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Terai Report For

Terai Report For

The Arc Landscape in

Securing Protected Areas in the Face of Global Change

Report by : Rajeev L. Semwal

Forests & Biodiversity Conservation Programme World Wide Fund for Nature-India New

World Wide Fund for Nature-India 172-B, Lodhi Estate, New Delhi- 110003 Tel: 91-11-51504785, 51504787, 51504788, 51504815 Fax: 91-11-51504779 Website: www.wwfindia.org

Contents

Foreword v

Background and Acknowledgements vii

1. Introduction 1 1.1. National Environmental Policy and Legal Framework 1.2. and Wildlife Management 1.3. The Protected Areas (PAs) System 1.4. The Institutional Structure 1.5. The (TAL) 1.5.1. Ecological Context 1.5.2. Scientific Information 1.5.3. Socio-economic Context 1.5.4. The Protected Areas of TAL India

2. The Learning Site - West-Central TAL India 10 2.1. Rajaji NP-Sonanadi WLS-Corbett NP, nearby Reserved and Corridors (Western TAL) 2.2. Kishanpur WLS, Dudhwa NP, Katarniaghat WLS, nearby Reserved Forests and Corridors (Central TAL)

3. Global Change Factors Affecting the Learning Sites 16 3.1. Habitat Fragmentation 3.1.1. Biophysical Drivers 3.1.2. Socio-economic Drivers 3.1.3. Institutional Drivers 3.1.4. Inadequate Scientific Understanding 3.2. Biological Invasion (Invasive Species) 3.2.1. The Extent and Impacts 3.2.2. Lack of Scientific Understanding

4. Response to Cope with the Change Factors 26 4.1. Judiciary Processes and Enforcement 4.2. Policy & Planning 4.2.1. Joint Forest Management (JFM) and Eco-development 4.2.2. Trans-boundary Cooperation 4.2.3. Environment Protection Act

Citation: 4.3. The Landscape Approach to Ecosystem Semwal, R. L. 2005. The Terai Arc Landscape in India, and Species Management Securing Protected Areas in the Face of Global Change. WWF-India, New Delhi. vii + 47pp 4.3.1. and Reserves, Wildlife Corridors 4.3.2. Trans-boundary Landscape Management and Creation Cover Photos: of new Community PAs Brigadier Ranjit Talwar, Dr. Rajeev Semwal, 4.3.3. Assisted Natural Regeneration, Habitat Management, Dr. Badrish Mehra, Species Reintroduction Mr. G. S. Mann 4.3.4. Human-Wildlife Conflict Management Available from: 4.3.4. Capacity Building and Partnerships Forest & Biodiversity Conservation Division, 4.4. Regulating Impacts of Infrastructure Development WWF-India, 172-B, Lodhi Estate, New Delhi 110 003 Tel: 91-11-51504785, 51504787, 51504788, 51504815 4.5. Control of Invasive Species Fax: 91-11-51504779 E mail: [email protected] 4.6. Research and Monitoring Website: www.wwfindia.org 4.7. Community Awareness and Outreach

Report design & print: 4.8. Addressing Human Population Pressure The Design Shack N-117, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi - 110 017 [email protected] Foreword v The Terai-Duar is spread over the southern slopes of the in India, , and . The Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) lies 5. Lessons Learned and Guidelines 33 within this ecoregion covering an area of approximately 5.1. Landscape Approach to Ecosystem 49,500 sq km in India and Nepal stretching from the and Species Management in the East to the River in the 5.2. Exclusion versus Participation west. There are 13 existing Protected Areas (PAs) that 5.3. Joint Forest Management and Eco-development fall within this landscape and the TAL is the best 5.4. Scientific Basis for Habitat, Species surviving remnant of the once extensive alluvial and Weed Management and forest ecosystems in the ecoregion. The 5.5. Management Capacity and Partnerships landscape is also home to some of Asia's largest and 5.6. Guidelines for Stakeholders most well-known wildlife such as , and rhinos along with a large variety of other rare, 6. Conclusions 38 endangered and endemic wildlife species.

7. References 39 The TAL in India covers an area of approximately 30,000 sq. km across the states of Uttaranchal, Uttar 8. Annexures 45 Pradesh and . The area within TAL that is covered by 8.1. Abbreviations Used forests is roughly 15,000 sq. km. The TAL consists of the 8.2. Critical Corridors in West-Central TAL Shivalik hills, the adjoining bhabhar areas and the terai 8.3. Stakeholders' Consultations . These three strata are in the form of narrow strips running parallel south of the main Himalaya. Less than 50 years ago, the TAL was a contiguous expanse of dense forests and tall grasses. The land use now varies between patches of forest in various conditions (including 9 PAs), agricultural fields, urban settlements, as well as an infrastructure network. The PAs are mainly just isolated refuges and do not currently provide the connectivity required for key wildlife species to maintain their natural ecology and behaviour, and for important ecosystem processes to be sustained. The biological vision for the TAL therefore, is to restore and maintain habitat connectivity in this landscape.

This study, which focuses on key global change phenomena affecting the TAL has identified two specific biophysical factors for analysis: increasing habitat fragmentation and proliferation of invasive species. Based on existing scientific information, management plan of the PAs, working plans of the reserve forests as well as direct interaction with various stakeholders, the report builds a framework for understanding these issues in the context of the West-Central TAL. It outlines some of the underlying drivers leading to these global change factors as well as discussing ongoing and potential responses to address these. This important study should contribute a great deal towards ongoing efforts in developing an integrated conservation and development approach for the TAL in India.

Dr. Sejal Worah Programme Director WWF-India vii 1

Introduction 1

India is one of the twelve-mega biodiversity Nearly 45,000 plant species are found in the countries recognized throughout the world and country, of these, 15,000 are flowering plant harbours two of the 25 identified global 'hotspots' species and some 33% of them are endemic. of biodiversity - the eastern Himalaya and the Similarly, faunal species also exhibit a great degree . The country holds 8.1% of the of diversity. A total of 81,250 faunal species world's total biodiversity. The rich biodiversity of comprising 372 mammals, 1228 birds, 2546 fishes, India, to a great extent, owes its existence to the 446 reptiles, 204 amphibians and remaining age old cultural values of the society, wherein, invertebrates including protozoa, insects, mollusks, protection of the various life forms was crustaceans, etc. have been recorded from the emphasized by creating Abhayaranya country (Ministry of Environment and Forests (Sanctuaries) as mentioned in Kautilya's (MoEF), 1999). To protect and manage this Arthasastra (the old Indian classic on diversity, a huge network of the PAs comprising 89 governance written as far back as 4th century BC). National Parks and 482 Sanctuaries has been The presence of many Sacred Groves throughout created mostly during the last three decades. The the country, surviving even today, validates the PAs currently cover more than 8 million ha, which rich cultural heritage and environmental prudence is about 5% of the country's total geographic area, of the Indian society. However, in recent times, and about 14% of the forest area. (WII, 2000). when population is increasing at an alarming pace, National socio-economic aspirations are changing and 1.1. Environmental consumerism is growing, conservation Policy and Legal requirements are bound to change to face the new Framework challenges. India is unique in having legislation for forest India is divided into ten bio-geographic zones management since the 19th century. The first namely the Trans-Himalayan, the Himalayan, the organized scientific approach to managing forests Indian deserts, the semi-arid areas, the Western in India was initiated way back in 1861 during the Ghats, the Deccan peninsula, the Gangetic , Colonial rule. The Government Forest Department north-east India, the islands and coasts (Figure 1). was established in 1865 (Forest Research Institute

Bio-geographic zones in India with Protected Areas

Prepared by IGCMC Division, WWF-India, 2005 Based on WII, 2000 Figure 1 3

The (FRI), 1961). The first Forest Policy of 1894 as well Forest Conservation Act, 1980, to regulate the 1.3. exempted areas (for creating a PA) that are as the second National Forest Policy, formulated diversion of forestland for non-forest purposes. Protected already Reserve Forests (RFs) as according to the Areas (PAs) few years after independence, in 1952 did not put The National Environmental Protection Act, 1986 System Forest Act, 1927, while bringing in any forest under much value to wildlife conservation or the (Environment Impact Assessment Notification, the RF category, settling of rights has to be carried ecological significance of the forest ecosystems. 1994), makes it mandatory to seek environmental out before declaring the area as RF. The Wildlife (Protection) Act (WLPA), 1972, For almost a century and until 1988, the policy was clearance for infrastructural development. The consents to the creation of three categories of PAs to use forestland for commercial purposes, and recently passed Biological Diversity Act, 2002 The PA network in India is helping to conserve the viz., Wildlife Sanctuaries (section 18 to 34A), look upon the people as a liability. Forest provides for conservation of biological diversity, rich biodiversity of the country in all the 10 National Park (section 35), and Closed Areas (now management strategies were distinctly in favour of sustainable use of its components and equitable bio-geographic regions. This is in spite of the fact repealed by Act 16 of 2003) until the recent commercial and industrial exploitation, with little sharing of benefits arising out of the use of that over 65% of the PAs are under the direct amendment in 2002. Chapter IV (section 18 to 38) attention paid to sustainability or equity and to biological resources including agrobiodiversity. influence of human population in terms of of the WLPA, 1972, apart from the creation of social justice. Paradigm shifts in the policy took settlements and resource use. Until 1970, the total Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLSs) and National Parks place in 1988 when the planners acknowledged the Though a robust mechanism to involve number of PAs in the country was merely 65 (NPs) also deals with creating two more categories need for involving local communities in protection, communities in the protection and management of comprising 6 NPs and 59 WLSs. The number of PAs, namely, Conservation Reserves and regeneration and management of the forests forests and wildlife is still to be found, the process increased, as mentioned above, to 571 by 2000 Community Reserves (Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 taking into account that over 100 million forest has begun in the form of Joint Forest Management (WII, 2000). A majority of the NPs in the country amendment, 2002, section 36A to 36D). Most of dwellers live in and around forests and another (JFM) in Managed Forest (MF) areas, and the are divided into a core zone and a tangential buffer the rules and regulations applicable in case of 275 million are substantially dependent on them Ecodevelopment Programme in the PAs. Village zone, which can be either a WLS or a RF. Regulated WLSs are also applied to these new PA entities for their livelihoods (Lynch, 1992). Forest Protection Committees (VFPCs), under JFM, resource use in the PAs has been restricted to the while giving more representation to local and Eco Development Committees (EDCs), under buffer zones while core areas are completely communities in management. The former Initially, when the Indian Constitution came into the Ecodevelopment Programme, have been closed. There exist some non-formal entities like (Conservation Reserve) is created on government effect in 1950, little attention was given to detail formed at the village level. The experiment is little Biosphere Reserves, Tiger Reserves and Elephant forestland, preferably linking two important out environment protection. However, in the next over a decade old and has so far shown mixed Reserves in the country to effectively protect and areas/PAs, and the latter (Community Reserve) few decades the expanding awareness among the results throughout the country. Successful manage the wildlife and the habitats following the could be declared on community land or private people led to certain aspects related to examples of achieving community development on Landscape approach. land where a community or an individual environment protection being incorporated in the the one hand and biodiversity conservation on the voluntarily comes forward to conserve wildlife and The constitutional framework. In 1976, protection of other are still difficult to find. 1.4. its habitat. Institutional forests and wildlife found a place in the Directive Forest Structure Principles of the State Policy, the Fundamental 1.2. and It should not take more than two years to Duties and in the Concurrent List. Article 21 of the Wildlife complete the formalities to declare a potential area Constitution dealing with 'the Right to Life' has The highest authority dealing with wildlife Management of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, served the cause of environmental protection in conservation in the country is the Union Ministry geomorphological and natural significance as a PA. India significantly through jurisprudence (Singh, Working plans have been governing the for Environment and Forests (MoEF). A minister in According to this, the State Government may, by 2002). management of forests in India since the 1870s charge heads the ministry. He is supported by a notification, declare its intention to constitute any (FRI, 1961). The first attempt to bring wildlife secretary, and an Additional Director General of area other than area comprised within any reserve The present Indian Forest Act was formulated in management under an explicit wildlife plan Forests (Wildlife). The Additional Director General forest or the territorial waters as a Sanctuary. 1927 during the colonial rule itself. After materialized in 1972 when it was made compulsory is the highest wildlife official in the country. The Several legal steps have to be followed before a independence in 1947, according to the new for the tiger reserves established under Project Central Government, for the purpose of this act, WLS/NP is finally notified. Legal procedures are constitution, forests and wildlife were placed under Tiger in 1973. appoints a Director of Wildlife Preservation and considered completed for a sanctuary if all the the state list wherein the state legislatures had the other officers and employees as may be necessary. rights and leases had been settled, either under primary right to make laws (Seventh Schedule of It is interesting to mention here that unlike the In the states, the Forest Department is headed by the 1972 Act, or any other previous Act under the Constitution, List-II, entries 19 and 20). Later, working plans (Mathur, 1982), there was no set of the Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (PCCF). which the sanctuary was declared and no final in 1976, these (forests and wildlife protection) laws that could be followed by wildlife planners The PCCF is assisted by a number of Chief notification was required. However, for a National were added to the Concurrent List of the until the WII published a manual for the purpose in Conservator of Forests (CCFs). The CCF (Wildlife), Park, the completion of procedures was achieved Constitution giving the Central and State 1995. The manual addresses the management of also designated as the Chief Wildlife Warden only when the final notification was issued. governments shared responsibility on the forest wildlife in PAs and in Managed Forests (MFs) (CWLW), heads the Wildlife Wing and is assisted by According to amendments in the WLPA in 1991, and wildlife related matters (presently the Central outside the PAs (Sawarkar, 1995). the Conservator of Forests (CFs), the Deputy procedures for setting up a WLS have been Government does have the power to make laws on Conservators of Forests (DCFs), and the Assistant outlined which are similar to that of a National forestry issues but only after due consultation with Conservators of Forests (ACFs), in charge of Park. However, the District Collector, in the State Governments). Almost all forest land Wildlife Circles, Divisions, and Subdivisions, consultation with the Chief Wildlife Warden (76.53 million ha) is under government control, respectively. The front-line or ground staff consists (CWLW), can permit the continuance of any rights which is about 23% of the country's geographical of ACFs, Rangers, Foresters, Forest Guards, and of persons in and over the land falling within the area (MoEF, 2002). An important dimension was other designations, which differ from state to state limits of a Sanctuary (section 24 (2) c of WLPA). added to forest conservation in the form of the (Kutty and Kothari, 2001). An Honorary Wildlife The WLPA, after the 1991 amendment, has 5

