Vytautas LEVANDAUSKAS Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania

SACRAL ORIGIN THEORIES 8 OF CLASSICAL ORDER

Key words: order, , architectural theory, sacrality

Classical order is particularly important in Euro- and elsewhere. Therefore, when collecting data, the pean architectural history. It is associated with anci- majority of publications were read abroad or their ent Greek and Roman culture, Renaissance art and translations into Russian, Polish and Czech langu- finally with retrospektyvisms of New Ages. Order ages were used. (Lat. Ordo, fr. Ordre, germ. Order – order) for cen- The oldest known work, containing the outlined turies raimained to be the essential system of tem- rules of architecture is Vitruvius Pollio’s treatise ples, public or residential buildings and it consisted The Ten Books on Architecture, published in the 1st of three parts: 1) the main – ; 2) covering century BC and dedicated to the Emperor Augus- part above the column – entablature and 3) pedestal tus. Vitruvius attempted to summarize the Greek below the column. architecture, although he lived two centuries after The column was the most important form of artis- their classical period (the V-IIIth c. BC). In this tic expression and it was the centre of attention treatise order is often associated with gods. In the DIMENSIJA: MENO TEORIJOS IR ARTEFAKTAI TEORIJOS MENO DIMENSIJA: for architects, artists and customers. For centuries following line he explains the origin of the ancient artists searched for its perfect proportions, calcu- Doric order: lated structural properties, created a wide range of When Doras, the son of Helen and nymph

SACRUM decor options, but each time they used to discover Ftija, reigned in Achaia and in the entire Pe-

