A Biostratigraphic Analysis of the Neogene Section from Ocean Drilling Program Leg 121 Marie L

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2014 A Biostratigraphic Analysis of the Neogene Section from Ocean Drilling Program Leg 121 Marie L. Peterson

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COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

A BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF THE NEOGENE SECTION FROM OCEAN

DRILLING PROGRAM LEG 121

MARIE L. PETERSON

A Thesis submitted to the Department of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science

Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2014 Marie Peterson defended this thesis on November 7, 2014. The members of the supervisory committee were:

Sherwood W. Wise, Jr. Professor Directing Thesis

William C. Parker Committee Member

Yang Wang Committee Member

The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members, and certifies that the thesis has been approved in accordance with university requirements.

To my husband, Charlie, for his unwavering love, infinite patience, and unfailing support.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Sherwood W. Wise, Jr. He shared his time, wealth of knowledge and experience. He first helped spark my interest in geology by offering me the opportunity to work in the Antarctic Marine Geology Research Facility as an undergraduate, work-study student. My immense thanks go to Dr. James Pospichal for supplying the samples for this thesis. He gave his time in guiding and advising me through my research. I would also like to thank Drs. Yang Wang and William C. Parker for serving on my committee. I would like to thank the Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences department for supplying part of my funding as a teaching assistant and BP Corp. for supplying some of my funding as a research assistant. Many thanks go out to Denise Kulhanek and Stacie Blair for inspiring my interest in micropaleontology and giving me the foundation on which to succeed. I would also like to thank them for all of their advice. I would also like to thank all my fellow students: Nick Myers, Aisha Morris, Mohammed Aljahdali, Jarrett Cruz and Aaron Avery for being there when I needed to just talk through my stumbling blocks. Last but certainly not least, I would like to thank my chosen family and friends. My husband, Charlie, has been infinitely supportive and patient. My in-laws have been supportive and made furthering my education possible by funding my undergraduate education. I would like to thank my friends, Bekah, Becca, and Laura for being my cheering section and getting me out of the lab and house when I needed a break.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ...... vi List of Figures ...... vii Abstract ...... viii 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 What are calcareous nannoplankton? ...... 1 1.2 Calcareous Nannoplankton as Biostratigraphic Indicators ...... 2 1.3 Biogeography ...... 2 1.4 Study Locations ...... 3 1.4.1 Broken Ridge ...... 5 1.4.2 Ninetyeast Ridge ...... 6

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 7 2.1 Sites ...... 7 2.2 Method of Study ...... 7

3. BIOSTRATIGRAPHY ...... 9 3.1 Broken Ridge – Hole 754A ...... 9 3.1.1 Neogene...... 9 3.1.2 Oligocene...... 10 3.2 Ninetyeast Ridge – Hole 756B ...... 10 3.2.1 Neogene...... 10 3.2.2 Oligocene...... 11 3.3 Ninetyeast Ridge – Hole 757B ...... 11 3.3.1 Neogene...... 11 3.3.2 Oligocene...... 12 3.4 Ninetyeast Ridge – Hole 758A ...... 12 3.4.1 Neogene...... 12 3.4.2 Oligocene...... 13

4. DISCUSSION...... 14 5. CONCLUSIONS ...... 16 APPENDICES

A. SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY...... 17 B. RANGE CHARTS...... 19 C. FIGURES...... 35 D. PLATES ...... 41 REFERENCES...... 47

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH...... 51

LIST OF TABLES

1 Broken Ridge, Hole 574A range chart ...... 19

2 Ninetyeast Ridge, Hole 756B range chart ...... 23

3 Ninetyeast Ridge, Hole 757B range chart ...... 27

4 Ninteyeast Ridge, Hole 758A range chart…………………………………………….....30

LIST OF FIGURES

1 (I) Location map of the eastern Indian Ocean showing DSDP and ODP sites plus Broke Ridge, Ninetyeast Ridge, and the Kerguelen Plateau (Shipboard Scientific Party, 1989); (II) Paleopositions of Kerguelen Plateau (A), Broken Ridge (B), and Ninetyeast Ridge (C) (Rea et al., 1990) ...... 4

2 Predicted paleolatitudes for ODP Leg 121 sites and nearby ODP sites (Shipboard Scientific Party, 1989) ...... 5

3 Correlation of Hole 754A and Hole 756B, adapted from Shipboard Scientific Party (1989b) and (1989c) with nannofossil data from the present study...... 35

4 Correlation of Hole 754A and Hole 757B, adapted from Shipboard Scientific Party (1989b) and (1989c) with nannofossil data from the present study...... 36

