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Fundamentals of Organic Gardening

Fundamentals of Organic Gardening

Vegetable ID

Debbie Roos NC Cooperative Extension www.growingsmallfarms.org www.growingsmallfarms.org

Some Orders

• Coleoptera – • Mantodea – praying • Diptera – • Odonata – , • Homoptera – , scales, whiteflies • Orthoptera – crickets, • Hymenoptera – , , • Thysanoptera – • Hemiptera - bugs • – butterflies, • Isoptera – • Siphonoptera – • – lacewings, • Dermaptera –

Insect Anatomy Insect Features Wings Antennae

Mouthparts

Legs

Ovipositors Insect Development: Metamorphosis

Complete Metamorphosis • 4 distinct stages: egg, , , adult • Examples: beetles, butterflies, flies, wasps, lacewings, fleas

Incomplete Metamorphosis • 3 stages: egg, nymph, adult • Examples: bugs, aphids, thrips, grasshoppers, termites, earwigs Alrighty…Let’s Start Looking at Some ! Order Coleoptera: Beetles Beetles

• 1/3 of all – 40% of all insects – are beetles • Hard opaque wing covers are called elytra • Beetles undergo complete metamorphosis • Larvae (grubs) and adults have chewing mouthparts; have mouthparts attached at the end of a cylindrical snout • Larvae have well-developed heads and 3 pairs of legs

Common

• Damage: adults eat shoots and leaves, and also secrete black fluid which stains plants

• Life history: overwinter as adults; larvae pupate in soil; 3-8 week life cycle depending on season; up to 5 generations per year in NC Common

Photo: BugGuide.net Common Asparagus Beetle

Photo: BugGuide.net Asparagus Beetle Eggs Asparagus Beetle Eggs

Photo: BugGuide.net Asparagus Beetle Larvae

Photo: BugGuide.net Spotted Asparagus Beetle

• spotted beetle larvae feed on developing berries

Colorado Potato Beetle

• Host plants: wide variety of plants including potato, , eggplant, pepper, tobacco and solanaceous

• Life history: overwinter as adults in the soil; larvae pupate in soil; 5-6 week life cycle; 2-3 generations per year in NC Colorado Potato Beetle Life Cycle

Colorado Potato Beetle Eggs

CPB Eggs or Lady Beetle Eggs?

• CPB eggs are larger, darker red-orange, and are more tightly clustered, 30-50 eggs per mass; found only on solanaceous plants

• Lady beetle eggs tend to be smaller, lighter colored, with fewer per cluster and less tightly packed; found where ever prey is nearby CPB Eggs being eaten by a pink spotted lady beetle

Lady Beetle Eggs with aphids Colorado Potato Beetle Larvae

Colorado Potato Beetle Damage

Photo: Tiny Farm Blog Colorado Potato Beetle Damage

Look-alike: False Potato Beetle

• Host plants: horsenettle and other solanaceous weeds Photo: Matt Rupp False Potato Beetle False Potato Beetle Larvae

A Quick Side Trip to Look at a Really Cool Beneficial Insect… Predator/ of Colorado Potato Beetle: grandis

• Unique carabid beetle! • Some consider it the most important natural enemy of CPB • Unlike many other carabid beetles, they search for prey up on plants • Mostly nocturnal but when hot & humid will hunt during the day • This is both a predator and a parasitoid! • Adults eats CPB eggs and larvae • The newly hatched larva locates and parasitizes a CPB pupa underground

Lebia grandis adult eating CPB eggs

Lebia grandis adult eating CPB larva Lebia grandis

Photos: USDA Lebia grandis

Photos: USDA Lebia grandis

Photos: USDA

Host plants: bean, cowpea, clover, corn, soybean, Bean peanut, leguminous weeds

• Damage: adults feed on leaves, stems, and pods but prefer the youngest leaf tissue; larvae feed on plant roots but damage not usually significant; adults also vector bean pod mottle, cowpea mosaic, and southern bean mosaic viruses Life history: adults overwinter in leaf litter, primarily in wooded areas; adults lay eggs in soil at base of plant, and larvae feed on roots; 5-10 week life cycle; 1-2 generations per year in NC