Warden, who represents the civil society of the national, regional and global centre of biodiversity. concerned locality in wildlife management and protection, is also appointed. With the There are 13 PAs in the entire TAL, from the commencement of the Wildlife (Protection) eastern most Parsa Wildlife Reserve in Nepal to the Amendment Act, 2002, (Chapter II, Section 5A-8) in India in the west, catering the Central and State Governments have to to the need for protection of 3 of the 5 terrestrial constitute a National and State Board, respectively, flagship species viz., the tiger (Panthera tigris), the for Wildlife wherein the Prime Minister and the (Elephas maximus) and the Greater Forest Boundaries Chief Minister are the Chairpersons at the National one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). The in TAL and State levels, respectively. The functions of the TAL harbours one of the highest tiger densities in abovementioned boards are to take every possible India. measure to promote the conservation and development of wildlife and forests in the country. In India, the landscape represents the upper Prepared by: Gangetic plain biogeographic zone and the IGCMC Division, The WWF-India, 2005 1.5. vegetation is mainly tropical moist and dry Data Source: Terai Arc WII, Maps Landscape deciduous type. It is spread over two distinct Figure 2 (TAL) physiographic zones viz., Shivalik- on the one hand, characterized by hilly terrain with coarse Mallotus philippensis, and Lagerstroemia parviflora. 1993; Sankaran, 1990; Qureshi et. al., 1991a, b; 1.5.1. Ecological Context soil and boulders with relatively drier conditions in Tall grasses like Themeda, Saccharum, Phragmites, Bhaduaria and Singh, 1994; Sunderraj et. al., The Terai-Duar Savanna Ecoregion is spread over the western side, and on the other the terai (the Vetiveria and several others also characterize the 1995; Javed, 1996; Sawarkar, 2000; De, 2001; the southern slope of the Himalaya spreading Gangetic Plains) zone characterized by fine terai portion of the landscape. Though the Mathur, 2000; Williams et. al., 2001; Johnsingh across India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. In alluvium and clay rich with a shallow vegetation structure is highly heterogeneous et. al., 1990; Joshua and Johnsingh, 1995; India and Nepal, the ecoregion is represented by water table in the eastern side. As described by throughout the landscape it could roughly be Johnsingh and Negi, 2003; Johnsingh et. al., the TAL, a green necklace around the foothills of Johnsingh et. al. (2004) the TAL includes 23% classified under eight types of homogenous 2004). Some of the other important studies on the Himalaya along the border of the two countries closed forest, 7% open forest and 0.4% scrubland. communities. Champion and Seth (1968) identified various aspects in TAL are Singh (1982), from the river Bagmati in the east to the Yamuna There are 17 forest patches of size more than twenty seven types and sub-types of vegetation Chaturvedi and Mishra (1985), Rodgers et. al. in the west. The total area of the landscape is 100 sq. km; forming 90% of the landscape, most based on their association with soil and rainfall in (1990), Rawat et. al. (1997) on ; Singh about 49,500 sq. km of which 30,000 sq. km lies of the patches are less than 5 sq. km in extent the Indian side of the landscape. Sal (Shorea et. al. (1995), Agni et. al. (2000), Pandey and in India. The TAL is the best surviving remnant of particularly in the eastern portion of the landscape. robusta) dominated and mixed forests cover 25% Shukla (2003), Rawat and Bhainsora (1999) on the once extensive alluvial grassland and forest Thus, the landscape is highly fragmented, of the forests. The other prominent tree species in woody vegetation; Pant and Chavan (2000) on ecosystems in the ecoregion. This is an important particularly in the eastern part beyond this landscape are Mallotus philippensis, and vegetation mapping in Corbett National Park; Katarniaghat WLS (Figure 2). Syzygium cumini. Plantations of economically Kumar et. al. (2002) on a variety of ecological Forest view of the Shivalik-Bhabar tract in CNP important trees like Teak, Shishoo, Eucalyptus, aspects including grassland management in Central In the west the Shivalik-bhabar portion of the Acacia, Poplar, etc. cover a sizeable area of the TAL; Rahmani et. al. (1989) on florican; landscape is composed of sal () landscape where about 250 sq. km is under Javed et. al. (1999) on francolin; Naoroji mixed and miscellaneous vegetation and terai is monoculture plantation of the three species viz., (1999) on Raptors; Pandey et. al. (1994) on the dominated by a variety of tall grasslands and sal Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo and Syzygium birds of Rajaji National Park; Panwar (1985) and forests representing the central and eastern cumini. Among shrubs Murraya koenigii is the most Tilak and Sinha (1987) on the conservation issues, portions of the landscape. The forests of the TAL ubiquitous species in the landscape. Once famous and Khati (1993), Sharma (1995) and Badola are made up of many economically important for its extensive tallest grasslands across the (1998) on sociological aspects of some of the PAs species such as Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sissoo, globe, the landscape now has only less than of TAL. More problem solving researches are Terminalia tomentosa, and Acacia catechu with 500 sq. km of such grasslands left and that too in required for the better management of the PAs and other associated tree species like Butea a highly fragmented state (Johnsingh et. al., corridors in the landscape to cope with the global monosperma, Bombax ceiba, Sterculia urens, 2004). change factors such as habitat fragmentation and Tall grasses are the characteristic feature of the Aegle marmelos, Terminalia alata, T. arjuna, Adina natural ecosystems of terai biological invasion. cordifolia, Syzygium cumini, Azadirachta indica, 1.5.2. Scientific Information Scientific studies on the PAs of the landscape on 1.5.3. Socio-economic Context the Indian side are sporadic and scanty, carried The Indian side of the TAL has a complex history of out generally by individuals or organizations driven human settlement and land use by the by their own or donors' priorities. Large flagship communities. About 70% area of the landscape is Reintroduced population of Rhinoceros in DNP species have been the focus of research and under direct human use for agriculture and management including swamp deer (Holloway, settlements. Over the last two centuries, and even 1973; Schaaf and Singh, 1976; Sale, 1986; Sale at present, high population growth and associated and Singh, 1987; Singh, 1971, 1978, 1982, 1984, agricultural expansion and changing 7

A highway passing through a Irrigation canal inside forests Uncontrolled grazing degrading mainly spread over three states viz., Uttaranchal, forest, near CTR fragments the habitat the forests of North Kheri FD (UP) and Bihar from west to east. But Johnsingh et. al. (2004) have also included socio-economic aspirations are some of the crucial settled here in large numbers during early 1970s. Kalesar WLS in the state of and challenges that impinge on the forest management Over the last four decades, people from adjacent Simbalbara WLS in the state in the landscape (Johnsingh et. al., 2004). The mountain areas, farmers from Punjab and the located on the west bank of the Yamuna in the incredible population increase of 130% from 1881 prosperous Rai Sikh community have also landscape based on the tiger movement in these to 1981 and the associated infrastructural constituted a sizable part of the population among areas. There are three Tiger Reserves viz., Corbett development such as road and rail network and migrants who settled in the west and central parts (Corbett NP, Sonanadi WLS and the RFs in the irrigation and hydroelectric projects have put of the TAL (Johnsingh et. al., 2004). buffer zone); Dudhwa (Dudhwa NP, Kishanpur terrific pressure on the forests of this area. The WLS, Katarniaghat WLS and the RFs in the buffer zones); and Valmiki (Valmiki NP and Valmiki WLS) TAL is among the most densely populated areas of Owing to high soil fertility, replenished naturally by Jharital area in Kishanpur WLS still supports a sizeable population the country. The average population density the sediments brought down by numerous rivers in the landscape. In addition, the Shivalik Elephant of endangered Swamp Deer (543 individuals/sq. km) is far higher than the originating in the Himalaya, intensive agriculture is Reserve (SER) covering the Rajaji NP (RNP), the national average (323 individuals/sq. km). At practiced by a large number of people inhabiting Sonanadi WLS, the Corbett NP (CNP) and Nepal and harbours a sizeable population of present, the total population of the landscape is the landscape. The exponential growth in spreading partly/fully into 13 Reserved Forest Gangetic dolphins and two species of fresh water about 23 million. During the last two decades population coupled with in migration, the Indian Divisions including 43 forest ranges has also been crocodiles known as the Ghariyal and the Maggar. (1981-2001), the population has increased by an side of the TAL witnessed a large-scale conversion declared in 2002 in the western part of the The DTR supports the single largest viable unusual 54.19%, which is 9% above the national of forestland for agriculture, settlements and landscape. The CNP, created on 8 August 1936 in population of swamp deer on the Indian side of the average. Weaker sections of the society comprise infrastructure development in the recent past. the foothills of and districts of Terai. Some small populations have also been 23% of the population and 67% livelihood earning Illegal encroachment of forest tracts by migrant Uttaranchal, is the first National Park in India. This reported from the Forest Division. Table 1 means are dependent on the surrounding natural labourers is also common. Notwithstanding its is also the site for the launch of the in depicts some of the general characteristics of the resources. In spite of being a highly fertile land, richness of natural resources, poverty is rampant the country. The IUCN commission on National PAs while Table 2 shows the general features of the less than 10% households could avail the in the TAL and, therefore, a sizeable section of the Parks and PAs held its 25th working session in CNP non-formal PA entities i.e. Tiger and Elephant alternatives of fuels such as LPG, coal and society is heavily dependent on the forests for fuel in 1986 to draw an action plan for PAs of the Reserves in TAL. kerosene across the TAL (Johnsingh et. al., 2004). wood, fodder, timber, and NTFPs, apart from being Indo-Malayan region. This plan is known as the used as grazing grounds for a large number of Corbett Action Plan (Anonymous, 1999). The one Among the local communities, the Tharus are the livestock. All these factors, along with some others hundred tigers in the CNP in 1997 constitute one of oldest tribal inhabitants living in Baharaich, Gonda, like forest fires, illegal logging, , and the largest populations of tiger anywhere in the Gorakhpur and Kheri districts of UP, proliferation of invasive alien as well as native world. This population, together with the tigers of Uttaranchal, and of unpalatable species, are causing degradation of found in RNP, represents the north-western most Bihar. The Tharus practice settled agriculture and corridors in the TAL. Degrading corridors, limit of tiger distribution in the Indian subcontinent also inhabit the other side of the international widespread poaching and killing of wildlife during and the oriental realm and also that of the Asiatic border in Nepal. In the western part of the conflicts are detrimental for the long-term survival elephants. The PAs also provide protection not only landscape, i.e. in Uttaranchal, the pastoral Gujjars of the mega species in the landscape. to the prey species like swamp deer, barking deer, rear a large number of livestock, mostly buffaloes, spotted deer, and other ungulates but are for milk production. Selling milk and milk products 1.5.4. The Protected Areas of TAL India also important for other endangered species like in the nearby market centres is the way of earning The entire stretch of the landscape is a little over the , , to name a few. subsistence for this community. There are about 800 km in length and 50-60 km in width in which 2346 families of Gujjars inhabiting this part of the the nine PAs (four NPs and the remaining five The Dudhwa NP (DNP) and the Kishanpur WLS landscape with over 19,000 buffaloes (Anonymous, WLSs) are located. The landscape in India is were brought under the Project Tiger Scheme in Forest Department Report, Uttaranchal). The 1987-88. The DNP (490 sq. km), the Kishanpur

Oraons, the tribal group in Gorakhpur and West People in TAL, heavily dependent on forests for fuel wood WLS (204 sq. km) and the Katarniaghat WLS Champaran districts practice settled agriculture (400 sq. km) constitute the PA cluster of the and also work as wage labourers. There is yet (DTR) in the central part of another group of people called the Taungyas who the TAL. These PAs fall within the Biogeographic were engaged in timber (sal) plantations in forests Province 07A, the Upper Gangetic Plain. They and in lieu were allowed to grow crops within represent 12 major vegetation communities and forest areas. This agroforestry system is widely contain at least 24 plant species of conservation known as Taungya cultivation introduced by the importance. The endangered species of animals British. Across the TAL, there are a number of include 12 mammal, 29 bird, and 5 reptile species. unsettled Taungya villages within forests as the The DNP has a reintroduced population of practice is no more in vogue. In addition to the Rhinoceros unicornis and Katarniaghat is aforementioned groups, refugees from Bangladesh contiguous with the Royal Bardia National Park in Table 1 Table 2 9 General Characteristics of the PAs on the Indian side of the TAL General Characteristics of non formal PA entities in the TAL

Area in Year of Area Year of Name of the PA Location Forest Type Geomorphology Focus Species Name of the PA entity PAs and Managed FDs ha Notification (sq. km.) Declaration

Rajaji , 82042 1983 Broad leaf dry Shivaliks and Elephant Corbett Tiger Reserve 1286 1973* CNP, Sonanadi WLS, and buffer carved out from National Park Hardwar and and moist tracts of Bhabar Kalagarh, Ramnagar and Terai west FDs. Pauri Districts Deciduous, of Uttaranchal southern slopes are rich in bamboo Dudhwa Tiger Reserve 1362 1987** DNP, Kishanpur WLS, Buffer zone from North and South Kheri FDs and Katarniaghat extension. Sonanadi WLS Pauri District 30100 1987 Broad leaf Shivaliks and Elephant of Uttaranchal deciduous and tracts of Bhabar and Tiger semi evergreen Valmiki Tiger Reserve 840 1994 Valmiki WLS and Valmiki NP.

Shivalik Elephant 5405 2002 RNP, CTR, and FDs (Partly/Fully) namely Kalsi, Reserve Dehradun, , Narendranagar, Lansdowne, Corbett Nainital 52082 1936 Broad leaf Shivaliks and Elephant Ramnagar, Terai west, Terai central, Terai east, National Park and Pauri Moist Deciduous, tracts of Bhabar and Tiger and . Districts of Dry Deciduous Uttaranchal

* From 1973 to 1991 the CNP and CTR were synonymous having the same area 520.82 sq. km. Gola Tehsil Kishanpur of Lakhimpur 20341 1972 Broad leaf Terai Tiger and In 1991, parts of Kalagarh, Ramnagar and Terai west FDs were added as the buffer zone making WLS Kheri, and Moist Deciduous plains Swamp Deer the present area of the reserve. Powayan and Semi-evergreen Tehsil of **The Katarniaghat extension has recently (1999-2000) been brought under the DTR increasing , Districts, UP the area from 884 sq. km to 1362 sq. km.

Dudhwa Nighasen 49029 1977 Broad leaf Terai Tiger and National Park Tehsil of Moist Deciduous flood plains Swamp Deer Lakhimpur and Kheri District Semi-evergreen of UP

Katarniaghat Nanpara 40009 1976 Broad leaf Terai Tiger, Ghariyal WLS Tehsil, Moist Deciduous flood plains (Gavialis Baharaich and Semi- gangiticus), District of UP evergreen, Gangetic Canebrake Dolphin and Otter

Suhelwa WLS Balrampur 45247 1988 Broad leaf Shivalik, Tiger and Shravasti Moist Deciduous Bhabar and Districts of UP and Terai flood Semi-evergreen plains

Sohagibarwa Maharajganj 42820 1987 Broad leaf Moist Terai Tiger, WLS and Deoraia Deciduous and flood plains and other Districts of UP Semi-evergreen, prey species Canebrake and Swamp Forests

Valmiki West 88078 1990 Broad leaf Shivalik Tiger National Park Champaran Moist Deciduous and Dun and District of and Valmiki Bihar Semi-evergreen Sanctuary 2 Study Area and Critical Sites (Rajaji NP to Katarniaghat WLS)

7800'0"E 7900'0"E 8000'0"E 8100'0"E The Learning Site - West-Central TAL India 11

Of the entire Indian portion of the TAL, the protection regimes and therefore shows its west-central stretch between the Rajaji NP (RNP) conservation importance. and Katarniaghat WLS has been identified for 0 0 detailed analyses. The selection of the learning site Though the WWF is working in the landscape since 30 0'0"N 30 0'0"N has been made on the basis of WWF-India's 1997, its role has been mainly to facilitate PA interventions and presence in the area since 1997 managers in the protection of wildlife by providing owing to its immense wildlife significance in two some crucial infrastructural support to the PAs. distinct physiographic zones, i.e. the Shivalik- However, WWF-India has been coordinating bigger Bhabar and the Gangetic Plain (Terai), respectively, TAL programmes aimed at the long-term representing west and central portions of the TAL. conservation of the West-Central TAL - a fertile, diverse and resilient area, since 2003. Under the 0 0 The selected area in the landscape encompasses programme, a framework for implementing 29 0'0"N 29 0'0"N six PAs (RNP, Sonanadi WLS, CNP, Kishanpur WLS, conservation activities during the next 3 years DNP and Katarniaghat WLS) and many Reserve (2004-2007) has been developed, following a FDs acting partly/fully as corridors between 290 56' number of detailed discussions among the to 270 55' N and 780 01'15" to 810 25' E. The total important stakeholders (the Forest Department, area of this stretch is roughly about 8500 sq. km Research Institutions and NGOs). Based on the of which 32% is under the above mentioned PAs. above discussions, four critical sites have been In addition, if the area under the Elephant Reserve identified between the RNP and the Katarniaghat 0 0 (SER) and Tiger Reserves (Corbett and Dudhwa) is WLS for immediate action during the first phase of 28 0'0"N 28 0'0"N also taken into account, then around 80% of this the programme implementation to protect and section of the TAL is currently under formal (PAs) manage the mega species along with their habitats and informal (Tiger and Elephant Reserves) in the landscape (Figure 3 & 4).