I. that it is not possible and even it is not necessary to loponnese, in the old city of Argo he made a surpass what once was created by Greeks and deve- temple, which accidentally took a Doric shape loped by Romans. Thus, there was contemplation of order and then he built temples of the same about the divine nature of a column, its similarity to order in other Achaia cities, even though the- human beings and its organic origin. re were no rules of proportions then1. The aim of this article is to review the main theo- ries of orders from ancient times until the XIXth Vitruvius also indicates other orders that fit to be century, emphasizing their aesthetic and spiritual used for various temples of gods. The temples for essence and the explanations of sacred column ori- Thunderer, Heaven, Sun and Moon should be open gin. This work is not meant to be a comprehensive as these gods manifest in open, glowing sky. The review as it was not possible to read all architectural temples for Minerva, Mars, and Heracles are Doric works. In 1832, in Vilnius University, Department temples as the bravery of these gods requires build- of Architecture, a rich library in this field was des- ings without any decorations. The Corinthian order troyed during the liquidation of the university; would be most appropriate for the temples of Venus, books were stolen and transported to Kiev, Kharkov Flora, Proserpina and nymphs since these dieties are so tender that architecture also requires slender and well-built man, such as Adam was, because if forms, colourfully decorated with leaves and twirls. God created his body, then consequently, it was cre- What concerns the temples for Juno, Diana, Father ated beautiful and extremely proportious, only later Liberi and similar dieties, having applied Ionic nature divided people into high, short and those of order, an intermediate link between strict Doric and medium height4. soft Corinthian buildings would be filled2. Sacred theories of classical order’s origin were 9 In his treatise Vitruvius presented the following developed in the Christian direction by Sebastiano lyrical legend about the form of Corinthian col- Serlio (1475-1555), the Rennaissance theorist of the I. umn’s capitel: XVIth century. In his books on architecture, he set SACRUM to “correct” Vitruvius and suggested to use various A young girl, Corinth citizen, having attained orders in a different way. We, Christians, have to fol- the marriageable age, fell unwell and died. Her low a different order, he wrote, and recommended wet nurse, gathered her small things, which a to apply the Doric order for churches, sanctified for DIMENSION: THEORIES OF ART AND ARTIFACTS girl cherished very much, put them into a bas- Jesus Christ, St. Peter, St. Paul, St. George and other ket, brought it to the graveyard and put on the saints, who were not professional soldiers but had grave. A tile had been placed over the basket enough strength and power to donate their lives for to protect it from the weather. Accidentally, Christian faith. According to Serlio, the churches of the basket was put on on the root of Acanthus. Corinthian order should have been related to St. Vir- In spring, the pressed Acanthus’ root let the gin Mary, who was and remained virgin even after leaves and sprouts out. The sprouts had grown giving birth and in general for all the saints whose through the basket’s edges, reached the heavy lives were virginity. The churches of Ionic order tile and curled up in rolled tips. At that time, should have been assigned to all the saints, whose Callimachus (Kallimachos. - V. L.), who was way of life was to be among the soft and tender, in honoured by the Athenians for his elegant, other words, for holy wifes, the former honorable delicate marble works, was going through mothers5. Serlio’s order sacralization was a new way that tombstone and noticed a basket and it to express the spirituality of a building. It was a tran- covering leaves’ tenderness; he was impressed sition to the symbolic semantics, which transferred by that spectacle, original form and in accor- physical appearance into the second place. dance with that view he created the in Corynth, established their proportions and Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola (1507-1573) ir Andrea the rules of Corithian order3. Palladio (1508-1580) were the most famous archi- tects of Italian Renaissance whose theoretical works For several centuries Vitruvius’ treatise has been introduced classical forms into European architec- forgotten. Only in the XVth century it was discov- ture. Their treatises summarized Vitruvius’ theories, ered again and commented by theorists of Renes- provided order’s canons, methods of their composi- saince. It also gave birth to new interpretations of tion and construction rules. Vignola6 and Palladio’s7 order’s origin. After Vitruvius, the first work, exam- treatises were mostly widespread among the archi- ining the issues of order was an architectural trea- tects of northen European countries (including tise by Italian theorist Antonio di Pietro Averlino, Lithuania) and they were often quated in works of who was also called Filarete (1400-1465). Filarete local theorists. The books of these two Renaissance was a representative of the firmly rooted Christi- giants were designed to be applied in practice as anity and he created theories of order’s origin that they were perfectly illustrated instructions for pro- corresponded to the spirit of that period. Filarete fessional architects. However, due to such an appli- wrote a lot about Biblical character Adam, search- cable nature, in Vignola and Palladio’s works less ing for a relationship between God and a human space was left for aesthetic contemplation and issues being. It could be assumed, he claimed, that those of order’s origin. who invented orders, should have discovered a high Palladio’s follower Vincenzo Scamozzi (1552-1616) book V. Columnae or description and application of completed theoretical explorations of the XVIth cen- five orders. Blum suggested an original derivation tury Renaissance architects when in 1615, in Venice of a Toscanian column: some architects claim that it he published a huge treatise The Idea of a Universal has gain its name from the giant Tuscan which was Architecture8. There he developed Filarete’s disclo- supposedly a German ancestor, as this column was 10 sed idea of the divine order’s origin. Scamozzi in a the thickest and the largest of all. Blum’s attempt to new way gave a meaning to order’s, i.e. order’s (pro- associate a Toscanian column with the myth of his cedure) Latin lexeme ordo as the antipode of chaos: nation was new and perhaps the only one pheno- mena of this kind in the XVIth century. However, Order (i.e. order – V.L.) has to be found in all the author is original not only because of that. He the things, otherwise confusion would prevail compared the proportions of Toscanian column and everything would turn into that Chaos, with a fat peasant and even called it a peasant contemplated and sung by sages ans poets; we column. It was an obvious order’s desacralization will indicate that architecture, as the creator by drawing attention to people from lower social of the finest science, must contain order in stratum. However, Blum highlightes order’s sacra- itself (…). Thus we can claim, that the creat- lity elsewhere. He claims: ed things are composed of order (i.e. order – V. L.), created by God; that order, as well as (…) This art is not invented from scratch, as it decorations, dominate in all the things and occurred thousands of years ago, reigning for it is also clearly visible in sciences and noble Solomon who ordered the building of Jerusa- arts (…)9. lem temple and royal palace of the Corinthian style, as it is said by Joseph11. Thus, Scamozzi gave a huge spiritual meaning to a classic form, claiming, that in architecture order is In the XVIIth century the centre of architectural a part of the same universal order created by God. theoretical thought was transferred to France. New Having highlighted the divine origin of the order, talents appeared after Philibert De L’Orme’s (1510- Scamozzi also individually assessed every order 1570) First Volume on Architecture, published in type. In particular, he adored the Corinthian order 1568. One of the most prominent talents was Roland

DIMENSIJA: MENO TEORIJOS IR ARTEFAKTAI TEORIJOS MENO DIMENSIJA: and considered it to be superior to others: Frėart de Chambrai (1606-1676) – a representative of a noble family who had the highest impact on the there is no such order among them all, which social layers of his country. He became extremely would be more pleasant and beautiful as the