Bean Leaf Beetle Damage

Bean Leaf Beetle: Cowpea Mosaic Virus

Mexican Bean Beetle

• Plant-feeding lady beetle

• Host plants: wide host range including beans, cowpea, soybean, clover, , and related weeds

Mexican Bean Beetle

Mexican Bean Beetle larvae hatching

• Life history: adults overwinter in hedgerows, ditches, and woods; egg clusters laid on undersides of leaves; larvae pupate on leaves; 4-5 week life cycle; 3-4 generations per year in NC Mexican Bean Beetle pupae

parasitized larva Mexican Bean Beetle

• Damage: larvae and adults feed on leaves, leaving a characteristic lacelike (skeletonized) appearance

Mexican Bean Beetle Damage Striped Beetle

Host plants: cucurbit crops plus bean, pea, corn and some weeds Larvae

• Life history: adults overwinter in crop debris and woodlands; egg clusters laid on undersides of leaves; larvae pupate on leaves; 4- 6 week life cycle; 2-3 generations per year in NC • Damage: adults feed on leaves and stems; often girdle stems of tender seedlings; also feed on blossoms and leave scars on ; vector bacterial wilt and ; larvae feed on roots and stems Striped Cucumber Beetle Feeding Damage

Spotted Cucumber Beetle a.k.a. Southern Corn Rootworm

• Host plants: wider host range than striped cucumber beetle - cucurbit crops plus bean, pea, potato, beet, tomato, eggplant, cabbage

Spotted Cucumber Beetle Larva

Life history: adults overwinter in crop debris and woodlands; egg clusters laid on undersides of leaves; larvae pupate on leaves; 4-6 week life cycle; 2-3 generations per year in NC Spotted Cucumber Beetle

• Damage: adults feed on leaves and stems; often girdle stems of tender seedlings; also feed on blossoms and leave scars on fruit; vector bacterial wilt and squash mosaic virus; larvae is known as the southern corn rootworm and feeds on the roots of corn, peanuts, small grains, and wild grasses Spotted Cucumber Beetle Damage

Lower stem feeding damage by larvae

Bacterial wilt in melon vectored by cuke beetle Yellowmargined Leaf Beetle

• Host plants: leafy greens, radish, potato, feeding damage Yellowmargined Leaf Beetle

larva • Host plants: wide host Margined range including tomato, potato, melon, eggplant, pepper, sweetpotato, bean, Blister Beetle pea, cowpea, pumpkin, onion, spinach, cabbage, beet, carrot, radish, corn

• Can be toxic to livestock when feeding on forage crops Margined Blister Beetle

• Life history: overwinter as larvae in soil; adults emerge in June; eggs laid in soil and larvae feed on eggs; 1 generation per year in NC Blisters Caused by Blister Beetles

Striped Blister Beetle

Damage: adults feed gregariously on foliage and , some species feed on flowers; have been known to vector southern bacterial wilt of potatoes; larvae are considered beneficial because they feed on grasshopper eggs • Host plants: wide host Japanese Beetle range including over 275 plants including vegetables and cut flowers

• Damage: adults feed gregariously on foliage, flowers, and and fruit; leaves are skeletonized and mature fruit is damaged; larvae (grubs) are serious pests of and other grasses

• Life history: overwinter as larvae in soil; eggs laid in soil and larvae feed on roots; 1 generation per year in NC Japanese Beetle

Beetle larva (grub) • Host plants: eggplant, potato, Eggplant strawberry, pokeweed, horsenettle

• Life history: adults overwinter in soil Beetle or crop debris; eggs laid in soil and larvae feed on roots and tubers; 4-6 week life cycle; 3-4 generations per year in NC

Eggplant Damage

• Damage: adults feed on foliage and prefer new growth; they leave foliage riddled with holes, giving a shot-hole appearance; larvae feed on roots of tuber crops Striped Flea Beetle

Striped Flea Beetle feeds on crucifer crops including mustard, turnip, radish, and related weeds Tortoise Beetles