7800'0"E 7900'0"E 8000'0"E 8100'0"E Figure 4 PAs, Critical Sites and Forest Boundaries in TAL Map prepared by IGCMC, WWF-India Based on Johnsingh and Negi, 2003 and Johnsingh et. al., 2004 (Map Not to Scale)

7700'0"E 7800'0"E 7900'0"E 8000'0"E 8100'0"E 8200'0"E 8300'0"E 8400'0"E 8500'0"E 8600'0"E Rajaji NP-Sonanadi The identified corridors are: 2.1. Lansdowne FD - Kalagarh FD-CTR WLS-Corbett NP, nearby Reserved Forests 0 31 0'0"N 3100'0"N CTR - Ramnagar FD and Corridors (Western TAL) Chukka-Lagga Bagga-Kishanpur WLS Kishanpur WLS-DNP-Katarniaghat WLS. The elephant population in RNP, Sonanadi WLS,

0 30 0'0"N 0 CNP and adjoining areas forms 90% of the 750 30 0'0"N During the present study the key stakeholders (PA elephants in the north west of India in this managers including frontline staff, territorial forest Shivalik-Bhabar physiographic zone (Johnsingh and staff, researchers, NGOs and local communities) Joshua, 1994). This is one of the five major

0 were consulted individually or in small groups 29 0'0"N 0 29 0'0"N elephant populations of the country. The RNP-CNP across the abovementioned stretch between the Tiger Conservation Unit is one of the 11 Level-I RNP and Katarniaghat WLS. The abovementioned Tiger Conservation Units (TCU) identified in the critical sites where WWF-India is currently Indian subcontinent for the long-term conservation 0 28 0'0"N 0 implementing the various conservation measures 28 0'0"N of the Tigers (Dinerstien et. al., 1997). This, TCU represent some of the important corridors of about 7,500 sq. km stretches from the Yamuna suggested by Johnsingh et. al. (2004) (Please see River in the west to the in the east. Annexure - 8.2). 0 About 30% of this TCU comes under PA network 27 0'0"N 2700'0"N (RNP-820 sq. km and CTR-1286 sq. km comprising The learning site, as described above, could be 521 sq. km CNP, 302 sq. km Sonanadi WLS and categorized into two broad site complexes (PAs, 463 sq. km buffer area carved out from Kalagarh, RFs, Critical Sites and Corridors) representing 0 26 0'0"N 0 26 0'0"N Ramnagar and Terai west FDs) and the rest are western and central TAL located in Uttaranchal and under 12 RFs from west to east. The RFs are 7700'0"E 7800'0"E 7900'0"E 8000'0"E 8100'0"E 8200'0"E 8300'0"E 8400'0"E 8500'0"E Uttar Pradesh states, respectively (Figure 4). The Shivalik, Dehradun, Narendranagar, Haridwar, general characteristics of these two site complexes Lansdowne, Bijnor, Terai west, Ramnagar, Terai Figure 3 are described below. central, Haldwani, south and Terai east. Apart from the 520 sq. km core area of the Prepared by: IGCMC Division, WWF-India, 2005 Data Source: WII, Maps Sharda Sagar is a huge water body created to cater to the irrigation needs in central TAL, many decades back 13

CNP which is free from human disturbance, the elephant habitat for resources. A study of the four FDs. It is hard to find the baseline information on of grassland and swampy habitats, enhanced rest of the area is subjected to various types of villages near the Rajaji-Corbett corridor reveals various issues that affect the forest ecosystem resource dependence and factors like fire, livestock pressures for fuel wood, fodder collection and that the forests of the corridor cater to 95% of the structure and functioning of the FDs. The grazing and flash floods have greatly reduced the grazing both from the Gujjar community living fuel wood needs of the villagers besides fodder importance of these RFs in the overall scheme of once extensive Terai ecosystems into smaller forest inside the forests and the villages located at the requirement (Badola and Mishra, unpublished data landscape level conservation initiatives is immense fragments. The major portion (about 97%) of this periphery of the PAs (Johnsingh and Negi, 2003). as quoted by Johnsingh and Joshua, 1994). and has been highlighted by Johnsingh et. al. stretch of the study area comes under the (2004) (Annexure - 8.2). of UP. The DNP, Kishanpur Many of the reserved FDs in the area such as Sonanadi WLS WLS and MFs of North and South Kheri FDs are Kishanpur WLS, Haridwar (part), Bijnor, Terai west, Terai central The Sonanadi WLS extending to 302 sq. km area is 2.2. located in a matrix of private agricultural lands. Dudhwa NP, Katarniaghat WLS, and Terai east consist of large-scale plantations one of the prime habitats of elephants in the nearby Reserved Forests The forestland in the above stretch covered (e.g., Eucalyptus spp, Ailanthus excelsa, Populus landscape and also called a Tiger Nursery. This and Corridors (Central TAL) 1,726.5 sq. km of which little over 50% is under ciliata, Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo, Tectona sensitive area is also not free from human PAs (883.7 sq. km) and the other half under MFs grandis) which were raised in the 1960s to meet disturbances. Though relocation is being proposed, As has already been stated, this site complex (842.8 sq. km). Habitats are changing very fast the industrial needs, at the cost of the natural about 184 Gujjar households were recorded living represents the Gangetic plain (Terai) physiographic even for large species viz., swamp deer, mixed forests and grasslands. Due to inside the sanctuary. zone in the sudy area. The Surahi range of Terai rhinoceros, elephant and tiger. Critical habitats are fragmentation of habitats, three secluded east FD in Uttaranchal links the landscape to threatened by the spread of alien weeds and also populations of tiger occur in the area described Mahob and Mala ranges of Pilibhit FD of UP through by native unpalatable species (Kumar et. al., above. According to Johnsingh and Negi (2003) the forested corridor in the east. Elephants from the 2002). ever increasing biotic pressure rendering the CNP have been reported migrating to Pilibhit Rajaji-Corbett corridor poor in tiger population and through this corridor. The total area of the Pilibhit This central portion of the TAL mainly includes the may further fragment the habitat which was an FD is 710 sq. km. This is the largest territorial four types of land: i) forestland (PAs and MFs) unbroken stretch of approx. 300 km long sal division in the state of UP and alone contributes owned by the Forest Department, ii) state owned dominated (Shorea robusta) forest just three about 10% of the total revenue generated by the revenue land, iii) community owned Panchayat decades ago. state from forests (Harish Kumar, Personal land, and iv) private lands. Agriculture is now the Buffaloes of the Gujjars, near RNP Communication). Despite being a territorial FD, the core economic activity in the area and 60% of the Over the years, the increasing human population Important Reserved FDs forests and grasslands of the Pilibhit support a land is net sown. The history of the forest in this and its demand for more land for agriculture and Lansdowne, Ramnagar, Haldwani, Terai west, Terai number of wild animal species including tiger, area dates back to the 1860s and the forests in various development-related infrastructural central and Terai east are the important RFs in this , and hog deer. The Lagga-Bagga Forest this tiger reserve zone can be divided into two projects have broken the forest connectivity at stretch of the study site. Large-scale commercial Block, in particular, supports populations of swamp broad types: i) RFs and ii) Erstwhile Private Vested several locations along the west bank of the river plantations raised during the 1960s have been deer, migratory rhinos from Nepal's Suklaphanta Forests. The old RF and Vested Forests were Ganga and along the -Haldwani-Lalkuan responsible for the habitat degradation and weed Reserve and rare hispid hare. There are some managed separately until 1970; however, Highway. The high day and night vehicular traffic infestation in this area. However, now these FDs areas subjected to illegal grazing in this division. thereafter both the categories are being managed and human settlements along the various being the part (partly/fully) of the SER, the People from far and wide maintain Gauris (cattle as RFs. In comparison, the Vested Forests were highways passing through this section of the commercial plantations are gradually getting less camps) inside the forests. A huge reservoir, of heavily exploited in the past by erstwhile landscape are a constant threat to wild animals emphasis and the working plans now also many sq. km in extent called the Sharda Sagar has Zamindars (landlords), whereas the old RFs were (Johnsingh and Negi, 2003). In the RNP at present emphasize on mixed plantation of native species engulfed many prime habitats in the distant past commercially exploited (Kumar et. al., 2002). over 10,000 cattle heads belonging to the Gujjars, and Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR). The and now the ever growing human population the Taungiya and the Gothiyas, and about 50,000 Ramnagar FD boasts of the presence of 26 tigers around it is posing further threats to wildlife and The scientific assessment and forest spatial livestock of the local people use the PA daily. The and regular elephant movements in spite of being habitats. heterogeneity of this part of the landscape density of cattle population is 77.41 cattle/sq. km. a territorial division. However, the presence of the revealed that the area could be divided into two As much as 86% of the park area is open to the resident Gujjar population inside forests, Moving further towards the east from Pilibhit FD broad categories, forestland (25.8%) comprising Gujjars for lopping and grazing (Pandey, 2001). encroachments (approx. 100 sq. km, maximum into alluvial plains of Lakhimpur Kheri and PAs and MFs and agriculture matrix (74.2%). The being in Terai east FD), conversion of forest land Shajahanpur districts, land use policies, extended forestland consists of a few larger dense forest Corbett NP for motor roads and other infrastructure history of forest management, settlement of blocks or several smaller and isolated forest Around the CNP, the construction of the 80 sq. km development in the new state of Uttaranchal, large refugees, uncontrolled expansion of agriculture and fragments. The area included extensive private reservoir, and the Kalagarh township number of resident population of once migratory the associated large scale reclamation/conversion agricultural lands, community lands, and scattered and encroachment in the early 1970s have broken Khatta (cattle camps) holders, soil erosion, fuel government lands. Once, widespread grasslands down the wildlife habitat connectivity between the wood and fodder extraction at commercial scale and swamps covered just 2.8% and 0.5% area of CNP and the south-western part of the Tiger from nearby towns and boulder mining are the landscape, respectively. Detailed estimation Reserve. The Gujjar settlements along with their fragmenting the forests. In open and degraded using remotely sensed data identified 17 buffaloes in large numbers are spread across the forests, particularly in the Terai west FD, Lantana categories of land use/land cover types that elephant range except in the CNP. Besides, the and Parthenium have already covered a sizable include nine-forest types, two grassland types, Grassland in growing population of the nearby villages and forest area. There is a complete dearth of scientific Lagga-Bagga, Pilibhit FD forest plantations, and five other non-forest townships also puts additional pressure on the studies on the abovementioned aspects from these categories. A total of 44.5% of the forestland was 15 occupied by five sal dominated forest types. Four The PAs had a larger chunk (>60%) of tropical quality of the habitat. Forest fires in vulnerable other important forest types together covered seasonal swamp forests than the MFs. The PAs also areas such as extensive Canebrakes along Gerwa 19.3% area comprising moist mixed deciduous, had 17.6% of their actual area covered by two and Kaudiyala rivers destroy the habitats, khair and sissoo, tropical seasonal swamps, and types of grasslands while the two MFs together had sometimes permanently. There are some Forest tropical semi-evergreen forest covering, 9.3%, only 7.7% of area under grasslands (Kumar et. al., villages (erstwhile Taungya villages) and a Central 6.9%, 2.5% and 0.6% area, respectively, of the 2002). State Seed Research Farm near Girijapuri (covering the forested tract. About 6% of the forestland was 38.42 sq. km) located inside the WLS. These found encroached upon and under illegal Extensive sampling by Kumar et. al. (2002) in the villages and the farm create continuous cultivation, this includes the extremely encroached above area of the central TAL recorded a total of disturbance to the wildlife. Several requests to (approx. 100 sq. km) North Kheri FD. Interspersed 259 plant species. It was found that the DNP was close down the farm from the park management Swamp Deer habitat Jharital in Kishanpur WLS in DTR grasslands, plantations, rivers and swamps the most diverse among the four areas (i.e. DNP, have not been heeded to as yet. covered 12.8%, 7.7%, 2.9% and 0.7% area of the Kishanpur WLS, North Kheri FD and South Kheri only 30% is left at present. There are no more Fire destroyed the forests along Gerwa River, Katarniaghat WLS forestland. Dense sal and tropical semi-evergreen FD) while the North Kheri FD was the least diverse than 150 swamp deer left in Sathiana at present, forest types occurred in DNP only (Kumar et. al., forest area. The South FD had the highest shrub compared with more than 900 in 1980 (Singh V. P. 2002). species richness. Thus PAs were richer in species Personal Communication). The swamp deer diversity than MFs. population of the Kishanpur WLS has fortunately remained stable at 400-500, mainly around one Dudhwa NP and Kishanpur WLS large swamp grassland locally called as Jharital. All the forests in this terai zone of the study site However, a frequent change in the water course of were once famous for tiger hunting. The the meandering Sharda River is a constant threat importance of the area as habitat for the swamp to the habitat. The flood plain grassland habitat of deer was realized almost a hundred years ago. The the Ull River in the sanctuary needs to be secured Wildlife organization of the UP forest department for the future of this species. took the first step to form the Sonaripur Wildlife Swamp Deer in Jharital Sanctuary in September 1958 in order to protect the swamp deer. Initially, the area of the sanctuary Once extensive swamps were common near DNP which are was only about 64 sq. km. Later, in December no more now (Photograph taken 20 years back) 1968, an area of 212 sq. km was declared to Similarly among the two categories of the constitute the Dudhwa WLS to protect the largest grasslands about 25% of the upland grasslands population of swamp deer in the Indian and almost 50% of the lowland grasslands were sub-continent. In fact, it was the single largest confined to the DNP only. The Kishanpur WLS did population of the deer in the world. Further in not have dense sal, tropical semi-evergreen and 1977, the DNP was created and in 1987 the khair and sissoo forest types. About 90% area of 200 sq. km Kishanpur WLS south of the DNP (the khair (Acacia catechu) and sissoo forests and second most important habitat of the northern almost 50% moist mixed deciduous forests are swamp deer in the country) were together declared recorded in the North Kheri FD. South Kheri FD is as the DTR. The DNP and Kishanpur WLS are Katarniaghat WLS characterized by more or less dense sal and open separated by a complex of fields, Further, to the east of the DNP, the Katarniaghat sal forests, and extensive plantations. swamps, the township of Paliya and 12 other WLS (400 sq. km) has recently been incorporated Approximately 63% of the total recorded villages. in the DTR. Protection has helped in increasing the plantation, of the above stretch of the study site in number of mega species in the WLS and also TAL, is alone represented by this division. A The swamp deer is the main inhabitant of the terai attracting elephants and rhinos from across the comparison of the two categories of management, grasslands and swamps and is one of the most northern international border from Nepal's Royal i.e. the PAs and the MFs reveals many endangered deer species in the world (Holloway, Bardia NP. Thus, the northern portion of the WLS is characteristic features on the presence/absence 1973; Schaaf and Singh, 1976 and Sawarkar, relatively undisturbed. However, the southern side and extent of particular vegetation types in them. 1988a). In 1980, the swamp deer population in the is heavily disturbed by road and rail traffic. Three prominent forest types viz., dense sal, sal DNP was estimated at nearly 2,100 individuals, in Over-grazing is one of the serious threats to the mixed, and tropical semi-evergreen forests types 1988 it was about 1,000, and by 1998 it was habitats of the PA. It supports 10 times more cattle remained unrepresented in the MFs. The actual estimated to lie between 700 and 750 (WII, 1998). than stipulated by its management plan. About extent of five sal forest types in the PAs was as In the past, the Sathiana grasslands of the park 20% area (mostly grasslands) of the sanctuary is high as 61.3% while various sal dominated forests used to harbour 60% of the swamp deer infested by Lantana. Pressure for fuel wood and covered just 37.9% area of the MFs. Instead, MFs population of the park. In 1963, George Schaller fodder from the surrounding 25 villages and also possessed a much higher percentage of moist encountered a herd of 800 in Ghola and Gajraula in from the Nepal side is responsible for the poor mixed deciduous and khair and sissoo forest types. around 52 sq. km area (Schaller, 1984) of which 3