SACRUM famoust after publishingParallels of Antique and Corinthian one (…). In ancient times this Modern Architecture in 1650. Chambre repeated I. order was used for decoration of temple fa- Blum’s described biblical theory of the Corinthian cades and internal parts so as to show that order: the noblest and the most superior things are meant for gods (...). We will add that this or- though I do not dare claim that this profile der expresses the transparency of soul, which (the Corinthian order – V. L.) exactly cor- is suitable only in the presence of Supreme responds to the profile of Salamons’temple Being10. (…), the more I am convinced that it is as close to that as it can generally be according Renaissance theorists’ theories of the dicine origin to the descriptions, provided by the Bible and formulated a new approach the order as a spiritual famous historians and which are testified by phenomenon. Villialpand in his huge treatise12. Chambrai In the XVIth century works of architectural theory continues: If the churches and altars are built appeared in other countries. In 1550, in Zürich, an for those noble young ladies who, when de- architect and wood carver Hans Blum published a fending Christianity in their youth age, suffe- red the cruelty of tyrants but overcame all the tortures due to their strenghth, then is it pos- Italian scholar and journalist Francesco Algarotti sible to find something more expressive and (1712-1764), in his Essays on Fine Arts, related corresponding to their dedication than this sacral order origin’s explanations with the sear- divine order! (…). In short, as it decorated ches of organic origin. He wrote: (…) The images of the famous temple in Jerusalem, which never various forms’ trees thin as spruce, stumpy as beech had any compeer, it can be rightly called yhe and also those of medium thickness, to which people 11 blossom of architecture, the order of orders face everyday, could give birth to the idea of different (…)13. orders… It is easy to imagine how the most enduring

and the largest boards were attached to the ends of the I.

In the evolution of architectural science, Chambrai thickest tree trunks that were used for abutment. The SACRUM was also distinguished as one of the first Hellenistic entablatures, made of several parts were put on the apologists who denied everything that did not meet top of those boards, whereas it was different with the the ancient Greek forms and aesthetic ideals. Later it trunks of slimmer trees. I would say it is not difficult DIMENSION: THEORIES OF ART AND ARTIFACTS became norm for the classicists of the XVIII-XIXth to understand how appeared the two initial forms, centuries but Chambre passed them all for more which determined the Doric and Corinthian order than a century. The author reminded Vitruvian’s and which, when being transmitted from one master description of the Doric order, where it was com- to another, finally reached such beauty that one aut- pared with a powerful man, such as Heracles (Her- hor – a foreigner, even stated that these were given to culis) was, who was always depicted as barefoot. human by God as objects, the invention of which far Therefore, Chambrai concludes that Greek Doric exceeded the capabilities of the human mind15. Here, order has to be without base either, in other words, Algarotti had probably in mind a German foreigner it must be barefoot. Greek Doric order had no base, Leonhard Christoph Sturm (1669-1719) who wrote it appeared only in Roman times. Thus, this theorist, that the Doric and Corinthian orders were given referring to the image of the ancient god, made an to people by God. Sturm is also quated by another attempt to dismiss that was not Greek. German author - Georg Wolfgang Krafft (1701- 16 In the XVIIIth century, the problem of sacral sym- 1754) . bolism was not as popular as it was before. Then At the end of the XVIIIth century, there were such theorists were dabating whether the order came theorists that skeptically evaluated Villalpand’s inter- from the similarity to the human body or whether pretation of the Corinthian order’s origin. Francesco it developed from wooden constructions. Jacques- Milizia (1725-1798) was extremely skeptical. In the François Blondel (1705-1774), the adherent of Ant- book Principo di architettura civile he wrote: hropomorphic theory, in his Cours d’architecture Father Villapand who generously searched for reminded that the logic of the divine order’s pur- its (the Corinthian order – V. L.) origins dre- pose cannot be ignored: amed- and he himself believed in that- as if Take a look at Greek history and you will no- God ordered Salamon to create this order and tice that Doric buildings were almost without Greeks took it over from Jerusalem temple17. exception assigned to Jupiter, Mars, Hercules, Ionic were assigned to Cybele, Juno, Proser- Antoine Quatremere de Quincy (1755-1849) was pina and Corinthian – to Vesta, Flora, Hebei; critical about Vitruvius’s interpretation on the Doric if these three orders, together with Toscanian order’s origin. He was convinced that the Doric and Compositional, were eqully applied for order could have been created only by imitating the all types of buildings, then, such inconsisten- primitive wooden construction18. cy would create greater that it can be imagi- Archeologic discoveries of the XVIII-XIXth cen- ned architectural monotony and inaccuracies turies, achievments in exact sciences and finally 14 in details . educational philosophy encouraged architectural theorists to be more accurate but everything that and order proportions. His lectural notes contained was created from Vitruvius to Classical times was a numeration of human body proportions accord- not forgotten. ing to Vitruvius and Albrecht Dürer22.