• Host plants: eggplant, sweetpotato, cabbage, corn, raspberry, strawberry, and some weeds Tortoise \ Beetles

pupae

• Damage: adults and larvae feed on foliage laving it riddled with holes

• Life history: adults overwinter in crop debris or other leaf litter; eggs laid in soil and larvae feed on roots and tubers; 5-6 week life cycle; several generations per year in NC Green Dock pregnant female Beetle

• Host plants: greens, weeds, Godetia

• Damage: adults and larvae feed on foliage

eggs larvae Green Dock Beetle

Cowpea Curculio

• Host plants: field pea, string bean, soybean, lima bean, cotton, strawberry, leguminous weeds

Cowpea Curculio

• Damage: adults puncture pods to feed or lay eggs creating small brown wartlike blisters or sunken spots called stings; larvae feed on immature seeds

• Life history: adults overwinter in crop debris or weeds; larvae feed for 2-3 weeks inside pods and chew exit holes to escape; they pupate in the soil; 4-6 week life cycle; 2 generations per year in NC Cabbage Seedpod

Host plants: brassica crops and weeds Cabbage Seedpod Weevil

Adult weevils can feed directly on seeds through the pod wall Seedpods Damaged by Cabbage Seedpod Weevil

Cabbage Seedpod Weevil Larva

Larva inside the seedpod. Larvae take about six weeks to develop through three larval stages (instars). A single larva eats about five seeds in its lifetime.

Vegetable Weevil

Host plants: vegetable crops as well as weeds. Larvae and adults feed on leaves and roots of host plants. Vegetable Weevil

Larvae seek shelter during the day and emerge to feed at night.

larvae feeding on spinach Vegetable Weevil

damage to bok choi

Larvae feeding on bok choi Wireworms

• Host plants: potato, sweetpotato, beets, beans, corn, cabbage, carrots, tomatoes, lettuce, onions, turnips, cut flowers adult click beetle

• Life history: eggs are laid on or slightly beneath the soil larvae surface; larvae feed underground then overwinter in the larval stage; 42-350 day life cycle; 1-2 generations per year in NC, depending on species sweetpotato Wireworm Damage

• Damage: the larvae live in the soil, feeding upon roots, seeds, and tubers

stem damage corn seed Order Hemiptera: True Bugs Order Hemiptera: True Bugs

• Two pairs of wings usually present • Forewings modified to hemelytra, hindwings entirely membranous • Mouthparts enclosed in a piercing-sucking beak that curves beneath the body • Incomplete metamorphosis: egg, nymph, adult • Some groups (e.g., stink bugs) have scent glands on the sides of thorax • Beneficial Hemipterans include damsel bugs, ambush bugs, assassin bugs, predaceous stink bugs

Stink Bugs

Predatory Stink Bug

vs.

Plant Feeding Stink Bug Predator vs. Pest predator pest Harlequin Bug

Host plants: all crucifers, plus squash, corn, bean, asparagus, okra, tomato Harlequin Bug

• Damage: adults and nymphs pierce stalks, leaves, and veins with their needlelike mouthparts and extract plant juices; punctured tissue develops irregular cloudy spots around the puncture wound, young plants can wilt, turn brown, and die, older plants are only stunted Harlequin Bug

• Life history: overwinter as adults; may remain active during mild winter; eggs laid in double-row clusters on undersides of leaves; 7-11 week life cycle; 2-4 generations per year in NC

eggs on broccoli egg cluster Harlequin Bug

nymph

eggs hatching Stink Bugs

• Life history: overwinter as adults; eggs laid in clusters on leaves and stems in mid- to late June; 5-6 week life cycle; 1-2 generations per year in NC

Green stink bug eggs Parasitized stink bug eggs Green Stink Bug

• Host plants: beans, cowpea, tomato, okra, melons, asparagus, and more

Green Stink Bugs

Brown Stink Bug

nymph Stink Bug Damage

• Damage: adults and nymphs pierce plants and suck sap from pods, buds, blossoms, fruit, and seeds; immature fruits and pods punctured by bugs become deformed as they develop; seeds are often flattened and shriveled, and germination is reduced Stink Bug Damage

soybean damage pecan damage Brown Marmorated Stink Bug

• Introduced to the eastern U.S. in late 1990s

• feeds on a wide range of fruits, vegetables, and other host plants beginning in late May/early June including peaches, apples, green beans, soybeans, raspberries, and pears. Damage to host plants from the BMSB is typically small necrotic areas but ranges from leaf stippling, catfacing on tree fruits, seed loss, and transmission of plant pathogens.