Global Change Factors Affecting the Learning Sites 17 Global Change is a term intended to encompass the full range of all ecological and socio-economic the 1960s in many of the reserved FDs such as changes with significant implications for environmental quality and sustainable economic Haridwar (Part), Bijnor, Terai west, Terai central development on a global scale. and Terai east to meet the industrial needs, replaced the mixed forests and grasslands. These As it is amply clear from the foregoing that among monoculture plantations have changed the habitat the Global Change Factors, Habitat Fragmentation composition drastically for the wildlife. Lantana Passive management is and Biological Invasion have been identified as the responsible for Tiliacora camara, Parthenium hysterophorus, Adhatoda most important factors affecting the selected key acuminata infestation vasica, Cannabis sativa and Cassia tora, are in DNP multiplying throughout in this area, which reduce Motor road construction destroyed the forest, near sites in the TAL. CTR the suitability of the habitat for wild herbivores. Habitat 3.1. Due to the fragmentation of habitats, three Fragmentation dominance of unpalatable and other undesirable isolated populations of tiger are found in the above species. Fire occurs over almost all the area either described area. Over the years the increasing as controlled burns in grasslands, or uncontrolled human population and its demand for more land surface fires in forests. Habitat fragmentation is widely regarded as a for agriculture and various development projects have broken the forest connectivity at several major threat against the viability of wildlife The “edge effects” of habitat fragmentation are locations along the west bank of the river Ganga populations (Lovejoy et. al., 1986; Rolstad, 1991; many. Poaching is a potential threat, primarily for and along the Kathgodam-Haldwani-Lalkuan Fahring and Merrium, 1994; Wiens, 1995 and animals that venture out of fragmented forest Highway (Johnsingh and Negi, 2003). More than Andreassen et. al., 1998). The nine PAs in the areas, and along the international border with 200 cases of poaching of wild animals have been Indian side of the TAL are like isolated islands of Nepal. Illicit felling of trees on the periphery of the Recurring floods erode forest and grassland reported during 1987-88 to 2000-2001, and also habitats in central TAL biodiversity in the vast sea of humanity. In spite of PAs and within the MFs is a great concern, 7030 recorded illicit felling cases during the same suffering from habitat fragmentation owing to especially with ever increasing population density. period in the RNP. Huge quantity of baib grass factors like encroachment; conversion; heavy Though large-scale timber removal is not very (Eulaliopsis banata) about 232.5t is harvested pressure in terms of fuel wood, fodder and common, small-scale felling for household use is from the park every year. Illegal removal of grass grazing; flooding; weed infestation; mining, etc. often practiced. Encroachment on forestlands for is also an issue, nearly 2565 cases of illegal and poaching, retaliatory and accidental killings of agricultural expansion is a continuous pressure harvesting amounting roughly to 103t of grass wildlife, so far, somehow, the PAs and the MFs (Rawat, 1996). Grazing, lopping for livestock during 1987-88 and 1995-96 have been recorded. have been able to contribute to the protection of fodder, fuel wood collection, mainly for household The Railway line passing through the park is a the mega species in the landscape. However, long- consumption and sometimes for commercial serious hazard for the wild animals. As many as 20 term survival is uncertain. benefits, are crucial issues. Disease from livestock elephants have been killed in train accidents while is a concern for wildlife together with human- Labourers create temporary huts along dry river crossing the railway line during last 15 years 3.1.1. Biophysical Drivers wildlife conflict, as natural habitats are increasingly courses for boulder mining in western TAL (1987-2002) (Pandey 2001). The other prominent and thus responsible for habitat fragmentation Pressures and threats to the ecosystem are being fragmented and encroached upon. threats and pressures are: existing monoculture numerous in the study area. De (2001) and Anon. Encroachment of forest lands increases the plantations, proximity of the RNP to the pilgrimage (2002) have summarized the primary threats to interactions between wildlife and humans and towns of Haridwar and and the state wildlife as habitat change, illicit felling, livestock in the learning site complexes. encroachment, grazing, and fire. The spread of capital city of Dehradun, state highways, i.e. Delhi- and Haridwar-Dehradun, a massive weeds, invasion of woody species in grasslands Rajaji NP, Sonanadi WLS, Corbett NP, Corridors and collectorate complex adjacent to the park near and changes in composition from short to tall adjoining FDs Haridwar, and human settlements inside the PA. coarse grasses threaten grasslands. Lantana In this western complex of the learning site, i.e. in invasion is alarming in forested buffer zones. the Uttaranchal part, infrastructure development The shrinking wildlife habitat in the landscape is Changes in hydrology and associated siltation, both projects have contributed to habitat fragmentation the result of exponential growth in human natural and man-made, are causing changes in and resulted in widespread human-elephant population and the associated requirements of Recurring man-caused forest fire is one of the forest and grassland composition and structure. conflict (Johnsingh and Joshua, 1994). The factors responsible for forest degradation in agriculture and infrastructural development. For west-central TAL. These lead to undesirable succession in grassland development projects taken up during the 1970s, instance, enormous population growth around the habitats. Passive or inappropriate management of and large scale plantations (e.g., Eucalyptus spp, RNP between 1951 and 1991 is responsible for the forests in the PAs has resulted in increasing Ailanthus excelsa, Populus ciliata, Acacia catechu, loss of 70 sq. km of forestland to townships and Dalbergia sissoo, Tectona grandis) raised during development projects. A power channel that runs parallel to the left bank of the Ganga River has drastically reduced elephant access from Chilla

Lantana camara forest area to the river. The channel and invading degraded encroachment together have rendered 15 sq. km forests and grasslands in Woody succession habitat inaccessible to the elephants (Johnsingh Irrigation canal inside forests fragments the RNP in grassland in CNP and Negi, 2003). habitat 19

