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Creative Problem Solving for Managers Second Edition Creative Problem Solving for Managers Second edition How can managers tackle complex problems? How do you encourage innovation? How do you implement new solutions? Is creativity the key to management success? This accessible text provides a lively introduction to the essential skills of creative problem solving. Using extensive case studies and examples from a variety of business situations, Creative Problem Solving for Managers explores a wide range of problem solving theories and techniques, illustrating how these can be used to solve a multitude of management problems. Thoroughly revised and redesigned, this new edition retains the accessible and imaginative approach to problem solving skills of the first edition. Features include: ■ Blocks to creativity and how to overcome them ■ Key techniques including lateral thinking, morphological analysis and synectics ■ Computer-assisted problem solving ■ Increased coverage of group problem solving techniques ■ New website containing in-depth cases and a PowerPoint presentation As creativity is increasingly being recognised as a key skill for successful managers, this book will be welcomed as a readable and comprehensive introduction for students and practising managers alike. Tony Proctor is Professor in Marketing at Chester University College Business School and was formerly Senior Lecturer in Marketing and Head of the Department of Management at Keele University. Creative Problem Solving for Managers Developing skills for decision making and innovation Second edition Tony Proctor First published 1999 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park,Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York,NY 10016 Reprinted 2002 (twice), 2003 Second edition 2005 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Proctor,Tony. Creative problem solving for managers : developing skills for decision making and innovation / Tony Proctor. – 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Problem solving. 2. Management. I. Title. HD30 .29.P763 2005 658. 4Ј03–dc22 2004020264 ISBN 0–415–34541–3 (hbk) ISBN 0–415–34542–1 (pbk) Contents List of figures xi Preface to the second edition xv 1 CREATIVITY AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN BUSINESS 1 Introduction 1 Some definitions of creativity 2 Invention and creativity 3 Ideas and how they arise 5 The importance given to creativity in business 6 Conditions in which creative thinking is required most 10 Paradigm shift 12 Characteristics of creative thinking and creative thinkers 15 Questions 19 Cases 20 2 BLOCKS TO CREATIVITY 23 Introduction 23 The need to be ready for change 24 Problem solving 24 Mindset 26 Other barriers to an individual’s creativity 29 Dealing with an individual’s blocks to creativity 29 Diagnosing whether someone is blocked in their thinking 30 How techniques help to overcome blocks 31 Blocks to organisational creative thinking and ways of dealing with them 34 Elements and conditions of creative organisations 35 Questions 36 Cases 37 v CONTENTS 3 THEORIES OF CREATIVITY AND THE CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS 46 Introduction 46 Creative thinking 48 The brain as an information processor 49 Convergent and divergent thinking 52 The conditions of creative thinking 52 Problem solving 55 Theories of creative problem solving 56 The cognitive theory of creativity 59 How we get ideas: the index metaphor 61 Problem solving mechanisms 63 Analogical reasoning 64 The problem solving process 64 The problem solving process and the creative process 66 The creative problem solving process 67 Questions 69 Cases 69 4 OBJECTIVE FINDING, FACT FINDING AND PROBLEM FINDING/DEFINITION 72 Introduction 73 Objective finding 73 Fact finding 76 Dimensional analysis 77 Problem finding/definition 79 Redefinition approaches 81 Redefinition approaches: laddering 84 Redefinition approaches: goal orientation 85 Redefinition approaches: boundary examination 86 Redefinition approaches: progressive abstractions 87 Redefinition approaches: ‘why’ method 88 Analytical techniques: decomposable matrices 89 Analytical techniques: cause-and-effect diagrams 92 Questions 92 Cases 93 5 MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND RELATED TECHNIQUES 97 Introduction 97 Checklists 98 Attribute listing 101 Morphological analysis 103 Force-fitting triggers 107 Heuristic ideation technique 109 vi CONTENTS Component detailing 111 Sequence-attribute modification