5 Correlation of Hole 754A and Hole 758A, adapted from Shipboard Scientific Party (1989b) and (1989c) with nannofossil data from the present study ...... 37

6 Correlation of Hole 756B and Hole 757B, adapted from Shipboard Scientific Party (1989b) and (1989c) with nannofossil data from the present study ...... 38

7 Correlation of Site Hole B and Hole 758A, adapted from Shipboard Scientific Party (1989b) and (1989c) with nannofossil data from the present study ...... 39

8 Correlation of Hole 757B and Hole 758A, adapted from Shipboard Scientific Party (1989b) and (1989c) with nannofossil data from the present study ...... 40

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ABSTRACT

The objective of this study is to study spatial and temporal paleontological distributions as they relate to the histories of Ninetyeast Ridge and Broken Ridge from ODP Leg 121. This study is important for establishing connections between different fossil assemblages, especially between those of the high latitudes and those of low latitudes. The assemblages were used to perform biostratigraphic analyses of sequences on Ninetyeast Ridge and Broken Ridge in the Indian Ocean and to compare assemblage changes to position changes of the tectonic plates through time. The zonation scheme used for the analysis is from Okada and Bukry (1980). Although there were some small changes within the assemblages of the holes described, the changes were not significant. The assemblages throughout the interval studied contained only low-latitude species.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 What are Calcareous Nannoplankton?

The name calcareous nannofossil is based on the term nannoplankton defined by Lohmann (1909) as all calcareous fossils smaller than 30 microns (µm). Calcareous nannofossils are primarily disc-like forms and comparable to the calcite plates, coccoliths, produced by living haptophyte algae, more specifically the coccolith-bearing sub-group known as coccolithophores. Living coccolithophores are marine unicellular, flagellate phytoplankton belonging to the phylum Haptophyta. Haptophyte algae are typically identified by their golden-brown chloroplasts, an exoskeleton of scales, two flagella and a haptonema, and a flagella-like structure (Bukry, 1978, Pienaar, 1994, Schmidt et al., 2006). The exoskeleton is composed of organic scales that are calcified in living forms. Coccoliths appear to be unique to haptophytes (Bown and Young, 1994). In 2000, Edvardsen et al. revised the taxonomy of Haptophyta, including coccolithophores in the class Prymnesiophyceae, which also includes non-calcifying forms (Billard and Inouye, 2004).

There are two main groups of coccoliths, heterococcoliths and holococcoliths. Heterococcoliths are composed of a radial arrangement of calcite crystal elements of variable sizes and shapes, whereas holocccoliths are composed of many identical minute (<0.1 µm) euhedral crystals. The construction of holococcoliths makes them more susceptible to destruction; therefore, they are rare compared to heterococcoliths, in both modern populations and the fossil record (Bown and Young, 1994). A third group lacks the majority of the characteristics of the previous two groups. The coccoliths of this group are referred to as nannoliths and occur today in two living families, the Ceratolithaceae and Braarudosphaeraceae (Billard and Inouye, 1994).

1.2 Calcareous Nannoplankton as Biostratigraphic Indicators

There are several unique properties that make nannofossils excellent biostratigraphic index fossils. Calcareous nannofossils are usually very abundant in well-preserved planktonic assemblages. They tend to be cosmopolitan and are only absent in younger strata of the Southern Ocean or in sediments recovered below the carbonate compensation depth (CCD). Generally, nannofossils are more resistant to dissolution and overgrowth than foraminifers. Only a very small amount of material is needed to study nannofossils, which makes them ideal for high- resolution biostratigraphy. In addition, calcareous nannofossils have distinct morphological features that make them easily identifiable despite their small size (Raffi, 1999). Bramlette and Reidel (1954) indicated the potential of coccoliths as stratigraphic indicators for worldwide correlation of pelagic sediments. The first nannofossil biostratigraphic zonation schemes (Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961; Stradner, 1963; Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967; Hay and Mohler, 1967; Hay et al., 1967) were developed primarily by using land-based sections. Globally correlated biostratigraphic schemes were not possible until the inception of the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) in 1968 that demonstrated the stratigraphic value of nannofossils to the biostratigraphic community (Siesser, 1994). In 1971, Martini developed the first “standard zonation” scheme which combined previously published zones with newly described ones into a cohesive unit that could be used on a worldwide basis. To his zonation scheme, Martini attached number and letter combinations to each zone name to make it easier to use, particularly by non- specialists. Later, Bukry (1973, 1975) published a Cenozoic low-latitude biostratigraphic zonation based on early DSDP cruises. Okada and Bukry (1980) modified the zonation and added their own coded numbers to make it easier to use by a broader constituency.

