difficulty in the process of selecting items for random inclusion on four different-but- In order to establish equivalency equivalent exam versions (one for each of the between conditions, in place of the concept- four participating class sections). The results mapping assignments, I assigned students in of an independent-groups t-test showed that the Control condition written assignments students exposed to concept mapping (M = pertaining to the work of the same 83.16, SD = 8.61) significantly outperformed developmental theorists addressed in the those students who did not receive this

49

MAYO

Table 1

Students’ Numerical Ratings of the Assignments in the Mapping and Control Conditions Control Mapping Item M SD M SD 1. Organizing course content 3.04 0.77 4.62 0.53 2. Improving overall conceptual 2.76 0.93 4.46 0.81 understanding 3. Clarifying conceptual relationships 2.89 1.01 4.33 0.65 4. Stimulating engagement in learning 2.93 0.68 4.01 0.96 educational intervention (M = 78.94, SD = comments about the synopses assignments, 10.29), t(124) = 2.51, p < .01. with the vast majority being critical insofar as conceptual comprehension and I used a brief questionnaire to assess interconnections are concerned. students’ perceptions of completing respective assignments in the Mapping and Viewed as a whole, the present Control conditions. Within this survey findings suggest that concept mapping is an instrument, I linked each of the following effective student learning tool in the context four items to a 5-point Likert-type scale with of teaching life-span developmental anchors at 1 (not helpful) and 5 (very helpful): psychology. As predicted, the results of (1) organizing course content; (2) improving comparative statistical testing lend empirical overall conceptual understanding; (3) support to the conclusion that concept clarifying conceptual relationships; and (4) mapping improves learning when compared stimulating engagement in learning. Across to a more traditional learning task. In all attitudinal measures, students in the addition, student attitudinal data indicated Mapping condition rated far more positively that concept mapping not only possesses the experience of completing the concept- organizational value in learning but also mapping assignments than students in the serves as a graphic organizer that both Control condition rated the synopses encourages and facilitates students’ visual assignments. Students’ numerical ratings understanding of concepts and their appear in 1. component interrelationships. These results corroborate previously discussed findings on At the conclusion of the survey, I the successful use of concept mapping as a invited students in both conditions to write meta-learning technique in other open-ended comments about their undergraduate classes in psychology (Anthis, corresponding assignments. With nearly 75% 2005; Carnot & Stewart, 2006; Jacobs- of participants in the Mapping condition Lawson & Hershey, 2002) and other responding, slightly over half voiced that the academic disciplines (e.g., Alhomaidan, visual nature of concept maps helped them to 2015; Buldu & Buldu, 2010; Martinez et al., recognize and better understand the big 2013). picture of interrelationships among related ideas. In contrast, only about 20% of In the present investigation, students participants in the Control condition offered in the Mapping condition created their maps