In the RNP, non-palatable shrubs occupy 57% of erosion, and large-scale fuel wood and fodder removal of the species by local people for making the total shrub cover. The areas near riverbanks extraction at commercial scale from nearby towns ropes kept its spread and density lower in MFs subjected to intensive grazing have been invaded are degrading the forests of the area. In the open than PAs. The frequency of Lantana camara, an by weed species like Cassia tora, Parthenium and degraded forests particularly in the Terai west exotic woody shrub, was 5.7% of the plots hysterophorus, Cannabis sativa, Pogostemon FD, Lantana and Parthenium have claimed a sampled in the area. This is an early successional benghalensis and Sida rhombifolia. None of these sizable forest area. Heavy vehicular traffic and weed and relatively prefers open and dryer sites to species are palatable. According to the boulder mining from the rivers such as the Gola colonize and multiply. This species was almost Management plan of the park Lantana infested River, involving a large number of migrant absent in dense sal while khair (Acacia catechu) areas in the park and its rough extent are labourers, contribute to habitat fragmentation in and Sissoo forests of North Kheri FD favoured this Railway lines passing through PAs pose a serious threat Ramgarh range (2831 ha), Kansrau range the area. weed. In South Kheri FD many ranges, particularly to wild animals, including elephants (3695 ha), Motichur (3589 ha), Chillawali the Mohamadi range, is badly infested with (4239 ha), Dholkhand (4821.51 ha), Haridwar Kishanpur WLS, Dudhwa NP, Katarniaghat WLS, Lantana. The density of Helicteres isora increased (2625.80 ha), Chilla range (4896.15 ha) and Gohri nearby Reserved Forests and Corridors (Central considerably from dense to open sal forests. Cassia (2816.15 ha). TAL) tora and Ageratum conyzoides were the densest In Lagga-Bagga area of the Pilibhit FD 1000-2000 non-palatable weeds in this zone of the landscape Corbett NP cattle graze round the year except during the rainy (Kumar et. al., 2002). The construction of the 80 sq. km Ramganga season. Encroachment, mainly of swamp areas, is reservoir across the Ramganga River in the early also a problem. Cymbopogon martnii, an 1970s, and the Kalagarh Township and the large unpalatable grass species has been found to be scale encroachments on the south western side invading the grasslands of Pilibhit FD. A huge have broken down the elephant habitat reservoir, the Sharda Sagar, has already engulfed connectivity between the CNP and the western part many prime habitats in the past and now the of the CTR. Encroachments along the human population around it, growing An elephant knocked down by a speeding train in DTR area that flows between the CTR and the Ramnagar FD exponentially, poses even greater threat to wildlife break the habitat connectivity at several places. and their habitats in the area. remain outside the park till late January/early Many open forest areas and the grasslands locally February and are most vulnerable to poaching as known as Chaurs are reported to be gradually Tiliacora acuminata invading every possible these habitats have already been lost to space in DNP being invaded by Lantana camara and Cannabis encroachment. The vast stretches of sugarcane sativa. fields adjacent to forests are many times used as Cymbopogon martinii grass replacing the surrogate habitat by wild animals including tiger. palatable grasses in The swamp deer population of the Kishanpur WLS central TAL due to frequent floods, has fortunately remained stable at around 400- deposition and maybe 500, mainly around one large swamp grassland, policy restrictions on regulated grazing Jharital. A railway line about 31 km long and a public highway 40 km long pass through the DNP. Moving further towards the east from Pilibhit FD Similarly, an 18 km long railway track and an into North and South Kheri FDs, frequent changes equally long public highway run through the Sambars crossing the dry in river courses, associated siltation and prolonged Kishanpur WLS. A number of wild animals, Tiliacora acuminata collected from MFs is river bed near water logging are continuing to erode and alter the Bijrani in CNP used for rope making by local people including the large mammals get killed every year forest and grassland composition. Passive in rail and road accidents in the park. The road and Important Reserved FDs management of forests in the DNP due to policy Dudhwa NP and Kishanpur WLS railway network within the park area has many The other important FDs in the western part of the restriction has resulted in increasing dominance of The DNP and Kishanpur WLS are separated by a times proved beneficial for the poachers. The 56 study site are Ramnagar, Haldwani, Terai west, undesirable succession in grasslands and weed complex of sugarcane fields, swamps, and the km long porous International border is yet another Terai central, and Terai east. All these territorial proliferation in forests (Kumar et. al., 2002). About township of Paliya along with 12 other villages. threat to the resources of the DNP. The DNP faces divisions have extensive commercial plantations of 6% of the forestland was found encroached upon almost all types of human as well as natural varying sizes to cater to the industrial and under illegal cultivation, this includes the In the past, Sathiana grasslands of the DNP threats (biophysical and socio-economic) that are requirements raised during the 1960s as has massively encroached (approx. 100 sq. km) North harboured about 60% of the swamp deer prevalent in the landscape. already been mentioned above. The presence of Kheri FD. Extensive sampling by Kumar et. al. population of the park. It was observed that prior the resident Gujjar population inside forests, (2002) reveals that the late successional to the flooding during the rainy season, this Katarniaghat WLS encroachment, conversion for motor roads and non-palatable Tiliacora acuminata occurred in as population of the swamp deer used to disperse to Approximately 20% of the area consisting mostly other infrastructure developments including many as 52.3% plots in the DNP while its the upland grasslands of Ghola and Gajraula and of the grasslands is infested by Lantana due to sterling resorts in the new state of Uttaranchal, frequency values in two MFs, i.e. North Kheri FD the swampy grassland patches interspersed within over grazing and other human induced large number of resident population of once and South Kheri FD were much lower. This amply the sugarcane fields. This period coincides with the disturbances, including fire. The PA also migratory Khatta (cattle camps) holders, soil indicated that relatively open canopy and regular peak fawning during June and July. The deer experiences pressure for fuel wood and fodder Sustained pressure causing 21 degradation of Seed farm, forests in Katarniaghat WLS villagers from outside are detrimental to forest customary rights to do so in the park, is permitted. South Kheri FD resources. As much as 86% of the RNP is open to However, the grass is removed illegally also, 2565 the Gujjar community for lopping and grazing. cases of illegal harvesting amounting roughly 103t 200-250 livestock, which are mainly buffaloes. Indiscriminate lopping year after year results in of grass during 1987-88 and 1995-96 had been Over grazing and unplanned irrigation canals tree mortality and weed infestation. In the past, recorded. At present, over 10,000 cattle heads of constructed inside the forests, degrade habitats of the Gujjars used to leave their dwellings in the the Gujjars, the Taungiya and the Gothiyas and wild animals leading to man-animal conflicts in landscape with the advent of summer around April about 50,000 cattle head of local people use the PA terms of increased instances of crop raiding, for high altitude meadows in the Himalaya, where daily. The density of cattle population is livestock depredation and human killings by wild they would stay until October. However, now partly 77.41 cattle/sq. km. carnivores. During the last year alone, as many as due to the fact that local communities in the 15 people have been killed by tigers and Ghariyal in Gerwa River, Himalaya do not want to share the resources with Important Reserved FDs in the area. Around 70% of the above incidents Katarniaghat WLS the Gujjars and partly owing to socio-economic The presence of resident Gujjar population inside took place at forest-agriculture interface changes within the community itself, most of the forests, encroachment, conversion for motor roads particularly in sugarcane fields. Sometimes people Gujjars have abandoned this traditional migration. and other infrastructure development in the new from the adjoining 25 villages and also population resort to retaliatory killing of wildlife. The stopped migration has resulted in their state of Uttaranchal, large number of resident on the Nepal side. There are some forest villages Sugarcane field-forest interface areas are prone to increased demands on the habitat in the population of once migratory Khatta (cattle camps) (erstwhile Taungya villages) and a Central State human wildlife conflict in the TAL landscape. Besides, the growing population of the holders and Gujjars, soil erosion, large scale fuel Seed Research Farm near Girijapuri situated inside nearby villages has also put pressure on the wood and fodder extraction at commercial scale the WLS covering 38.42 sq. km area that cause elephant habitat for resources. A study of four from nearby towns are degrading the forests of the considerable disturbance to the wildlife, creating a villages near the Rajaji-Corbett corridor reveals area. The importance of these managed forests in break in the forest connectivity. that the forests of the corridor cater to 95% of the the overall scheme of landscape level conservation fuel wood need of the villagers in addition to initiatives is immense as they act as critical 3.1.2. Socio-economic Drivers fodder requirement (Badola and Mishra corridors as identified by Johnsingh et. al. (2004) Though the magnitude and causes responsible for unpublished data as quoted by Johnsingh and (Annexure - 8.2). The increasing human habitat fragmentation vary across the sites, yet the Joshua, 1994). population, coupled with changing socio-economic Pressure in terms of fuel wood collection, grazing root cause is the burgeoning human population aspirations, often exerts a variety of pressures on and encroachments are the real issues in the area. and the accompanied needs for resources and In the Rajaji-Corbett area more than 200 cases of the forests in terms of increased needs and The pressure is not uniform throughout the FD, it services. The ever increasing human requirements poaching of wild animals have been reported infrastructural development. is high in some selected pockets. The Government result in forest encroachment and conversion for during 1987-88 to 2000-2001, and also 7030 of India's scheme of linking every village with settlements, agriculture, plantation, infrastructure recorded illicit felling cases during the same period DNP, Kishanpur WLS, Katarniaghat WLS, nearby motorable road in the country can also cause development (dams, roads, rails, irrigation canals, in the RNP. A huge quantity (232.5 t/yr) of baib Reserved FDs and Corridors (Central TAL) habitat fragmentation in the near future. So far, urbanization, etc.), massive use of fuel wood and grass (Eulaliopsis banata) is harvested from the The Pilibhit FD connects the central TAL with the the constructed roads have not affected the forests fodder, over grazing, recurring man-caused forest park every year. According to the management Uttaranchal part of the landscape in the west and but there are apprehensions that in due course of fires, legal and illegal timber harvesting, boulder plan of the RNP controlled removal of baib grass, Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve, Nepal in the north. time there might be demands from local people to mining, etc. The socio-economic issues causing to reduce the fire hazards and at the same time to Some areas of the FD are subjected to illegal link every end of the road through forests. The habitat fragmentation and weed proliferation in the benefit the local communities, who have had grazing practiced by cattle camp (locally known as protection of wildlife and habitat management are identified study area according to the site Gauris) holders. These people are not local and the prime activities according to the working plan, complexes are described below. A large number come from outside the area. The Gauris (cattle yet, being a territorial division, the focus remains of the Gujjar households camps) are maintained inside the forests. As on silviculture and protection. Rajaji NP, Sonanadi WLS, Corbett NP and adjoining live inside forests reported by the local people there are several FDs and Corridors (West TAL) in western TAL Gauris in the forests. Each cattle camp comprises The North and South Kheri FDs are facing In the western part of the study site, apart from tremendous pressures from a large human the 520 sq. km core area of the CNP which is free Large numbers of cattle graze inside forests in the population (a growth rate of 32% has been from human disturbance, the rest of the area is west-central TAL recorded between 1991 and 2001 in under several types of pressures for fuel wood, Lakimpur-Kheri district) in relation to grazing, fodder collection and grazing both from the firewood collection, fodder collection, pastoral Gujjar community living inside the forests encroachment and infrastructural development. and the villages located at the periphery of the A large number of the Gujjar PAs. The habitat has been fragmented by households live Dudhwa NP and Kishanpur WLS development projects and hence human-wildlife inside forests with their Despite rights and concessions being withdrawn in conflicts are widespread (Johnsingh and Joshua, buffaloes in western TAL the case of the NP area and greatly curtailed in the 1994). Cattle grazing by the Gujjars living in large case of the WLS, local people illegally collect numbers (2346 households with over 19,000 various forest resources and graze their livestock. livestock heads) inside the forest, and also from Presently, there are no major habitations in the NP, Teak plantation 23 in CTR area except a small remaining Tharu population in the Reserved Forest areas in the western TAL. Surma village which should have been rehabilitated in the best interests of park. The A Canebrake along the Gerwa River, Katarniaghat WLS The WWF is trying to play the role of a catalyst to Tharu tribals who inhabit the thirty-seven villages bring together different agencies including the located on the northern side (northern buffer) of communities. However, reckless tourism creates forest department, revenue department, police, the DNP till 1975 were having the status of forest more problems in terms of infrastructure industries, tourism, agriculture, irrigation and settlements. Subsequently, these were declared development and often provides more public works departments, research organizations revenue villages. The tribals were totally opportunities to economically richer sections of the such as the WII, Universities, NGOs and village dependent on the surrounding forests for their society rather than benefiting the local councils, known as panchayats, to discuss the subsistence. After the changed status of the area, communities. Tourism has increased manifold problems and evolve a strategy to minimize the conservation policies brought hardship to these around the CTR, where a strip of agricultural land conflicting interests, and in this manner, forest people though PA officials within the permissible between the Kosi River and Ranikhet road from degradation. legal limits allowed them to use resources such as Dhikuli to Garjia has been affected by this activity. firewood, thatch grass and other minor resources. In 1994 only four tourist resorts were operating in Ghariyal and Otter in the Gerwa River in Katarniaghat WLS 3.1.4. Inadequate Scientific Understanding the area, the numbers have risen to more than 10 Other non-tribal villagers were allowed these There are many other facets of the fragmentation, at present. In many FDs though mixed plantation facilities on payment basis. After the creation of stretch, with in the WLS, is one of the best fresh which need further scientific information and is being emphasized yet the past commercial the National Park, all concessions were done away water habitats of freshwater dolphins, crocodiles understanding to develop the most desirable state plantations and few newly selected commercial with. Only collection of firewood was permitted (Ghariyal and Maggar), and otters. The WLS has a of the habitats in the landscapes in different parts species like teak are also causing habitat during winters till 1983 on payment. The villagers great potential to become an ecotourism site with of the world to work out effective conservation fragmentation. There has been a continuous were given this concession on the condition that the creation of some basic infrastructure and strategies. The available scientific information on degradation of the elephant habitat in western TAL they would help park management in fire fighting. training. this issue is still not conclusive as is evident from due to infrastructure development in the growing Similar concessions were continued in the case of the facts being mentioned here briefly. Habitat townships such as, Raiwala, Rishikesh, , the Kishanpur WLS. However, after the amendment 3.1.3. Institutional Drivers fragmentation is widely regarded as a major threat Ramnagar, Kaladhungi, Haldwani, Tanankpur, in the WLPA, 1972 in 1991, these concessions Though it is difficult to describe conclusively the against the viability of wildlife populations Kashipur to name a few. The Banbasa Hydro were required to be seized in the Kishanpur WLS institutional drivers that have caused habitat (Rolstad, 1991; Fahring and Merrium, 1994; Electric project and Sharda Sagar and their canals except regulated grazing. The WLS has two fragmentation or helped in biological invasion in Wiens, 1995), little is known about the immediate have also led to the loss of forest areas in western villages Chaultua and Kishanpur and except for 34 the study sites, indirect inferences could well be mechanisms on population responses to and central TAL, respectively. Similarly, the barrage ha under encroachments, rest of the area is free of drawn. The policy to allow the refugees to settle fragmentation (Wiens et. al., 1993; Diffendorfer on the Suheli River near the DTR caused habitation. About 40,000 cattle graze in the buffer down in the landscape in the past, weak regulation et. al., 1995; Ims, 1995). Therefore, issues like inundation and loss of habitats in the study area. zone of the DTR. Some efforts have been made to to check further in migration coupled with low processes involved and magnitude of the Sometimes the conflicting policies also hamper the promote wildlife tourism in order to benefit the motivation to adopt family planning measures led fragmentation (Wiens, 1989), large-scale habitat conservation. For instance, the Uttaranchal local people, however, participation of the people in to the unprecedented population growth in the fragmentation affecting metapopulation dynamics government mining policy, 2001 permits scientific this sector remained negligible. At present the landscape. High human and livestock populations (Hanski and Gilpin, 1996), and processes such as extraction of minor minerals in Gaula, Sharda, eco-development programme is being run through together put tremendous pressure on forests and exchange rates between populations (Ims and lower Kosi, Dabka and Yamuna rivers flowing in 61 EDCs around the DNP. The EDCs in Tharu also lead to encroachments and thereby Yoccoz, 1997), have received most of the current villages, apart from performing the routine exacerbated the fragmentation. A number of sugar research. Small-scale fragmentation that may activities to minimize biotic pressure on the park, mills (4 mills alone are located around DTR) in the change the spatial structure of local populations is have also taken up some innovative activities like landscape promote sugarcane cultivation in vast also important (Rolstad, 1991, Wiens, 1995) in organic farming including vermicomposting. that it creates situations applicable for the concept tracts of the available arable lands and often many Intensive people encroach upon more forestland and agriculture is of patchy populations (Harrison, 1991), where it Katarniaghat WLS practiced in central swamps to raise the cash crop. Tourism is being part of the TAL may change the behaviour of individual animals. Over grazing is one of the serious threats to the vigorously pushed in the newly created Uttaranchal where sugarcane Obviously, uniqueness of patchy populations such habitats of the PA. It supports 10 times more cattle has become the and also in UP to provide benefits to local obvious choice of as natural growth and dispersal rate, and social than stipulated by its management plan. 20% of farmers to realize organization (Foster and Gaines; 1992, Ostfeld, the area, mostly grasslands, of the sanctuary is quick monetary benefits 1985; Bowers et. al., 1996) are expected to come infested by Lantana. Pressure for fuel wood and out how the individuals use patchily available fodder from the surrounding 25 villages and also resources and how exchanges among the from the Nepal side is also responsible for the poor individuals (aggressive or accommodating) are quality of the habitats in the southern side of the modified by the spatial arrangement of habitat WLS. Forest fires in vulnerable areas such as patches (Cockburn, 1988; Lomnicki, 1988; Sugarcane being extensive Canebrakes along Gerwa and Kaudiyala carried to sugar Boweres et. al., 1996). However, how individual rivers destroy the habitats sometimes mills near DTR area qualities develop to varying sizes of habitats and permanently. The aforementioned rivers together Tourist huts are coming up in how such developed qualities translate into form the bigger Ghagra River. The Gerwa River sensitive areas population level phenomena (e.g., social around Corbett TR 25 organization) are yet to be explored (Sutherland, Sesbania aculeata called Dhencha used by the maintaining the wildlife and other ecosystem 1996). locals for rope making is infesting many values. For example, increasing dominance of in the PAs and MFs in this part of the learning site Tiliacora with the closure of the sal canopy in the The basic aim of most ecological studies due to flooding. Floodwater carries the fruiting DNP is bad for ungulates but at the same time it concerning habitat fragmentation is to show how bodies to the natural wetlands such Jharital, might have great value for species other than the demography of the target population may be Banketal, Bhadital and many other mesic sites in ungulates. Nothing is known whether or not, this is affected. Based on various studies, individual level DTR. Siltation, coupled with infestation by water the natural state of sal forests which exists once responses, in addition to social behaviour, may be hyacinth, is affecting the swamp deer habitat in the the human induced disturbances are stopped. involved in determining the effect of fragmentation DNP in Ranwastal and Bhadital. What is the role of Tiliacora in the ecosystem on a population of mega species in TAL. However, functioning under natural condition and what would information in this regard is totally superficial as it The Chandia-Hazara water body is an example in happen if its removal were initiated to suit the is based mainly on observations. Long-term the Pilibhit FD where 8-10 sq. km area is totally fodder requirements of the wild ungulates and how studies are required. Right now we are not in a Lantana camara invading degraded forests and grasslands covered by water hyacinth (Harish Kumar, Personal fire could play a role in the ecology of sal forests in position to state what kind of individuals of a in CTR area Communication). As a result, migratory birds, this situation? (Kumar et. al., 2002.) Several species inhabiting the different habitats of the including the Siberian crane, have stopped visiting questions are still to be answered through targeted Biological 3.2. landscape are forced/opt to come out from the Invasion this site. The infestation by the hyacinth also research. Similarly, lack of scientific knowledge on intact habitats to the degraded forests or (Invasive Species) adversely affects the fish production from these the ecology of Lantana is responsible for the agricultural land. How the behaviour of the water bodies. Among other important weeds that prevailing myth on its usefulness and harmful individuals or the populations is changed or are proliferating in the area are Parthenium and effects on ecosystems in general and wildlife in affected by various disturbances leading to habitat Invasive alien species are an increasing ecological Eupatorium. The former generally occupies the particular. fragmentation is not yet understood. There are a as well as economical threat being identified open and dry forest sites while the latter open and number of questions that the future researches throughout the globe, particularly in the tropics. moist sites in the landscape. The under storey of have to answer for the better management of the The economic cost of the impact which invasive practically all sal forests in the DNP is infested with wildlife in the landscape. species cause is colossal and the ecological and the unpalatable Tiliacora acumenata locally called economic effects of the invasion will soon impinge as Rangoi and is affecting spotted deer habitat Based on the available scientific information, on all countries and societies. Throughout the severely. The Sathiana range of the DTR used to be habitat fragmentation due to various factors world, over 40% of the species on the list of one of the best breeding grounds of swamp deer relevant for the present study sites, as described threatened and endangered species are there due but due to siltation and water logging, the above, and biological invasion in some critical to the impact of invasive species (Sharma et. al., palatable grass such as Imperata cylindrica has areas seem to be threatening the long term 2005). About 18% of the Indian flora constitutes been replaced by the unpalatable coarse grasses survival of the species and the PAs in the TAL. adventive aliens, of which 55% is American, 10% like Cymbopogon sp. and Saccharum sp. Fragmented habitats have serious implications for Asian, 20% Asian and Malaysian, and 15% population viability of most wild animals, especially European and Central Asian species (Nayar, 1977). for large mammals; wide ranging species, and During the last 15 years, international efforts rare, endangered and habitat obligate species, all under the Scientific Committee on Problems of of which are represented in the Terai (Harris, Environment (SCOPE) gave great international 1984; Decker et. al., 1991; Qureshi and Sawarkar, visibility, and induced local initiatives to cope with 1991; Morrison et. al., 1998). the threat of biological invasion. However, the ecosystem level effects of invasion are little understood and there is an urgent requirement of scientific studies on invasion in India (Sharma et.al., 2005).