1.3 Biogeography

Pelagic ecosystems are organized both geographically and by water depth. These ecosystems are linked to the major surface-water masses. These water masses are the product of wind directions (zonal currents), the position of land masses, and the balance between evaporation and precipitation. Individual water masses are differentiated by variations in such things as salinity, temperature, light attenuation, nutrients, oxygen, and productivity (Schmidt et al., 2006).

Biogeographic studies of the Neogene oceans have described the temporal and spatial distribution patterns of different microfossil groups. Deductions can be made about the biogeographic significance of fossil assemblages by using the present-day biogeographic provinces and their associated fauna. The assumption that the observed migrations of the various groups of plankton were due to oceanographic changes and not changes in the ecological preferences of a taxon is made during such studies (Wright and Thunell, 1988). Latitudinal differentiation of calcareous nannoplankton assembleages is known to have existed throughout the Cenozoic and possibly the Mesozoic. For example in the early Cenozoic, latitudinal differentiated assemblages have shown distinct migrations across latitudes with time. Haq and Lohmann (1976) documented five major migratory events in the early Cenozoic in a study of nannoplankton biogeography of the North and Central Atlantic (Haq et al., 1977). They documented five major migrationary events in the early Cenozoic: (1) intrusion of low latitudes by Paleocene high latitude assemblages between 59 and 57 m.y. B.P., (2) intrusion of high latitudes by late Paleocene-early Eocene low to mid latitude assemblages between 54 and 52 m.y. B.P., (3) intrusion of midde latitudes by Eocene high latitude assemblages between 48 and 43 m.y. B.P., (4) intrusion of low latitudes by late Eocene-early Oligocene high latitude assemblages between 37 and 36 m.y. B.P., (5) intrusion of middle latitudes by Oligocene high latitude assemblages between 32 and 27 m.y. B.P. These events were interpreted as responses of the nannoflora to major fluctuations in the climate of the early Cenozoic (Haq et al., 1977). I will be looking for similar differences in the Indian Ocean.

1.4 Study Locations

These locations were chosen because they were largely unknown areas for which the expedition was designed to decipher the tectonics and related climate and oceanographic changes. The tectonic histories of the Kerguelen Plateau, Broken Ridge, and Ninetyeast Ridge are largely determined by the Kerguelen Plateau/Ninetyeast hot spot. Broken Ridge and the Kerguelen Plateau (Fig. 1) are probably fragments of an oceanic platform that was formed by intraplate volcanism in Early to mid-Cretaceous times. When the Kerguelen Plateau was at the Indian/Antarctic spreading center, the Ninetyeast Ridge developed (Dehn et al., 1987; Duncan, 2002; Rea et al., 1990).

Fig 1. (I) Location map of the eastern Indian Ocean showing DSDP and ODP sites plus Broke Ridge, Ninetyeast Ridge, and the Kerguelen Plateau (Shipboard Scientific Party, 1989); (II) Paleopositions of Kerguelen Plateau (A), Broken Ridge (B), and Ninetyeast Ridge (C) (Rea et al., 1990)

Fig. 2. Predicted paleolatitudes for ODP Leg 121 sites and nearby ODP sites (Shipboard Scientific Party, 1989).

1.4.1 Broken Ridge Lithospheric rifting is primarily responsible for the present-day separation of Broken Ridge from the Kerguelen Plateau. Broken Ridge has moved approximately 20° north as part of the Indo- Australian Plate, but the Kerguelen Plateau, as part of the Kerguelen-Heard plate, has had little latitudinal movement. Broken Ridge is important because the effects of rifting are visible in its seismic stratigraphy. It has remained a shallow platform throughout its history, and may provide a distinct record of the vertical motions of Broken Ridge (Dehn et al., 1987; Duncan, 2002; Rea et al., 1990).

1.4.2 Ninetyeast Ridge Ninetyeast Ridge is a major north-south lineament in the eastern Indian Ocean that extends approximately 5000 km from about 34°S to about 10°N, where it is buried by the Bengal Fan. It has been suggested that Ninetyeast Ridge was formed as the trace of the Kerguelen/Ninetyeast hotspot on the Indian plate before the rifting of the Southeast Indian Ridge separated the Kerguelen Plateau from the Indian plate in the Eocene. A major left-lateral transform fault east of the Ninetyeast Ridge complicates the interpretation of its origin and structure (Dehn et al., 1987; Duncan, 2002; Rea et al., 1990).