Lithuania also was not left behind by the theory of The developer of Late Classisicm, a professor of the divine order’s origin. They came through yhe Vilnius University and an architect Podczaszyński, 12 works of other theorists, who have been studied and following the French rationalist Jean Nicolas Louis assisted in shaping the view of artists. Durand (1760-1834), distanced himself from anthropomorphic theories. In his treatise Architec- The oldest architectural works of the XVI-XVIIIth tural Basics for Academic Youth, he wrote: (…) It centuries, written in Polish and spread in Lithuania would be better to adopt those rules that derive their were mainly practical manuals of construction and (orders’ – V.L.) shape from their purpose than to rely farming. Rules of order construction have been on the imitated similarity between the Toscanian cor- learned from Vignola and Palladio. However these nice and human face seen from the profile23. How- two authors less attention paid to the problems of ever, even though Podczaszyński was utilitarian, order’s origin. Wojcech Bystrzonowski19 refered to in his work he preferred and most probably he was Scamozzi. Martin Knackfuss, the developer of early the only one who often used the most fragile, poetic Lithuanian classicism, responding to the anony- and non practical in our conditions the Corinthian mous letter about Vilnius City Hall construction in order (Ziliciai manor, Vilnius Evangelical Lutheran 1782, wrote: Church, Vilnius University Aula). of those, who I have been reading about,-Ve- Podczaszyński’s student Hipolit Rumbovicz in his netian architect Andrea Palladio, Vincenzo treatise On the Orders as Such also criticizes the ant- Scamozzi (...). I respect the latter for his no- hropomorphic theory: How it is possible that, for ins- velty when defining the Ionic top (…)20. tance, the human shape all parts of which are created Department of architecture in Vilnius University for their own purpose can be an example for the sup- 24 has accumulated a set of theoretical works among port made of inanimate matter ? Meanwhile anot- which there were Vitruvius’ The Ten Books on Archi- her Podczaszyński’s student Jan Sobolewski in his 21 treatise On the Beauty of Buildings, written almost DIMENSIJA: MENO TEORIJOS IR ARTEFAKTAI TEORIJOS MENO DIMENSIJA: tecture (published 1800-1801), treatises of Blon- del, Scamozzi and other authors. Representatives at the same time, claimed that the most beautiful of Lithuanian classical school were well aquainted architectural forms are those that imitate nature if with rules of the Classical order and mythological this imitation is wisely thought-over: SACRUM and anthropomorphic theories were helpful when Thus, the purpose of human creation, regar- I. shaping their artistic worldview. dless its focus, approaches to the purpose of Anthropomorphic theories, looking for similarities the natural creation, because people follow to a human being, were directly related to the sacral nature and it is what brings nature and people ones. Ancient Greek and Roman gods were human; together. This following has to be intelligent as biblical character Adam, created by God, had to be only pefect things can be followed by (…)25. of divine proportions. It was a long time since Vitru- Works of Vilnius University architectural theorists vius associated the order with proportions of a man, clearly reveal how sacral theories of order, having a woman or a girl. Laurynas Gucevicius, the devel- gone through anthropomorphic stage, achieved the oper of Lithuanian mature classicism, was educated searches of organic origin. Architectural theorists’ by anthropomorphic theories. His student Michał attempts to provide order with a spirit did not disap- Szulc, having become a professor of Vilnius Univer- pear without a trace. sity, also focused on the relationship between human Notes shown that the Corinhtian order is the youngest of the three. 1 Vitruvius. Deset knih o architekture. Praha: Svoboda, 13 Chambrait, Fréart de. Parallèle de l’architecture anti- 1979, p. 123. que et de la moderne. Paris, 1650, p. 70. 2 Ibid, p. 39. 14 Blondel, Jaques-François. Cours d’architecture. T. 1. 3 Ibid, p. 125–126. Paris, 1771, p. 434–435. 4 Таруашвили, Л. Эстетика архитектурного ордера. 15 Algarotti, Francesco. Saggi sopra le belle arti. Livorno, Москва, 1995, с. 49. 1764, p. 87–88. 13 5 Serlio, Sebastiano. Tutte l’opere d’architettura. Regole 16 Krafft, Georg Wolfgang. Specimen emendationis the- generale di architettura. Venezia, 1594. Libro 4, p. 139, oriae ordinum architectonicum. In.: Commentarii Acade- 158, 169. miae scientarum Petropolitanae. T. XI. Petropoll [Sankt- 6 Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi. V ordines Architecturae. Peterburg], 1739, p. 288. I. Venetia,?. Library of The Lithuanian Academy of Scien- 17 Milizia, Francesco. Principo di architettura civile. T. 1. SACRUM ces, Manuscripts Department. A 427. First published in Bassano, 1813, p. 90. Rome 1562. 18 Quatremere de Quincy, Antoine. Dictionnaire histori- 7 Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi. V ordines Architecturae. que d’architecture. T. 1. Paris, 1832, p. 538–539. Venetia? Library of The Lithuanian Academy of Sciences, 19 Bystrzonowski, Wojcech. Informacja Matematyczna