3.2.1. The Extent and Impacts Among the invasive species, Lantana camara has already invaded a sizeable chunk (roughly A Hyacinth infested water body in central TAL 30%-40% area) of the RNP and CTR and also many reserve FDs in the western part of the TAL. 3.2.2. Lack of Scientific Understanding Ipomoea is dangerously invading the swampy The inability to control weed proliferation is greatly habitats near agriculture and forest interface in the due to the lack of scientific knowledge related to alluvial plain part of the landscape. Water hyacinth, the structure and functioning of ecological Ipomoea invading locally called Jalkumbhi, is choking many wetlands systems. For instance, in the absence of scientific open and mesic information, it is difficult for the managers to areas in central and water bodies in the central part of the TAL landscape, especially near agricultural fields. determine a desired successional forest state for 4

Response to Cope with the Change Factors 27 Policy Though the management plans of the above PAs favour of conservation in the TAL. Mr. Jaya Prakash 4.2. farming. As informed by the Deputy Director of the and working plans of the RFs have not been Dabral, working with Jan Jagriti and DNP, some of the EDCs are doing excellent work Planning specifically oriented to cope with the identified Sansthan, an NGO, filed a case against the Power particularly in tribal Tharu villages (Singh, P. P. Global Change Factors per se yet many activities Grid Corporation of India Ltd for felling of trees in Personal Communication). There are 29 EDCs are taken up to minimize the factors that the RNP for the construction of an 800 KV functioning in the Katarniaghat WLS and 19 EDCs contribute to habitat fragmentation and infestation transmission line. On the recommendations of the working around the RNP. Alternative livelihood of invasive species. Major factors responsible for CEC, the RNP has received interim compensation 4.2.1. Joint Forest Management (JFM) and means such as bee keeping is being promoted. The the fragmentation are: (Anonymous, 2003). The CEC is currently Eco-development EDCs help the park managers in the protection and investigating a number of cases relevant to the Since 1991, the Govt. of India has been providing management of wildlife. burgeoning human population (and therefore the present learning site complexes in the landscape financial assistance, particularly to PAs, to escalating pressure for resources), including construction of a black top road in implement ecodevelopment activities with the 4.2.2. Trans-boundary Cooperation changed socio-economic scenario (e.g., changed Ramnagar FD, Non-Forest activity in the vicinity of basic objectives of minimizing pressures on the The representatives from the Ministry of lifestyle of the Gujjars and Khatta holders; the CTR in relation to setting up of a civil natural resources. Ecodevelopment is a Environment & Forests, Government of India (in therefore overgrazing, over cutting of firewood, construction (Hot Mix plant) related plant in location-specific, conservation-friendly package of the Department of Forests and Wildlife) and His timber and fodder species), Lal Dhang village. actions for village development and use of natural Majesty's , Ministry of Forest encroachment of forest lands (by agriculture, resources by local people so as to contribute to the and Soil Conservation (Department of National monoculture plantation and other land use), Cases are filed with the Sub Divisional Magistrate, PA conservation. The programme attempts to Parks and Wildlife Conservation) met at infrastructure development (like rail, roads, Kotdwar to evict the encroachers from the create an environment for people's participation in from 3rd to 5th January, 1997 for the hydroelectric and irrigation projects), Kalagarh corridor. A case in Kashipur court conservation while addressing improvement in the 1st trans-boundary consultative meeting on various illegal/legal activities (timber harvesting, favoured eviction of settlements along the Kosi livelihood of local communities. It tries to biodiversity conservation and resolved the boulder mining in river beds), river corridor in 1992 but is yet to be enforced in compensate local communities for the lost access following: sectoral approach of various departments, totality. Construction of Sterling Resorts has been to resources inside the PAs and the damage by Create awareness of the existence of illegal trade lack of proper awareness among key stakeholders, stopped by the Supreme Court in the Boar river wildlife. JFM in Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal was of timber, wild flora and fauna, including their parts little/no community participation, corridor near the CTR. Encroachment by nearly initiated in 1997 under the UP Forestry Project as and products. obsolete policies less amenable to adapt to 2000 Bengali settlers was removed from the core Uttaranchal was a part of UP at that point of time. Realizing the importance of trans-border protected changes and area of Lagga-Bagga block of the Pilibhit FD by the Both the programmes were initiated with the help area network for comprehensive ecosystem lack of adequate scientific knowledge and proper Forest Department. Encroachment of about 176 ha of the World Bank in the beginning and now being protection. monitoring plans. forest land in Pharsayia area has been brought funded by the central government. To restore the Considering various steps taken by both India and back to the DNP through the judicial process very degraded forest land with clearly defined targets Nepal with respect to the extension of the PA The magnitude of the above problems leading to recently (Deputy Director, DNP, Personal JFM is now being supported by creating Forest network and control of illegal trade in flora and habitat fragmentation and biological invasion Communication). Relocation of some of the Gujjar Development Agency analogous to the District fauna in their respective countries. varies in different locations within the landscape households from the RNP has also been facilitated Rural Development Agency. In the earlier phase, Noting that there are still some gaps in the and therefore there are different responses from by court orders in 1990. local NGOs have the well-defined role in the methods and systems to address the trans-border various stakeholders. The government forest implementation of the JFM along with the local illegal trade of wild flora and fauna and their department and local communities are the main The Indian Forest Act, 1980 helps the Forest communities whereas in the present phase this is products. stakeholders that largely manage and use the Department to protect forest conversion for not necessarily mandatory. However, the success is Appreciating the necessity of a comprehensive natural resources of the landscape. There are some non-forest activities. It is just impossible for the still very limited, as the nearly decade-old trans-border PA network and installation of suitable broad responses, which could be generalized private parties to get conversion sanctioned. In the programme has still to show real example of mechanism for effective control of illegal trade in across the sites. Uttaranchal part of the landscape, i.e. from the effective partnership and benefit sharing arising timber, wild flora and fauna and their products. RNP to the Terai east FD, the state government has out of forest resources. Many bottlenecks are still Judiciary 4.1. advised the district administration to hold regular to be cleared before the approach shows some Processes 4.2.3. The Environment Protection Act and meetings of officials to look into the speedy positive results. In the landscape, CTR site could Under the Environment Protection Act, 1986, the Enforcement solutions of the issues pertaining to forest land achieve some success in devising the mechanism notification 1989 put ban on certain conversion, encroachment and other forest related to benefit local communities through eco-tourism. kinds of infrastructural development, land use, The Judiciary has been found very supportive of offences. The revenue, police and forest Around the CTR, under the Ecodevelopment mining and grazing detrimental for the the cause of conservation as many illegal department represented, respectively by the Programme, a number of village youths were environment of the Dehradun valley in the encroachments have been successfully removed , the Senior Police trained to act as wildlife guides to promote Uttaranchal. from critical corridors across the landscape through Superintendent and the Divisional Forest Officer eco-tourism. The activity has so far remained judicial intervention. The Hon'ble Supreme Court (DFO) hold such meetings generally at monthly beneficial for both the key stakeholders, i.e. the has instituted a special committee called the intervals in the state. local people and the park managers because the Central Empowered Committee (CEC) to fact that the CTR is considered to be one of the investigate cases related to environment and best managed PAs in the country. About 61 EDCs conservation. A case involving the RNP is an working around the DNP are engaged in various example of the role played by the judiciary in livelihood earning activities including organic 29

The Landscape 4.3. Katarniaghat Wildlife Division, two Community Approach to Reserves are being proposed. These are the new Ecosystem and formal categories of PAs according to the WLPA, Species Management 1972 amendments 2002. A desilted water channel in DTR Desilting operation is on using modern machine in DTR 4.3.1. Tiger and Elephant Reserves, 4.3.3. Assisted Natural Regeneration, Habitat Wildlife Corridors Management, Species Reintroduction The influence of rivers on the grasslands of the 4.3.4. Human-Wildlife Conflict Management Considering the fact that the PAs in this human PAs get recurring annual grants for habitat terai may be seen from two angles as the floods Most of the human killing during the recent past dominated landscape are themselves isolated protection and management. With the improved may create many new types of grasslands and also occurred outside the PAs either in corridors or in habitats, the Government, with support from other scientific understanding, habitat management is may destroy well-established grassland habitats at the sugarcane fields in the vicinity of the forests stakeholders, has created two Tiger Reserves viz., also being practiced in reserved forests acting as the same time. However, frequent floods and suggesting that habitat fragmentation makes the DTR and the CTR and the Shivalik ER in the corridors between the PAs. Monoculture plantations changes in river courses (Sharda and its humans as well as wild animals vulnerable in the west-central TAL to give further impetus to species of economically important trees are gradually less tributaries) around the DTR are serious threats to landscape. Crop raiding by wild herbivore is quite protection and habitat management beyond PA emphasized, rather, Assisted Natural Regeneration the grasslands and other habitat types. The common throughout the study area. Apart from boundaries. Funds are made available through (ANR) by keeping away disturbances like fires and floodwater annually erodes several habitats and this, livestock depredation and human killing by various schemes (Project Tiger and Project grazing are being promoted in many territorial deposits large amount of silt over the vast tracts of carnivores also takes place which antagonizes the Elephant) by the central government for habitat divisions of the study sites. ANR helps in improving grasslands resulting in the change in the local people. Sometimes they resort to retaliatory management work in these non-formal PA entities the quality of forests, as mixed vegetation is vegetation composition (palatable grasses are killing of the carnivores as well as crop raiding covering the formal PAs like the WLSs and NPs. regenerating. Ramnagar and South Kheri FDs could being replaced by coarse grasses like Cymbopogon herbivores. In the Pilibhit FD and the DTR area The concept of corridor is gaining ground in the be cited as successful examples in ANR, in western martinii) as is happening in the Sathiana range of during the past one year, 23 people were killed by MFs. These MFs, which were mainly managed to and central TAL, respectively. The Forest the DTR. Recurring floods and associated siltation tigers, leopards, and rhinos. Tigers killed as many fulfill the industrial needs, have also initiated Department, in the last 5-7 years, is trying to around the DTR is also responsible for the as 12 people while 9 individuals were killed by wildlife protection and habitat management as enhance tree cover in degraded forest patches. unpredictable change in forest species leopards in Pilibhit FD and in the vicinity of the essential activities. Instead of focusing on timber Disturbances such as fire and grazing are being composition. The park management does take up a DTR. Two people were killed by a rhino near the production through raising exotic tree species, kept out by erecting stone walls in the Bhabar tract variety of activities to cope up with the DTR. In all these cases WWF-India helped the focus is also on habitat management by promoting and digging trenches in the alluvial plain part of phenomenon right from desilting the riverbeds to Forest Department give immediate financial Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) and the landscape around the degraded forest patches. restocking of grasslands with palatable species. support to the kith and kin of the killed individuals. plantation of mixed species. In the SER, The soil seed bank and vigorous coppice from the Desiltation of natural water bodies is also carried All of these incidents took place outside the PAs infrastructure is being built and bamboo plantation old tree stumps after protection have been able to out to make them suitable for the migratory birds either in corridors or in sugarcane fields. Similarly, and digging of water holes have begun in MFs also. give rise to successful forest regeneration as flocking numerous water bodies like Banketal, crop raiding and livestock depredation are common mentioned above. Often Forest Protection Kakrahatal and many others in the DTR. in around other PAs such as the RNP, CTR and in 4.3.2. Trans-boundary Landscape Committees, under the JFM programme, are the territorial divisions that connect the PAs. involved in implementing the activity. Activities Management and Creation of new Efforts have also been made to reintroduce the lost Earlier, trenches were dug out and now solar like bamboo plantation and digging of waterholes Community PAs species. Reintroduction of the rhinoceros could be powered electric fences have been erected along in the forest areas falling under Tiger or Elephant Illegal grazing, poaching and timber harvesting cited as an example. Rhinos went locally extinct the park boundary to avoid man-animal conflicts in reserves are also taken up. In central TAL, across the border from Nepal are discussed in the (Misra, 1989; Kumar et. al., 2002) from the Indian the DNP and few other locations in the learning particularly in the DNP, grasslands are managed trans-boundary cooperation meetings between the side of the central TAL. Reintroduction initiated in site. Around the RNP, during the last three years through burning and harrowing treatments to Indian Forest Department and Forest Institutions 1984 has remained successful in the DNP and at (2001-2004), over 900 cases of crop raiding by maintain the habitat needs of wild ungulates like of Nepal which are helpful in bringing down the present the number has gone up to over 20 elephants were compensated. A total of over swamp deer and hog deer. illegal activities such as timber harvesting, grazing individuals in the park. Rs. 1,500,000.00 was spent on the crop and poaching especially around the DTR. To Assisted Natural Regeneration taking place in compensation. There were more than 100 cases of Ramnagar Forest Division livestock killing reported in the RNP while maintain habitat integrity, the Forest Department Reintroduced population of Rhinoceros and other civil society groups have proposed as in DNP is increasing in size elephants also killed two humans. In case of many as two Community Reserves and a human death and permanent injuries Conservation Reserve in central TAL. The proposed Rs. 50,000.00 is paid to the family members of the Chukka-Lagga Bagga Conservation Reserve in the deceased or the severely injured person. Pilibhit FD will link the division with the Suklaphanta Reserve in Nepal and the Kishanpur 4.3.5. Capacity Building and Partnerships WLS in the DTR. The proposal has strong Frontline staff is being given orientation courses in endorsement from WWF-India. In Sampurnanagar wildlife protection and management. The Forest and Paliya ranges of North Kheri FD between the Training Institute at Haldwani, and the Corbett DNP and the Kishanpur WLS, and Nighasan range Centre for Conservation at Kalagarh, with the help of North Kheri FD between the DNP and of experts, train the staff, and local people in 31 activities relevant to forests and wildlife Supreme Court stopped the construction of the resources of the RNP by H. C. Raizada, Brown, 1997; Karki, 1997; Lehmkuhl, 1989; Peet conservation, and PA management such as Sterling Resorts and ordered dismantling of K. Berkmullar, B. C. Das, and S. Bhatnagar, and et. al., 1997; Bell, 1986; Laurie, 1982 and ecotourism, wildlife protection and ecodevelopment building around Boar river corridor near CTR investigation of the habitat types of the RNP and Dinerstein, 1987). activities in the landscape. International and (Johnsingh et. al., 2004). their occupancy by large mammals by national funding agencies are being roped in W. A. Rodgers, V. B. Sawarkar, A. J. F. M. Dekker, The role of WWF-India has been that of a through various partners like the WWF and the 4.5. Control of and G. S. Rawat. Further, the socio-economic facilitator, considering the vastness of the Invasive WII, and also through the government to get status of the local people living in and around the landscape and availability of the resources, four Species different types of support for the management RNP FD was investigated by H. S. Maindola, critical sites were selected for direct intervention. requirements. Other national and local NGOs and migration pattern of Tigers in RNP by C. P. Goyal This was decided during the stakeholders' individuals are supporting the management in Lantana at many places is physically removed and H. S. Maindola (Pandey, 2001). Similarly, workshops. The responsibility of monitoring the conducting research, resource generation, every year and planted with some palatable grassland management in the DNP also benefited different aspects of the interventions and their implementation of conservation activities, and also grasses and bamboos. In the PAs, Lantana and by several studies carried on burning, grass impacts was decided and accepted by the help build the bridge between the Forest other weeds including woody succession are cutting, grazing within the PA, in other parts of the stakeholders. Pertaining to the monitoring plan Department and local communities, education, removed from the grasslands locally known as country as well as those carried outside the related to habitat loss in the critical sites, the awareness generation and capacity building of Chuars in Uttaranchal and Phantas in Terai parts of country (Daubenmire, 1968; Dabadghao and framework proposed by the stakeholders is as communities to earn a livelihood. the landscape. In the DNP, Lantana has completely Shankarnarayan, 1973; Pandeya et. al., 1977; follows (Table 3): been removed from the core zone. Grassland McNaughton, 1979; Mishra, 1982 and 1984; Scientific information on the grazing, fodder and Regulating 4.4. management in the DNP is done through cutting, Impacts of Table 3. Monitoring Plan Infrastructure burning, harrowing treatments and also in various Development combinations of these treatments. The Baseline Data2 Responsibility3 1 Means of 4 management plans of the PAs do recognize Hierarchy of Objectives Indicators Frequency Verification Where How Baseline Monitoring Railway lines and motor roads/highways running removal of eucalyptus from the PAs, prohibit through the parks like the RNP, Kishanpur WLS, raising new commercial plantation and recommend To reduce the Multi-strata Plot WII (partial) Identify sites Expert team Expert team Every 2nd yr DNP, and many other critical areas need serious non-commercial thinning in the old teak degradation and loss of regeneration sampling & set up plots (NGOs/FD/ forest quality and of key species Research attention from all concerned to come out with plantations. Woody successions of Bombax and quantity due to human in corridors Inst.) dependence (fuel wood, feasible alternatives. Huge financial costs together shisoo are generally removed from the grasslands fodder, thatch grass and timber) with public and political support are involved to to maintain the desirable state of succession. Regeneration Plot Identify sites Expert team Expert team Every 2nd yr select drastic measures such as realignments of Restocking of the grasslands is practiced in the of trees, sampling & set up plots fodder grasses the above infrastructural facilities in favour of DNP to promote palatable species by planting in critical wildlife and forest conservation. For the time species like Cynodon dactylon, Dicanthium areas being, PA managers in the RNP and DTR are annulatum and Trifolium sp. These types of seeking help from the railways to regulate the grassland management so far have been showing Lopping status Plot Identify sites Expert team Expert team Every 2nd yr speed of the trains and mandatory whistle blowing good results in maintaining the herbivore habitat. sampling & set up plots while passing through the parks to minimize Research accidental killings of wildlife. To sensitize the 4.6. To minimize the negative Change in no. Transects WII (partial) Transects Expert team Expert team Every 2nd yr railways and other transport staff towards wildlife and impacts of livestock of cattle in and direct and direct Monitoring grazing within critical critical areas counts for counts conservation, passengers being requested not to areas livestock throw food leftovers within the park area, proper and ungulates signage along the motor roads passing through A few research organizations did carry out wildlife sensitive areas are some of the measures research activities in the PAs but these were Presence of wild Transects WII (partial) Direct NGOs Expert team Every 2nd yr that are being implemented at some locations mainly donor driven and the methods suggested ungulates in and direct counts counts while also being contemplated for other sensitive are rarely monitored yet there are examples of critical areas areas. Though wildlife scientists have suggested location specific studies from the RNP, the CTR and several alternatives including underpasses at some the DTR carried out to benefit the respective PAs. No. of cattle Direct NGOs Every 2nd yr locations, these are still far from being For instance, the management plan of the RNP camps in critical counts implemented in the TAL. As per the National benefited by the studies carried out in the past by areas Environment Protection Act, 1986 (Environment J. B. Sale, A. J. T. Johnsingh, S. Choudhary, Impact Analysis Notification, 1994), it is A. Rajbanshi, J. Jashua, J. and A. U. Khan on 1 mandatory to perform environment impact elephant movement and habitat utilization; study All indicators are expressed as neutral variables that indicate a change from the baseline situation. 2In this column the “where” indicates the location of the data if it already exists. If it does not exist then the “how” column assessment before any infrastructural projects are of interrelationship between the village ecosystems indicates the model of collection. Therefore either one of these columns will be filled in. given the green signal. Awareness among all and elephant corridor in the forest linking the RNP 3This column is divided into two-responsibility for collating/collecting the baseline data and responsibility for the stakeholders needs to be raised to minimize and the CNP by H. S. Panwar, A. J. T. Johnsingh, monitoring analysis. accidental road killings and also to minimize Koshore Rao, B. K. Mishra, R. Badola, S. F. Wesley 4Frequency to be determined through sampling methodology to ensure recording of seasonal/annual change. disturbance to the wild animals. The Hon'ble and S. Raj; the dependency of the local people on 5