Brown Marmorated Stink Bug

Identified by white band on antennae and distinctive black and white bands on edge of abdomen

Photo: Rutgers nymphs hatching Brown Marmorated Stink Bug

eggs

Photos: Rutgers Brown Marmorated Stink Bug

first instar nymphs

fourth instar nymph

Photos: Rutgers Brown Marmorated Stink Bug Damage

Apple damage

Peach and sweet corn damage Other Hemipterans

Squash Bug

• Host plants: all cucurbits; prefer squash, pumpkin, cucumber, and melon, in that order

• Damage: adults and nymphs feed in colonies and pierce vines with needle-like mouthparts, injecting a toxin into plants that causes vines to turn black and die; small plants and individual runners of large plants are often destroyed; when infestations are heavy, fruit may not form Squash Bug • Life history: overwinter as adults; eggs laid on undersides of leaves, typically in angles formed by veins; egg-laying period lasts several weeks; 5-8 week life cycle; 1 generation per year in NC Squash Bug

eggs nymphs & adults Squash Bug

Squash bug nymphs hatching

Photo: Marie Iannotti • Introduced in 2009; Kudzu Bug now widespread in the south

• Host plants: kudzu, soybeans, edamame and other beans, wisteria, vetch

• Damage: adults and nymphs feed in colonies and pierce stems and leaf veins with needle-like mouthparts, causing nutrient and moisture loss Kudzu Bug • Host plants: eggplant, Eggs & tomato, potato, Nymphs sunflower, cotton

• Life history: overwinter as adults and often invade homes; eggs laid on undersides of leaves Kudzu Bug edamame

pole beans Kudzu Bugs on Fig Predatory Stink Bug with Kudzu Bug • Wide host range including bean, cowpea, eggplant, tomato, okra, watermelon

• Life history: overwinter as adults; probably only one generation per year

• Damage: adults and nymphs pierce plants and suck sap from pods, buds, blossoms, fruit, and seeds; immature fruits and pods punctured by bugs become deformed as they develop Eggplant Lace Bug

• Host plants: eggplant, • Life history: tomato, overwinter potato, as adults; lay sunflower, eggs in mid- cotton to late May in circular mass on underside of leaves; 2-3 week life cycle; 6-8 generations per year in NC Eggplant Lace Bug Nymphs

Eggplant Lace Bug

• Damage: circular discolored areas; remains of egg mass and nymphs typically found on underside or discolored area; nymphs feed and move as a colony, protected by the female; bugs gradually move outward until whole leaf yellows and dries; severe infestation may kill whole plants or weaken to the point that fruit fails to develop Garden Fleahopper

• Host plants: broad range including bean, beet, cabbage, cucumber, eggplant, lettuce, pea, pepper, potato, pumpkin, squash, sweet potato, and tomato

• Life history: eggs inserted into stems; overwinter as eggs; eggs hatch in spring; multiple generations per year in NC Garden Fleahopper

Slender-bodied form Oval-bodied form

nymph pepper Garden Fleahopper Damage

soybeans • Damage: suck sap from leaves and stems resulting in speckling

Order Lepidoptera: Caterpillars Caterpillars

• Caterpillars represent the larval stage of butterflies and moths (complete metamorphosis) • They have 12 simple eyes, a pair of very short antennae, and usually 6 well-developed legs • They also have 2-5 pairs of prolegs - short, fleshy, hooked projections that help them walk and cling to plants; these prolegs help distinguish them from other larvae (beetles, bees, wasps) • A caterpillar’s life cycle is one continuous meal; all species are plant eaters with chewing mouthparts

Corn Earworm/Tomato Fruitworm

• Host plants: over 100 hosts, including sweet corn, tomato, potato, lettuce, squash, pepper, beans, okra, cut flowers