CHAPTER TWO

MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Sites The study locations for this thesis are all from the Ocean Drilling Project Leg 121. Four sites were studied: Site 754 (Hole A - 14 cores) from Broken Ridge and Sites 756 (Holes A and B – 16 cores), 757 (Hole B – 15 cores), and 758 (Hole A – 26 cores) from Ninetyeast Ridge. 2.2 Method of Study

The sediment core samples for this study were provided by Dr. James Pospichal, who participated on the cruise. The samples were prepared using a simple smear slide technique described by Bown and Young, 1998. A small amount of sediment (approximately the size of a pea) is placed on a cover slip that has been licked to remove the surface tension, and a drop of buffered water (pH approximately 8.0) is placed on the cover slip. The sediment is spread thinly and evenly on the cover slip with a toothpick, and the cover slip is then placed on a warm hotplate to dry. Norland optical adhesive is placed on the microscope slide, and then the dried cover slip is placed on the slide over the adhesive. The slide is placed back onto the hotplate to ensure that the adhesive is distributed evenly between the cover slip and slide. A UV light is used to cure the slide until the adhesive is hardened (approximately 10 minutes). A light microscope at magnification X1250 is used to count a relative abundance for 100 fields of view on each slide. An additional 10 minutes per slide is then used to search for any rare specimens not included in the count. Bugwin software, created by Mitch Covington of Bugware Inc., was used to record the specimen counts. The counting method of Hay (1970) was used for the basic inventory of taxa in these samples. The abbreviations are as follows: V – very abundant (more than ten specimens per field of view) A - abundant (one to ten specimens per field of view) C – common (one specimen per 2 to 10 fields of view) F – few (one specimen per 11 to 100 fields of view) R – rare (one specimen per 101 to 1000 fields of view)

The basic criteria described by Wei and Wise, (1990); is used to determine the preservation quality of the specimens, are as follows: G – Good: individual specimens show very little dissolution or recrystallization; delicate parts are preserved M – Moderate: individual specimens exhibit signs of dissolution (etching) and/or recrystallization (overgrowth); identification of species are generally not impaired. P – Poor: individual specimens show considerable dissolution and/or recrystallization; some less dissolution resistant taxa are not preserved. The zonation scheme utilized is that of Okada and Bukry (1980). The determination of whether the assemblages of the sites are low-latitude versus high-latitude is not determined so much by different marker species but the diversity of the assemblage. The diversity of high-latitude sites is very low, i.e. 3 or 4 species altogether and lack species that are temporally significant. This has been the case in such studies as ODP Leg 188 Site 1165 and Site 1167. The assemblage of Site 1165, during the Pleistocene and Pliocene, consisted of Reticulofenestra perplexa and Reticulofenestra product (Shipboard Scientific Party, 2001a). Site 1167, during the Pleistocene and Pliocene, consisted of P. lacunose, Gephyrocapsa spp., C. leptoporus, C. pelagicus, and rare large forms of Gephyrocapsa carribeanica (Shipboard Scientific Party, 2001b). In the lower latitudes the diversity of the assemblages are much higher and the maker species are present.

CHAPTER THREE

BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

3.1 Broken Ridge – Hole 754A The abundances and distribution of calcareous nannofossils for this site are given in Table 1. The paleo-water depth for Site 754 was 200-2000 m from the middle Oligocene to the middle Miocene.

3.1.1 Neogene

The last occurrence of Discoaster brouweri denotes the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary at Sample 121-754A-02H-01 (45-46 cm). The combined Zones CN10-12 are marked by the presence of D. brouweri, Discoaster pentaradiatus, Discoaster tamalis, and common amauroliths and ceratoliths. The Pliocene sequence, Cores 121-754A-03H (45-46 cm) to 121-754A-02H (45-46 cm), seems to be a condensed but complete section. Sample 121-754A-03H-06 (45-46 cm) denotes the Miocene/Pliocene boundary.

The presence of Amaurolithus primus and the absence of ceratoliths mark the combined Zones CN9b-10a. The combined Zones CN7-9a are denoted by the first occurrence of D. pentaradiatus along with the presence of D. brouweri, Discoaster variabilis, and Reticulofenestra psuedoumbilicus within Samples 121-754A-04H-05 (45-46 cm) to 121-754A-06H-02 (45-46 cm). The combined Zones CN 5-6 are marked by the presence of Discoaster variabilis and Discoaster exilis along with the absence of Discoaster pentaradiatus in Samples 121-754A-06H- 02 (45-46 cm) to 121-754A-09H-03 (45-46 cm).