Manuscripts Department. A 427. First published in Rome Rozumnie Ciekawego Polaka swiat cały, niebo i ziemia DIMENSION: THEORIES OF ART AND ARTIFACTS 1562. i co na nich jest w trudnych kwestiach i praktyce jemuż 8 Scamozzi, Vincenzo. Dell’ Idea della architettura uni- ułatwiające… Lublin, 1749. versale. Venezia, 1615. 20 Sliesoriūnas, Feliksas. Nauji duomenys apie Martyno 9 Ibid, p. 1–2. Knakfuso veiklą. In.: Lietuvos istorijos metraštis. Vilnius, 10 Ibid, p. 121. 1979, p. 84. 11 Bluom, Ioannes. Qvinqve Colvmnarvm Exacta des- 21 Works’ inventory of Vilnius University Architectonic criptio atque deliniatio, cum symmetrica earum distributi- room 1832 Vilnius University Library, Manuscript Depar- one. Froschauer, Zürich, 1550, p. 2–3. The author proba- tment, f.2, KC-332, p. 1–11. bly refers to a Jewish historian Flavius Josephus. 22 Szulc, Michał. The summary of civil architecture 12 Here Chambrait refers to the Spanish Jesuit Juan Bau- course.1807–1808 Vilnius University Library, Manuscript tista Villalpando (1552–1608) and Jeronimo de Prado Department, f.2, DC-163, p. 204. (1547–1595) Ezechielem Explanationes, that were publis- 23 Podczaszyński, Karol. Początki architektury dla uźytku hed in Rome in 1596–1604 m. The authors of the trestise, młodzi akademickiej. T. 2. Wilno, 1829, s. 154. having analyzed the antique and the Old Testament texts, 24 Rumbowicz, Hipolit. O porządkach architektonicznych claimed the the Corinthian orderi is earlier than others. w ogólnośći. In: Dziennik Wileński, 1822, T. 2, s. 103. Later researches of archeologists and art historians have 25 Sobolewski, Jan. O pięknośći w budowlach. In: Dzien- nik Wileński, 1823, T. 1, s. 492.

Vytautas LEVANDAUSKAS Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, Kaunas

KLASIKINIO ORDERIO SAKRALINĖS KILMĖS TEORIJOS

Reikšminiai žodžiai: orderis, Vitruvijus, Renesansas, architektūros teorija, sakralumas