Lessons Learned and Guidelines 33 Addressing Landscape Approach fuel wood removals, habitat changes, 4.8. 5.1. mentioned above to maintain habitat connectivity. socio-economic changes, impact of intensive Human to Ecosystem Population and Species Exclusion agriculture on surrounding forest ecosystems, 5.2. Pressure Management versus weed infestation and mining is extremely scanty. Participation Impact of development related infrastructure such as road, railways, canal, and factories (a number It is heartening to learn that policy-makers and of sugar mills encourage farmers to raise wildlife managers have understood the fact that The fundamental approach of the Forest sugarcane and the incentives sometimes result in merely protecting the PAs would not be adequate Department is still a traditional one in which the encroachment of forest land swamps to enhance to secure the key species in the long-term and management aims to protect the forests and PAs the profit) have also been not studied scientifically. threats also exist beyond PA boundaries. from people living in surrounding areas in a In this situation, there are chances of an Identification of the CTR, the DTR, and the SER as situation where ninety million cattle graze inside environmental shock even in the near future. management entities shows that gradually the forests, 62% fire wood demand is met from the Seepage from the canal destroys agricultural crops Every single scientific document and forest landscape approach is being adopted for effective forests and 65% PAs are characterized by human and creates water logging in the forests and managers hold population growth responsible for protection of wildlife and management of their settlements and resource use (Kothari et. al., consequently is responsible for habitat change for the present state of forest and other natural habitats in the landscape. Instead of emphasizing 1989). In such a condition attempts to guard PAs many wildlife species. At present, these concerns resources in the West-Central TAL. However, there plantation of economically important species and forests from human use by relying exclusively are tackled through routine methods depending is a complete lack of strategy to tackle the grassland management is gradually taking up the on law enforcement, often results in vindictive upon the situation. Most of the managers and problem. Population growth certainly requires edge in PAs and also in MFs. Working plans of RFs attitudes of local communities towards forest and scientists agreed that there is a clear need for attention at policy level. Conservation efforts now also incorporate activities for the protection PA management and forest staff and most of the further research and monitoring plan to develop should incorporate promoting family planning and management of the habitats of mega species time leads to conflicts (Gadgil and Guha, 1992). the understanding on these issues. methods as an integral part of the implementation in the Elephant and the Tiger Reserves. The strategy as well as also minimizing further in concept of corridors needs further attention from Exclusion is not necessarily beneficial for the Community 4.7. migration/influx of people from other areas of the all stakeholders and also wide publicity as critical resources of PAs as is happening in the DNP where Awareness country. Though the health and family planning and areas for the long-term survival of the species and Tiliacora acuminata is proliferating under the sal Outreach department promotes the measures to control as an essential prerequisite for the better canopy in the absence of its regulated use. Studies population, limited resources hamper the management of the PAs and the RFs that link have also shown certain habitats improve under Help from the NGOs and community widespread adoption of the measures amidst vast them. This has been achieved mainly due to the regulated human use and that disturbances are the representatives is taken to increase conservation majority of the people living in poverty. Illiteracy, availability of new research findings that are integral part of the ecosystem evolution. awareness among the local people in particular and lack of awareness and age old traditional norms helping in better understanding of wildlife Successful resource management systems allow other stakeholders in general through several among the poorer sections of the society in the protection and management requirements in the disturbance to enter on a scale that does not outreach programmes. Every year during the landscape are some of the stumbling blocks in recent years. Further research and monitoring is disturb the structural and functional performance wildlife week, in the first week of October, it is controlling population explosion. required to meet the future challenges effectively. of the ecosystem and the goods and services it important for the Forest Department to organize provides (Arhem, 1985; Balee, 1989; Homewood several awareness activities in each division. Jurisprudence is helping in maintaining the habitat and Rodgers, 1991; Ramakrishnan, 1992 and Moreover, villages having EDCs and VFPCs integrity in the landscape. As in the recent past, 2001; and Berkes and Folke, 1998). The villagers comprehend conservation requirements better judiciary (from lower to higher levels) has helped of Mallapur Khajuria located in the Pilibhit FD than those where these do not exist. There are in evicting the encroachments, stopped forest based on their empirical knowledge also examples within the learning site in the landscape conversions, stopped some developmental corroborated that total exclusion of humans from where erstwhile poachers are now helping the activities which are detrimental from conservation the forest is not necessarily beneficial for certain Forest Department in conservation efforts. Some of point of view, and the relocation of some forest ecosystem types. Similarly, the reduction in swamp these institutions are functioning excellently and dwelling communities outside the forest while deer population in Sathiana in the DNP could be trying innovative methods to improve livelihoods ensuring their proper rehabilitation. In Chilla attributed to the fact that apart from siltation and while majority work as per schedule and lack corridor a breeding tigress has been observed after prolonged inundation which induced changes of enthusiasm. It is interesting to mention here that relocation of the Gujjars from the area. It is one of vegetation composition, a total ban on grazing the EDCs with tribal dominance such as the Tharus the best lessons learnt that nature bounces back if might be responsible for the declining number of around the DNP are the ones which could be the disturbances are removed. Therefore, efforts deer because in the neighbouring Kishanpur WLS, considered the best entities. should be made to create disturbance-free where grazing is still continued, swamp deer are corridors between the PAs (Johnsingh, Personal increasing in number. Detailed location-specific Communication). Though difficult to achieve in research is needed before arriving at a final some locations, it warrants detailed research and conclusion in this regard. baseline data to suggest alternatives to relocation, habitat improvement, restoration and find out other potential corridors. Boulder mining should be immediately stopped in all critical corridors 35 Joint Forest 5.3. programmes such as the JFM, ecodevelopment and that could be promoted with the village-level state for all species for their long-term benefit. Management ecotourism are being promoted, yet their impacts institutions. Well-planned and targeted studies are needed on and Eco-development on the well being of the local people are still hardly several factors contributing to habitat noticeable at the landscape scale. The relationship With the creation of tiger and elephant reserves in fragmentation. Research also needs to understand between the local communities and Forest the landscape, there is emphasis on reduction of the status, ecology and habitat needs, and Natural resource conservation and management Department cannot be considered very cordial. threats, improvement in habitats and creation of population and management strategies for the through JFM in managed forests and Generally, communities feel that the department corridors for the mega species beyond the PA other less dominant species that contribute Eco-development in and around the PAs is a policies are high handed and that the department boundaries. However, the increased human wildlife significantly to enhance the biodiversity. response that, to a certain degree, fulfils the valid is an obstacle in their socio-economic development conflicts such as crop raiding by wild herbivores, demands of the local communities to participate in rather than a partner (e.g. conversion of forest and cattle lifting and particularly human killing by Many of the responses described in the earlier activities that impinge on their socio-economic land for road or other development infrastructure the carnivores must be tackled effectively. Cash sections have shown encouraging results in development. Ecodevelopment is being required by any village is opposed by the Forest compensation schemes and prevention techniques maintaining habitat integrity yet some of them, implemented in and around the studied PAs in the Department). It is important to understand that such as habitat management, solar powered such as desilting of rivers in the DTR area and TAL through the EDCs, however, examples that communities must feel that the forests belong electric fencing and digging of trenches are among manual removal of weeds such as Lantana, show concrete success of community participation more to them rather than the forest and PA the few strategies that could be taken up at a Parthenium and Sesbania are time- and resource- in conservation while satisfying its needs are still managers, and that protection and better larger scale. consuming activities and may not necessarily be difficult to find. The model suffers from some management of these resources will ensure their yielding the desired results. Robust monitoring intrinsic problems such as the present tenural Scientific Basis long-term livelihood security. 5.4. programmes are needed to test and support the arrangements, which still rely on diverting local for Habitat, assumptions for activities being taken for the people from the PAs instead to work towards Species and The awareness among the local communities in management of PAs. modifying the land tenure legislation. Tenure Weed Management particular and other stakeholders in general on uncertainty is one of the biggest stumbling blocks conservation issues is low. Though local people do In spite of the lack of sufficient scientific data on Scientific researches can provide answers to to achieve success in participatory forest feel that rich biodiversity is always going to benefit various issues leading to habitat fragmentation and various problems relating to weed management management. Policy interventions in terms of them if a proper mechanism is evolved to involve biological invasion, the number of mega species is e.g., Tiliacora, Lantana, Parthinum, water hyacinth, redefining tenural rights are an essential them to share the long- as well as short-term static or increasing in this human dominated Eupatorium, etc. So far, lack of reliable scientific prerequisite for greater people participation in the benefits. Creating a sanctuary or RF without proper learning site complexes in the landscape. However, information on the weed species is leading to the conservation efforts so that short-term and settlement of the rights and concessions, has long-term survival cannot be guaranteed. generation of many myths among the management long-term tangible benefits could also be shared generally led to complications and animosity in According to the Tiger census report, in the CNP staff. In the RNP, Lantana has been used as a with the communities. many parts of the country including the TAL (Kutty the number increased from 44 tigers in 1972 to biofence to raise fodder species namely and Kothari, 2001). In addition, resource 137 in 2001-2002 while in the DNP the number is Dendrocalamus strictus and Zizyphus mauritiana Moreover, there is a lack of proper understanding regeneration to fulfill subsistence needs of fuel fluctuating between 90 in 1989 and 104 in 1997. for elephants on demonstration basis in 10 ha area of the ecodevelopment concept among the local wood, fodder and minor forest products of the local Rhinos reintroduced in the DNP in 1984 are doing in Ramgarh range (Johnsingh, Personal communities and also among the frontline staff. people may be given priority and the changed fine and the number is continuously increasing. Communication). This is one of the few examples For the field staff, the ecodevelopment activities aspirations should also be taken into account by where a constraint has been changed into an are extended duties that too without adequate providing tangible economic benefits from Based on the empirical knowledge and also some opportunity, albeit at present mainly for the sake training, capacity and remuneration. The dual role conservation efforts. scientific experiments, mainly cutting and burning of demonstration, and success would be measured to draw out the participation of local people on the are practiced to maintain grassland diversity and only after its large-scale replication. Different one hand and protect the forest resources on the Communities should be given direct benefits even productivity to meet the fodder requirements of techniques and methods are being adopted for the other from the same set of people, is a difficult job in the short run, e.g, fodder, fuel wood, and NTFPs, wild herbivores and subsistence needs of the management and control of Lantana and other for which the department is, so far, ill equipped. as well as benefits from eco-tourism. Detailed dependent people. It has been observed that the weeds in different locations in the West-Central The concept of ecodevelopment also looks for research is needed to collect the baseline above treatments favour the improvement of TAL, yet proper monitoring is lacking. inter-departmental cooperation but the legal, information and design the suitable natural habitat for wild ungulates, particularly swamp deer A comprehensive scientific database is required for policy and administrative mechanisms to ensure exploitation regimes. In India, Panchayats, the and hog deer if the treatments were given during better management of the weeds in the landscape this are not in place properly. Often, the PA legal grassroots level institutions can offer scope the summer season. that sometimes seriously threaten the habitat management does not control the conservation for people participation in conservation, especially integrity within as well as outside the PAs. activities in the corridors and many other critical after the 73rd amendment to the Constitution. The impacts of various management practices on areas, which are most of the time with the However, it must be noted that in the TAL the ecosystem structure and functions are not properly territorial divisions where the management situation is at a point where further experiments understood and hence debatable. The studies objectives are different. Further, the lack of based on untested assumptions and piece meal carried out so far have limited scope to be followed effective funding mechanism remains a bottleneck approach must be avoided. Resource regeneration for maintaining a whole range of biodiversity in the that exists at all levels of management. on community and private lands and also in the TAL. It could be rectified through developing a degraded forestlands should be given priority. good scientific understanding of the natural Studies carried out on socio-economy and Agroforestry, fodder cultivation, grazing regulation, interactions between forest and grassland conservation in some parts of the landscape reveal soil conservation are some of the feasible options ecosystems to determine the desired successional that to benefit the local communities various 37