• Life history: overwinter as resting pupae in soil; eggs deposited on leaves and corn Larva has 5 pairs of prolegs; dark warts ; 5-9 week life cycle; at along back have bristles on them least 3 generations per year in NC

pupae color variations • Damage: larvae feed on foliage early in the growing season but prefer fruiting stages; feed on leaves, buds, and tightly coiled blades of corn seedlings, leaving a “shatterworm” appearance; feeds primarily on corn kernels near tip; larvae may leave large gaping holes on vegetable fruits

• Host plants: field corn and sweet corn preferred, but will also eat bean, potato, sweetpotato, tomato, cabbage, cucumber, turnip, head of larva is marked with a spinach, peanut, tobacco, all grain crops pale but distinct inverted “Y”

• Life history: overwinter as pupae in soil in Florida and other Gulf states; 5-6 week adult life cycle; several generations per year in NC

egg mass Fall Armyworm Damage

Larvae feed on foliage early in the growing season corn but prefer fruiting stages; larvae feed throughout the tightly coiled blades of corn seedlings, leaving a “shatterworm” appearance

pepper European Corn Borer

• Host plants: infests over 200 plants, but corn is a preferred host; also attacks bean, beet, potato, tomato, pepper, cut flowers

• Damage: on most crops, borers larva has several rows of small black or begin feeding on leaf surface, brown spots on the body then eventually bore into midrib and into the stem; borers weaken stems and interfere with nutrient transfer

• Life history: overwinter as larvae in crop debris, stalks, etc.; 3-4 generations per year in NC Tomato Hornworm

• Host plants: tomato, pepper, eggplant, tobacco, solanaceous weeds

• Damage: larvae strip leaves from tomato vines and may feed on developing fruit

• Life history: overwinter as pupae in soil; 6-7 week life cycle; at least 2 generations per year in NC Tomato Hornworm

egg

pupa adult

Parasitized Hornworm

Cabbage Looper

• Host plants: broad host range including cabbage and related plants, potato, spinach, lettuce, , tomato, cut flowers

larva has 3 pairs of prolegs, several • Damage: young larvae feed on white stripes which run length of body undersides of leaves and move to more protected areas deep within the cabbage head as they mature

• Life history: overwinter as pupae; larvae spin cocoons and pupate on foliage; 5-6 week life cycle; at least 3 generations per year in NC Imported Cabbageworm

• Host plants: cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, turnip, kale, collards, radish, mustard, lettuce, cut flowers

• Damage: young larvae feed on undersides of leaves; larger larvae bore into the center of the cabbage head; the presence of masses of wet, greenish- brown excrement deep among the leaves is evidence of this pest pupa

• Life history: overwinter as pupae attached to host plant debris; larvae spin cocoons and pupate on foliage; 4- 5 week life cycle; 3-4 generations per year in NC larvae has light yellow stripe down back, faint yellow spots down each side; 5 pairs of prolegs Cabbageworm Parasitized by Cotesia Wasps Cross-striped Cabbageworm

• Host plants: cabbage, turnip, and related plants

• Damage: young larvae feed on all tender plant parts but prefer terminal buds; young leaves and buds are often riddled with holes tiny black transverse stripes across body are distinctive • Life history: overwinter as larvae; larvae spin cocoons and pupate on foliage; 4-6 week life cycle; at least 3 generations per year in NC • Moth migrates in from south Florida, arriving in NC in early July

• Host plants include summer squash, winter squash, , cantaloupes

Squash Vine Borer

• Host plants: larvae feed primarily on squash and pumpkin; will occasionally feed on other cucurbits but cannot complete their adult moths development by feeding on these plants

Squash Vine Borer

• Damage: larvae bores into stems; damage first appears as sudden wilting of the plant; closer examination reveals masses of coarse, greenish-yellow excrement pushed out from the stem

• Life history: overwinter as larvae or pupae; single eggs are laid on stems and leaf petioles; borers emerge and tunnel into stems; they pupate in the soil; 7-10 week life cycle; 2 generations per year in NC

eggs Other Orders

Fire Ants

Colonies of fire ants consist of eggs, brood, polymorphic workers, winged males, winged females and one or more reproductive queens.

foraging worker mound Fire Size Range

workers

The polymorphic nature of the workers is striking: the queen largest workers can be up to 10 times the size of the smallest workers.