50 CONCEPT MAPPING

individually. Future research on concept Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of mapping might examine whether learning human development: Experiments by differences arise between conditions where nature and design. Cambridge, MA: students create concepts maps on their own Harvard University Press. and those conditions in which they rely on Buldu, M., & Buldu, N. (2010). Concept group processes to construct the maps. mapping as a formative assessment in Additionally, subsequent research might college classrooms: Measuring focus on systematic comparisons between usefulness and student satisfaction. concept mapping and other types of graphic Procedia: Social and Behavioral organizers (e.g., Venn , analogy Sciences, 2, 2099-2104. organizers, knowledge grids) to determine if Carnot, M. J., & Stewart, D. (2006). Using learning differences are found within these concept maps in college level comparisons. psychology and social work classes. In A. J. Cañas & J. D. Novak (Eds.), References Concept maps: Theory, methodology, technology. Proceedings of the Alhomaidan, A. M. A. (2015). The Second International Conference on effectiveness of concept mapping on Concept Mapping (Vol. 2). San José, learning: A study in a Saudi college- Costa Rica: University of Costa Rica. level context. American Journal of Retrieved from Educational Research, 3, 1010-1014. https://www.researchgate.net/publica Anthis, K. (2005). From Freud to Erikson to tion/266894552_using_concept_map Marcia: Concept maps in personality s_in_college_level_psychology_and psychology courses. Teaching of _social_work_classes Psychology, 32, 263-265. Cilburn, J. W. (1990). Concept maps to Arnaudin, M. A., Mintzes, J. J., Dunn, C. S., promote meaningful learning. & Shafer, T. H. (1984). Concept Journal of College Science Teaching, mapping in college science teaching. 19, 212-217. Journal of College Science Teaching, Daley, B. J., Morgan, S., & Black, S. B. 14, 117—121. (2016). Concept maps in nursing Ausubel, D. P. (1963). The psychology of education. A historical literature meaningful verbal learning. New review and research directions. York, NY: Grune & Stratton. Journal of Nursing Education, 55, Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational 631-639. psychology: A cognitive view. New Englebrecht, A. C., Mintzes, J. J., Brown, L. York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and M., & Kelso, P. R. (2005). Probing Winston. understanding in physical geology Bramwell-Lalor, S., & Rainford, M. (2013). using concept maps and clinical The effects of using concept mapping interviews. Journal of Geoscience for improving advanced level biology Education, 53, 263-270. students’ lower- and higher-order Florida Institute for Human and Machine cognitive skills. International Cognition (2018). CmapTools: Journal of Science Education, 36, Knowledge Modeling Kit [Computer 839-864. program]. Pensacola, FL: Institute for Human and Machine Cognition.

51

MAYO

Retrieved from Novak, J. D. (2010). Learning, creating, and http://cmap.ihmc.us/download/ using knowledge: Concept maps as Gray, D. E. (2007). Facilitating management facilitative tools in schools and learning: Developing critical corporations (2nd ed.). New York, reflection through reflection tools. NY: Routledge. Management Learning, 38, 495-517. Novak, J. D., & Cañas, A. J. (2008). The Hay, D., Kinchin, I., & Lygo-Baker, S. theory underlying concept maps and (2008). Making learning visible: The how to construct them. Florida role of concept mapping in higher Institute for Human and Machine education. Studies in Higher Cognition. [Technical Report IHMC Education, 33, 295-311. Cmap Tools 2006-01 Rev 01-2008] Jacobs-Lawson, J. M., & Hershey, D. A. Retrieved from (2002). Concept maps as an http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/Res assessment tool in psychology earchPapers/TheoryUnderlyingConc courses. Teaching of Psychology, 29, eptMaps.pdf 25-29. Simon, J. (2007). Concept mapping in a Martinez, G., Perez, A. L., Suero, M. I., & financial accounting theory course. Pardo, P. J. (2013). The effectiveness Accounting Education, 16, 273-308. of concept maps in teaching physics Singh, I. S., & Moono, K. (2015). The effect concepts applied to engineering of using concept maps on student education: Experimental comparison achievement in selected topics in of the amount of learning achieved chemistry at tertiary level. Journal of with and without concept maps. Education and Practice, 6, 106-116. Journal of Science Education and Wallace, J. D., Mintzes, J. J., & Markham, K. Technology, 22, 204-214. M. (1992). Concept mapping in Mayo, J. A. (2010). Constructing college science teaching: What the undergraduate psychology curricula: research says. Journal of College Promoting authentic learning and Science Teaching, 22, 84-86. assessment in the teaching of ______psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. JOSEPH A. MAYO is currently a Professor Mayo, J. A., & Salata, M. (2002). [Cross- of Psychology at Gordon State College in disciplinary applications of concept Barnesville, Georgia, who has been teaching mapping in the undergraduate and conducting classroom-centered research curriculum]. Unpublished raw data in higher education for over three decades. and preliminary student-training His primary research interest is effective module. undergraduate teaching strategies with an Novak, J. D. (1990). Concept mapping: A emphasis on constructivist classroom useful tool for science education. applications. He is the recipient of both Journal of Research in Science statewide and national awards for his Teaching, 27, 937-949. ongoing contributions to the scholarship of Novak, J. D. (1998). Learning, creating, and teaching and learning. using knowledge: Concept maps as facilitative tools in schools and corporations. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

52