Santrauka

Straipsnyje siekiama apžvelgti pagrindines orderių teorijas nuo Antikos laikų iki XIX a., gilinantis į jų dvasinę esmę, sakralizuotus klasikinio orderio kilmės aiškinimus. Seniausias žinomas veikalas, kuriame išdėstytos architektūros taisyklės, – Vitruvijaus traktatas Dešimt knygų apie architektūrą, išleistas I a. pr. Kr. Autorius mėgino apibendrinti graikų architektūrą, nors pats gyveno daugiau kaip dviem šimtmečiams praėjus po klasikinio jų periodo (V–III a. pr. Kr.). Vitruvijus nurodo, kokius orderius dera naudoti įvairių dievų šventykloms. Minervos, Marso, Heraklio šventyklos statomos dorėninės: šių dievų narsumas reikalauja pastatų be puošybos. Veneros, Floros, Prozerpinos ar nimfų šventykloms tinkamiausias būtų korintinis orderis, nes tos dievybės tokios švelnios, jog ir architektūrai dera taikyti lieknas formas, spalvingai papuoštas lapais ir užraitomis. O Junonai, Dianai ir panašioms dievybėms skirtas šventyklas reikėtų statyti pagal jonėni nį orderį, kurio šventyklos įsiterptų tarp griežtų dorėninių ir švelnių korintinių pastatų. Klasikinio orderio kilmės teorijas krikščioniškąja kryptimi plėtojo XVI a. Renesanso teoretikas Sebastianas Serlio (1475–1555). Knygose apie architektūrą jis siūlė kitaip naudoti skirtingus orderius ir rekomendavo dorėninį orderį taikyti bažnyčioms, skirtoms Šv. Petrui, Šv. Pauliui, Šv. Jurgiui ar kitiems šventiesiems, kurie turėjo tvirtybės ir jėgos aukoti gyvenimą Kristaus tikėjimui. Serlio sukurta orderių sakralizacija buvo naujas būdas dvasingumui išreikšti. Tai – perėjimas į simbolinę krikščionių šventųjų semantiką. 14 XVI a. italų Renesanso architektų teorinius ieškojimus užbaigė Palladio sekėjas Vincenzo Scamozzi (1552–1616), 1615 m. Venecijoje išleidęs didžiulį traktatą Apie visuotinės architektūros idėją. Scamozzi suteikė klasikinei formai dvasinę prasmę, teigdamas, jog orderis architektūroje – tai tos pačios visuotinės Dievo sukurtos tvarkos dalis. Rene- sanso teoretikų dieviškos kilmės teorijos suformulavo naują požiūrį į orderį kaip į dvasios reiškinį. XVI a. ar chitektūros teorijos darbų pasirodė ir kitose šalyse. 1550 m. Ciuriche išėjo architekto ir medžio raižytojo Han so Blumo knyga V Columnae, arba pen kių orderių aprašymas ir pritaikymas. Toskaninės kolonos proporcijas jis lygino su storu valstiečiu ir netgi vadino ją valstietiška. Tai buvo akivaizdus orderio desakralizavimas, atkreipus dėmesį į žemesnį socialinį sluoksnį. XVII a. architektūrinės teorinės minties centras persikėlė į Prancūziją. Po Philiberto De L’Orme (1510?-1570) dar 1568 m. sukurto Pirmojo tomo apie architektūrą iškilo naujų talentų. Vienas ryškiausių buvo Rolandas Frėartas de Chambrai (1606–1676), pasižymėjęs kaip vienas pirmųjų helenizmo apologetų, neigusių visa, kas neatitiko antikinės Graikijos formų ir estetinių idealų. XVIII a. orderių sakrališkos simbo likos problema jau nebuvo tokia populia ri kaip anksčiau. Teoretikai labiau diskuta vo, ar orderis kilęs iš panašumo į žmogaus kūną, ar išsirutuliojo iš medinių konstrukcijų. XVIII–XIX a. archeologų atradimai, tiksliųjų mokslų pasiekimai, pagaliau švie čiamoji filosofija skatino architektū- ros teo retikus būti tikslesnius, tačiau tai, kas buvo sukurta nuo Vitruvijaus laikų iki klasicizmo, nebuvo pamiršta. Orderių dieviškos kilmės teorijos neap lenkė ir Lietuvos. Jos atėjo su kitų šalių teoretikų darbais, kurie buvo studi- juojami ir padėjo formuoti menininkų pažiūras. Vilniaus universiteto architektūros teoretikų darbai akivaizdžiai atskleidžia, kaip sakrališkosios orderio teorijos, perėjusios antropomorfinį etapą, susitelkė ties organine architektū- ros kilme.

DIMENSIJA: MENO TEORIJOS IR ARTEFAKTAI TEORIJOS MENO DIMENSIJA: Gauta 2013-04-20 Parengta spaudai 2013-07-01 SACRUM I.