At maturity, a colony can consist of over 250,000 ants. • Increase in polygyne colonies in southeast

• Nest density of polygyne colonies can be 10x greater than monogyne

• Research has shown that polygyne fire ants pose a serious threat to the biodiversity of native insect communities

Fire Ant Damage

Fire ant mound surrounding broccoli seedling

Fire ants are omnivorous, feeding on insects, animals, and plants. They feed on germinating seeds and can girdle Fire ant mound on far left beside the stems and trunks of young fruit wilted broccoli plants. trees. They can damage pumps and drip irrigation systems. Fire Ant Damage

Fire ants feeding on the stem of a young broccoli plant

Fire ants girdling stem Darkwinged Fungus Gnat

• Host plants: larvae feed on a wide variety of crops and flowers; important pests in ; also feed on organic matter in soil

• Damage: larvae damage roots and enter tender stems at soil level; often first sign is plant wilting

• Life history: the larvae often form clusters in the soil; adults are weak fliers, but they run rapidly on the soil surface or may remain motionless to avoid predation; inhabit moist, shady areas; usually most abundant in winter and spring

Darkwinged Fungus Gnat Adult Darkwinged Fungus Gnat Larvae Darkwinged Fungus Gnat

Fungus gnat larvae sometimes cling together, forming a snake- like line, and migrate in search of a new food source.

Darkwinged Fungus Gnat Damage

Damaged melon seedlings Seedcorn Maggot on Onion

Host plants include beans, peas, brassicas, potatoes, cucurbits, onion, pepper, and many more! Usually a problem during cold, wet seasons and in highly organic soils.

Potato Leafhopper

• Host plants: bean, potato, eggplant, fruit trees, forage crops

• Life history: overwinter in Gulf states, move into NC by mid-summer; 3-4 generations per year in NC Leafhopper

• Damage: nymphs and adults feed on undersides of leaves, extracting sap; feeding causes stunting, curling of leaf margins, and crinkling of upper leaf surfaces; inject a toxic substance into leaves when they feed, causing yellowing at tips and margins of leaves

damage to potatoes damage to beans (hopper burn)

• Host plants: vegetables & ornamentals, depending on species

• Life history: reproduce through parthenogenesis (females produce live young without mating); some species continue to feed and breed throughout winter; multiple generations (20-30?) per year in NC

Whitefly

• Host plants: wide host range • Life history: overwinter as adults; 2-4 week life cycle

nymphs & pupae Whitefly

• Damage: direct damage caused by removal of sap; indirect damage as a vector of viral diseases; chlorotic spots sometimes appear at feeding sites, and heavy infestations can cause wilting; look for honeydew and sooty mold

damage to tomato Whitefly Damage

Silverleaf whitefly larvae inject toxins into tomato fruit when feeding, leading to irregular ripening Thrips

• Host plants: any flowering plant, including peppers and tomatoes

• Life history: females lay eggs in tender plant tissue; nymphs adult pupate on plant, in leaf litter, or in soil; 2-4 week life cycle

nymph Thrips damage to

• Damage: feeds on flowers and foliage by inserting mouthparts and extracting sap; feeding causes distortion and browning of leaves and petals, hibiscus or a silvery appearance; can vector tomato spotted wilt virus

damage to onion Thrips: Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus

Non-Insects

Slugs Two-Spotted Spider

• Host plants: beans, peas, tomatoes, plus 100+ other cultivated species

• Life history: overwinter as females; lay eggs in spring; 2-6 week life cycle; multiple generations per year in NC; development most rapid during hot, dry weather Two-Spotted Spider Mite

• Damage: pierce the epidermis and extract sap from fruit and the undersides of leaves; infested foliage assumes a whitish or bronze appearance; heavily infested plants may have webs all over them Whew! Questions?

Presentation On-line at go.ncsu.edu/2014-ssawg-talk

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