Management 5.5. action and support from key stakeholders. Develop For NGOs Capacity and effective community outreach programme for Partnerships proper communication, environment awareness i) Work with the Stakeholders and develop strategies and education. to facilitate effective implementation of various v) There should be a mechanism to seek regular conservation initiatives and also to provide Age profile of frontline staff is a big challenge. New training to build capacities of the frontline staff to feedback to the relevant stakeholders. recruitments are few and therefore most of the execute the new programmes. ii) Work as a facilitator to find out problems, suggest frontline staff is over aged to withstand the solutions, generate resources and support in vagaries of field responsibilities. The staff requires For Policy Makers advocacy and lobbying for achieving conservation proper training to implement ecodevelopment and successes. JFM with local people, in the PAs and territorial i) Develop an integrated, adaptive and iii) Support development of plans to strengthen the divisions, respectively. Many approved positions at implementable policy plan that looks into partnerships among the key stakeholders and various levels are lying vacant which should be conservation, livelihood and development problems spreading awareness and education and also the filled as soon as possible. There should be a proper simultaneously as these issues are closely linked. conservation successes among the wider sections mechanism in place to receive the feedbacks from This could be through developing mechanisms for of the society. frontline staff to be incorporated in the proper institutional arrangements and cooperation iv) Amidst complexities, help the conservation management plans of the PAs and the working among various institutions and line agencies at fraternity in prioritizing and streamlining policies plans of the territorial divisions. The feedbacks intra- and inter-state levels. and actions. would definitely help in improving the management ii) Develop incentive-based systems for family v) Facilitate financial and technical support from in the ever-changing ground situation. Community planning, controlling in-migration, managing international organizations to relevant agencies to participation is indispensable to reduce the cost of livestock populations and unregulated grazing, and cope with the global change factors, i.e. habitat conservation and at the same time improve the ensuring sustainable resource use considering fragmentation and biological invasion in the critical management of PAs for longer periods of time. In landscape approach. areas in the landscape. this connection the ground that has already been iii) Evolve plans to ensure equitable distribution of vi) To increase conservation understanding among made by creating institutions like VFPCs and EDCs costs and benefits of wildlife conservation to the political representatives in order to generate needs further strengthening. Specialist voluntary local communities in order to enlist their long-term political will to achieve conservation and organizations should also be roped in to work as support. development goals. partners. iv) Develop mechanisms for suitable tenural Guidelines arrangements so that VFPCs and EDCs become 5.6. for formal grassroots level conservation entities. Stakeholders For Research Organizations

For Forest Department and PA Managers i) Applied research to be carried out for the better management of existing forest and grassland i) Should consider local communities as real partners resources, regeneration and restoration of in the Forest and PA management and try to corridors and mega species conservation. evolve effective location-specific strategies to seek ii) Research may also target to explore the linkages it through JFM and ecodevelopment programmes. between social and ecological systems in order to Utmost care is needed while developing the micro manage habitat fragmentation, weed proliferation, plans. forest fires, over grazing, human-wildlife conflicts, ii) Working plans of territorial divisions and etc. management plans of PAs may be developed iii) Scientific validation on the various activities taking note of the latest scientific information and (responses) that are implemented to protect, also views of key stakeholders to make them more manage and restore the forests and wildlife participatory and adaptive. The working and according to the working and management plans. management plans may also benefit from the iv) Also to help develop implementable monitoring experiences of frontline staff. plans. iii) Young and motivated staff should be recruited to v) Develop a plan to facilitate speedy incorporation of cope with the arduous field duties and trained research findings in the working and management manpower should be enhanced to perform the plans of territorial FDs and PAs, respectively. specialized jobs. vi) To initiate studies on some natural forest iv) Problems of encroachment, forest conversion, disturbances such as floods and diseases to illegal logging, poaching of wild animals need swift minimize the negative impacts. 6 7

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IUCN Publications, New Series, Wiens, J. A. 1995. Habitat fragmentation: island Environment and Wildlife Society of Environment. 18:55-56. vs. landscape perspectives on bird conservation, WII, Dehradun. Sale, J. B. 1986. Rhinos reestablished in Uttar Ibis 137: S97-S104. Pradesh. Indian Forester, 112: 945-948. Singh, A. 1978. The status of swamp deer (Cervus Qureshi, Q., Sawarkar, V. B. and Mathur, duvauceli duvauceli) in the Dudhwa National Park. Wiens, J. A., Stenseth, N. C., Van Horne, B. and P. K. 1991a. Swamp Deer Population Structure, Sale, J. B. and Singh, S. 1987. Reintroduction of Peter Scott, Chairman. Threatened Deer. IUCN, Ims, R. A. 1993. Ecological mechanisms and Patterns of Habitat Utilization and Some greater into Dudhwa National Morges, Switzerland. landscape ecology. Oikos, 66: 369-380. Management Needs in DNP. WII, Dehradun. Park. Oryx, 21: 81-84. Singh, A. 1982. Prince of cats. B. I. Publications, WII, 1995. Guideline for Planning Eco- Qureshi, Q., Sawarkar, V. 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Annexures 45

WII, 1998. Draft Technical Report-1998. WII-USDA viability of this corridor. Abbreviations 8.1. Forest Service Project, Dehradun, India. Used Chilla-Motichur Corridor (Motichur RNP and WII. 2000. Directory of Wildlife Protected Areas in Chilla RNP) India. Envis Bulletin, 3:236pp. The expansion of the Hardwar, Rishikesh townships ANR : Assisted Natural Regeneration and Raiwala village, army ammunition depot and Williams, A. C., Johnsingh, A. J. T. and Krausman, CEC : Central Empowered Committee Hindustan antibiotic factory near Raiwala, P. R. 2001. Elephant-human conflicts in Rajaji CNP : Corbett National Park settlements on the west bank of the Ganga River National Park, Northwestern India. CTR : Corbett Tiger Reserve for the evacuees of Tehri Dam hydroelectric project Wildlife Society Bulletin, 29: 1097-1104. CWLW : Chief Wildlife Warden being constructed up in the Himalaya, and DFO : Divisional Forest Officer construction of the 14 km long Rishikesh-Chilla DNP : Dudhwa National Park power channel on the east bank have resulted in DTR : Dudhwa Tiger Reserve the disruption of habitat connectivity in this EDC : Eco-Development committee corridor. When we are thinking about maintaining FD : Forest Division the habitat connectivity for the mega species like ER : Elephant Reserve elephants in the TAL conservation, this corridor is JFM : Joint Forest Management of great importance. If the corridor is not MF : Managed Forest maintained the close elephant and tiger habitat on MoEF : Ministry of Environment and the west of Ganga will remain an isolated habitat Forests, Government of India of smaller size in the landscape. NGO : Non Government Organization NP : National Park Rajaji-Corbett Corridor (Chilla RNP and NTFPs : Non Timber Forest Products Corbett NP) Range : Forest range within a FD Two ranges of the Lansdowne FD, namely RF : Reserved Forest and Kotdwar form the above corridor between the RO : Range Officer RNP and CTR in the west and east, respectively. RNP : Rajaji National Park Agriculture expansion and human settlements have SDO : Sub Divisional Officer disrupted the connectivity in the foothills between SER : Shivalik Elephant Reserve the PAs. The remaining connectivity is only through UP : Uttar Pradesh State hills which is also facing pressures like grazing and VFPC : Village Forest Protection other human disturbances due to Gujjar (203 Committee Gujjars and 330 buffaloes), (17 WII : Wildlife Institute of India, and 800 sheep and 250 goats) and settlements Dehradun and villages situated on the northern and southern WLS : Wildlife Sanctuary (15,000-20,000 people) in a 3-km stretch WLPA : Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 boundary of the corridor. WWF : World Wide Fund for Nature

Kalagarh Corridor Critical The Kalagrah reservoir across Ramganga, 8.2. Corridors constructed during the 1970s, and the Kalagrah in West-Central TAL Township (90 sq. km) have reduced the movement of tigers across the river, south of the reservoir, from the CNP to the Sonanadi WLS. The limited The critical corridors identified by Johnsingh et. al. movement is from Sukha sot area which is under (2004) of Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun in great pressure due to fuel wood collection and the above stretch of the landscape are being encroachment. The cases are filed with the Sub reproduced below: Divisional Magistrate Kotdwar to evict the encroachers. Kansrau-Barkote Corridor (Barkote range

Derhradun FD and Kansrau range RNP) Kosi River Corridor (Corbett NP and Ramnagar This 2 km stretch that connects the above forest FD) area is under pressure arising out of wood cutting The river flows between the CTR and Ramnagar and grazing. The proposed 4-lane Delhi-Hardwar- FD. Encroachment in Sunder khal, 3.5 km long, at Dehradun highway will further threaten the 47 present, started in 1974. The Court located at the Mahob and Mala ranges of Pilibhit FD in Uttar is dominated by agricultural areas, largely Mr. Neeraj (DFO, Pilibhit FD) Kashipur favouring eviction is yet to be enforced in Pradesh. sugarcane and and habitation of Tharus and Dr. V. P. Singh (Tarai Nature Conservation Society) totality. The encroachers also put pressure on the Punjabi settlers. During the last eight years, Dr. Harish Kumar Guleria (WWF-India, Pilibhit Field CNP for fuel wood and fodder. Lagga Bagga-Suklaphanta-Tatarganj 1.71 sq. km encroached area has been evicted and Office) Corridor (Pilibhit FD-Lagga Bagga-Barahi range, afforested at the cost of Rs. 34,00,000. Elephants Dr. Badrish Mehra (WWF-India, Ramnagar Field Boar River Corridor Pilibhit FD and Tatarganj Block, Sampurnanagar from the Bardia NP in Nepal have started moving Office) Burgeoning tourism and big resorts and other range North Kheri FD to Kishanpur WLS) to Katarniaghat Wildlife Division through riverine Mr. D. C. Upadhyay (Frontline Staff, Terai central infrastructural development may jeopardize the The Lagga Bagga forest block of 5.9 sq. km is a forest and degraded forests interspersed within the FD) connectivity. Construction stopped by Supreme part of the Barahi Range of Pilibhit FD and situated larger agricultural matrix. Mr. Kailash Tiwari (Frontline Staff, Terai central FD) Court. at the left bank of the Sharda River. So far, it is Mr. P. P. Singh (Deputy Director, DNP) Stakeholders' 8.3. Mr. R. C. Jha (DFO, North Kheri FD) contiguous with the Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve Consultations Mr. B. N. Singh (SDO, South Kheri FD) Nihal-Bhakara Corridor (Ramnagar FD and of Nepal in the north. Tatargunj of Sampurnanagar Mr. B. N. Singh (Range Officer, Katarniaghat WLS) Terai central FD) range of North Kheri FD, a narrow stretch of forest, Mr. P. R. Maurya (Wildlife Warden, DNP) This corridor, which is 4 km wide between Boar along the left bank of Sharda, provides WWF-India is directly involved in the facilitation of Mr. Dabir Hasan (Katarniaghat Welfare Society, River and Gola River, connects the Ramnagar FD connectivity between Suklaphanta WLR and conservation activities in the TAL since 1997. Bichia) with Terai central FD. Clear felling for agriculture Haripur range of Pilibhit FD across Sharda. There Conservation measures have already been Mr. Akhtar Miyan and Mr. Shoib Rizvi (Turquoise besides legal and illegal commercial felling, village are settlements of over 100 households between prioritized and a monitoring plan is in place for the Society Pilibhit) settlements and large cattle population are some Lagga Bagga and Tatarganj, which have led to next three years (2004 onwards) for the above Mr. Ramnath , Mr. Ram Kumar Pal, Mr. of the problems being faced in the long term habitat loss between the above. Encroachment by mentioned critical sites. These have been Sriram and many other villagers (Mallpur Khajuria maintenance of the corridor. nearly 2000 Bengali settlers which began during August-September 1996 was subsequently developed with the help of key stakeholders Village, Pilibhit) including FDs, research organizations and local (Terai Central FD and Terai removed from the core area of Lagga Bagga. Gola River Corridor NGOs. Habitat fragmentation has been identified as Apart from the above, views of a number of East FD) However, in spite of relocation they continue to exert pressure on the forests of Lagga Bagga for one of the major factors that threaten the frontline staff posted in various FDs and PAs along Bustling growth of the Haldwani Township and Lal long-term survival of the mega species in the with many villagers were also recorded during the Kuan Industrial complex on the southern edge of firewood and cattle grazing. Change in the course of the Sharda also disrupts the forests at times. landscape during the consultations. The present field visits. Haldwani has broken the habitat connectivity. report substantially benefited from these Heavy vehicular traffic along the road and consultations. During the course of the present Kishanpur-Dudhwa Corridor (Kishanpur WLS large-scale boulder mining involving hundreds of project three extended field visits were made to and Dudhwa NP) labourers along the Gola river from October to the landscape between Rajaji NP and Katarniaghat Increasing human habitations, encroachments, and June, have also contributed to this fragmentation. WLS. The following stakeholders were consulted vehicular traffic, particularly along the The firewood and other demands of these migrant individually and sometimes in small groups to elicit Paliya-Sampurnanagar road, have disrupted the labourers could finish the forests of Doli Range of their views on the change factors and responses to connectivity between Kishanpur WLS and Dudhwa Terai east FD and Tanda Range of Terai central FD. cope with the identified factors. NP. As a result of this, according to the local people, NGOs and FD personnel, tigers occasionally Kilpura--Surai Corridor (Terai East Prof. A. J. T. Johnsingh (Wildlife Institute of India, move between the PAs using vast sugarcane fields. FD) Dehradun) There is a 56 km long porous international border Encroachment and infrastructure development Dr. Qumar Qureshi (Wildlife Institute of India, which is heavily populated. Besides, a 31 km long have caused a distinct break in the tiger habitat in Dehradun) rail line and 40 km public highway pass through the Khatima Forest Range, between Kilpura and Mr. G. S. Pande (Director, Rajaji National Park) the core zone of the DNP. An 18 km railway line Surai Ranges of Terai east FD. The forests of Mr. M. S. Maindola (Range Officer, Ramgar Range, and a public highway pass through the Kishanpur Khatima range are a crucial link in the chain of RNP) WLS. connectivity between the Haldwani FD, Pilibhit FD Mr. S. P. Saklani (Range Officer, Kansrau Range, and the forests in Nepal, and can serve as a RNP) Dudhwa-Katarniaghat Corridor (Dudhwa NP corridor for several large mammal species, Mr. Vivek Pande, (Deputy Director, CNP) and Katarniaghat WLS) including tigers and a population of approx. 30-40 Mr. Kapil Lal (DFO, Working Plan, Ramnagar) Isolated forest blocks of different sizes in north elephants that are currently confined to the Ms. Neena Grewal Lal (DFO, Ramnagar FD) Nighasan Range (north Kheri FD) amidst Haldwani FD and Terai east FD. The Terai east Mr. Rasaily (DFO, Terai west FD) agricultural matrix give connectivity between (Bindu Khatta encroachment) FD faces severe Mr. A. Prasad (SDO, Terai west FD) Belrayan range of DNP and Katarniaghat range of encroachments, wood cutting. The Army camp, the Mr. Surendra Mehra (DFO, Haldwani) Katarniaghat Wildlife Division, along two corridors. Banbasa Hydel project, Sharda sagar and Sharda Mr. N. C. Pant (Range Officer, Gola Range, Twenty-one villages located in this corridor have canal constructed in 1955-56 to 1959-60 have led Terai east FD) encroached upon nearly 16 sq. km of the forest. to the loss of forests areas. The Surahi range Mr. H. L. Yadav (SDO, Terai east FD) There is a gap of 6-7 km between Ramnagarh and connects the Uttaranchal part of the landscape to Mr. Gyan Sharin (Corbett Foundation, Ramnagar) other forest patches close to Katarniaghat. The gap

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