matrix 111 Questions 113 Cases 114 6 BRAINSTORMING AND ITS VARIANTS 118 Introduction 118 Classical brainstorming 118 The process of brainstorming 121 Wildest-idea variant 125 Stop-and-go brainstorming 125 Round-robin brainstorming 125 Gordon–Little variation 125 Trigger method 127 Problems with brainstorming 127 Brainwriting 127 Brainlining 128 Questions 130 Cases 130 7 LATERAL THINKING AND ASSOCIATED METHODS 137 Introduction 137 Overview 138 Awareness 139 Assumptions 141 Alternatives 144 Provocative methods 146 Metaphorical thinking 152 Analogy 153 The discontinuity principle 155 Questions 155 Cases 156 8 SYNECTICS 160 Introduction 160 Synectics 160 Conducting synectics sessions 165 Synectics in action 170 Questions 173 Cases 174 vii CONTENTS 9 PARADIGM-BREAKING TECHNIQUES AND SOME MISCELLANEOUS IDEATION METHODS 179 Introduction 180 Vision building 180 Symbolic representation 181 Miscellaneous ideation techniques 185 Clichés, proverbs and maxims 186 Storyboarding 187 Scenario writing 188 Scenario day-dreaming 191 Bionics 194 Two words 195 Free association 196 Story writing 198 Mind map 200 Lotus blossom technique 203 Fishbone diagram 204 Questions 205 Cases 206 10 EVALUATION 212 Introduction 213 Sorting 213 Evaluation methods 216 Advantage–disadvantage tables 216 PMI: Plus/Minus/Interesting 217 Castle technique 218 Sticking dots 218 Creative evaluation 220 Force-field analysis 220 Weighting systems 221 The process of choosing 222 Qualitative evaluation: reverse brainstorming 224 Financial/mathematical evaluations 226 Pay-off tables 226 Decision trees 227 Questions 228 Cases 229 11 IMPLEMENTING IDEAS 238 Introduction 239 Ideas are not readily implemented 239 Sources of resistance to change 241 Role of communication in overcoming resistance to change 242 viii CONTENTS Putting ideas into practice 243 Reducing resistance to change 246 Climate for change 251 Questions 254 Cases 255 12 COMPUTER-ASSISTED CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING 258 Introduction 258 History of development 259 Structured approach to creative problem solving in computer programs 260 Types of program 261 Group creative problem solving aids 266 Conventional software 267 Questions 269 Cases 270 Appendix to chapter: notes on some creativity programs 270 Bibliography 277 Author index 284 Subject index 286 ix Figures 1.1 Paradigm life-cycle curve 13 2.1 Problem solving according to Newell and Simon (1972) 25 2.2 Jones’s blocks to creativity 30 2.3 Perceptual block 30 2.4 Why are 1996 coins worth more than 1984 coins? 33 2.5 Is the aircraft flying towards you or away from you? 33 2.6 The broken clock problem 34 3.1 Overview of the chapter 47 3.2 Brain theories: the Whole Brain Model 50 3.3 The conditions of creativity 53 3.4 The index metaphor 62 3.5 The creative problem solving process 68 4.1 Position of this chapter within the CPS process 73 4.2 Overview of the chapter 74 4.3 Objective finding 75 4.4 A toy manufacturer reviews its marketing position and strategies 75 4.5 Fact finding 76 4.6 Dimensional analysis 78 4.7 Overview of problem finding process 80 4.8 Defining the problem 81 4.9 Problem situation 1 82 4.10 Problem situation 2 82 4.11 Problem situation 3 82 4.12 Problem situation 4 82 4.13 Problem situation 5 83 4.14 Laddering 84 4.15 Goal orientation 85 4.16 Boundary examination 86 4.17 Progressive abstractions 87 4.18 ‘Why’ method 88 4.19 Decomposable matrices 90 xi FIGURES 4.20 Hierarchical sub-systems of a motor car 91 4.21 A decomposable matrix 91 4.22 Cause-and-effect diagram 92 5.1 Position of this chapter within the CPS process 98 5.2 Which technique to use? 99 5.3 Attribute listing for a torch 101 5.4 Steps in morphological analysis 104 5.5 SCIMITAR 107 5.6 Force-fitting triggers process 108 5.7 Force-fit triggers 1 108 5.8 Force-fit triggers 2 109 5.9 Heuristic ideation technique 110 5.10 Component detailing 111 5.11 Sequence-attribute modification matrix 112 6.1 Position of this chapter within the CPS process 119 6.2 Overview of some brainstorming methods 120 6.3 Classical brainstorming steps 122 6.4 Gordon–Little variation 126 6.5 Trigger method 127 6.6 Brainlining process 128 7.1 Position of this chapter within the CPS process 138 7.2 Perspectives 140 7.3 Alternatives 144 7.4 Provocative methods 146 7.5 The nine dots problem 149 8.1 Position of this chapter within the CPS process 161 8.2 Personal analogy 163 8.3 Direct analogy 163 8.4 Symbolic analogy 164 8.5 Fantasy analogy 165 8.6 The synectics process: fantasy
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