Zone CN4 falls within Samples 121-754A-10H-01 (45-46 cm) and 121-754A-9H-03 (45-46 cm) as denoted by the last occurrence of Sphenolithus heteromorphus and the first occurrences of D. variabilis and D. exilis. Samples 121-754A-9H-03 (45-46 cm) to 121-754A-10H-01 (45-46 cm) are placed in Zone CN3 by the first occurrence of S. heteromorphus and the absence of Calcidiscus macintyrei. The first occurrence of Sphenolithus belemnos in Sample 121-754A- 10H-05 (45-46 cm) marks the CN1 and 2 zonal boundary. The interval of 121-754A-11H-1 (45- 46 cm) to 121-754A-12H-5 (45-46 cm) is placed in CN1 due to the absence of Reticulofenestra

9 bisecta, S. belemnos, and Zygrhablithus bijugatus plus the presence of Discoaster deflandrei. Sample 121-754A-12H-6 (45 - 46 cm) marks the boundary between the Oligocene and the lower Miocene. The preservation of discoasters is poor.

3.1.2 Oligocene

Samples 121-754A-12H-5 (45-46 cm) to 121-754A-13X-CC represent the upper Oligocene (CP 19) defined by the first occurrence (FO) and last occurrence (LO) of Sphenolithus ciperoensis. The lower and middle Oligocene sections (CP 16 – 18) at this site are missing due to an unconformity. The preservation of the upper Oligocene samples is moderate to poor.

3.2 Ninetyeast Ridge – Hole 756B

The abundances and distribution of calcareous nannofossils for this site are given in Table 2. The paleo-water depth for Site 756 was ~1500 m from the late Eocene to the Pleistocene.

3.2.1 Neogene

The last occurrence of Discoaster brouweri in Sample 121-756B-01H-02 (45-46 cm) marks the beginning of Zone CN13 and the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary. Zone CN10 is characterized by the absence of Discoaster quinqeramus and the presence of Ceratolithus acutus and Ceratolithus rugosus. Zone CN11 is a “gap” zone marked by the last occurrences of Amaurolithus primus and Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilica. Zone CN12 is marked by the presence of D. brouweri, Discoaster tamalis and Calcidiscus macintyrei. The first occurrence of Discoaster surculus in Sample 121-756B-4H-06 (45-46 cm) marks the boundary between CN8 and CN9. Zone CN9 is characterized by the presence of D. surculus, D. pentaradiatus, D. brouweri, A. primus, and Amaurolithus delicatus. The first and last occurrences of Discoaster hamatus characterize the Zone CN7. Zone CN8 is defined by the presence of Discoaster neohamatus and R. pseudoumbilica and the absence of D. surculus. Zone CN6 is characterized by the presence of D. exilis, D. variabilis, and C. macintyrei as well as the absence of D. hamatus. The last occurrence of the S. heteromorphus and the presence of C. floridanus mark Zone CN5. Zone CN4 is characterized by the first occurrence of Calcidiscus macintyrei and the last occurrence of S.

10 heteromorphus. The first occurrence of C. macintyrei in Sample 121-756B-06H-05 (45-46 cm) denotes the boundary between Zones CN3 and CN4. The presence of S. belemnos and the first occurrence of S. heteromorphus in Sample 121-756B-06H-06 (45-46 cm) denote Zone CN3. The first occurrence of S. belemnos in Sample 121-765B-06H-07 (45-46 cm) establishes the CN1 and 2 zonal boundary. The absence of S. ciperoensis and S. belemnos characterizes Zone CN1 within the interval 121-765B-09H-2 (45-46 cm) to 121-765B-06H-07 (45-46 cm).

3.2.2 Oligocene

Sample 121-765B-08H-06 (45-46 cm) establishes the Oligocene/Miocene boundary by the absence of S. ciperoensis. Zone CP19 (Samples 121-765B-09H-05 (45-46 cm) to 121-765B- 09H-02 (45-46 cm)) is characterized by the first and last occurrences of S. ciperoensis. Sample 121-765B-09H-05 (45-46 cm) marks the CP18/CP19 zonal boundary via the first occurrence of Sphenolithus ciperoensis. The interval 121-756B-10H-03 (45-46 cm) to 121-765B-09H-05 (45- 46 cm) is assigned to the Subzone CP18C on the absence of Coccolithus formosus.

3.3 Ninetyeast Ridge – Hole 757B

The abundances and distribution of calcareous nannofossils for this site are given in Table 3. The paleo-water depth for Site 757 was ~1500 m from the early Eocene to the Holocene.

3.3.1 Neogene

The last occurrence of Discoaster brouweri in Sample 121-757B-02H-07 (45-46 cm) marks the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary. Zone CN12 is identified by the absence of Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilica and the presence of Discoaster tamalis, Discoaster pentaradiatus, Discoater surculus, and Discoaster brouweri. Zone CN11 is characterized by the absence of A. primus and the presence of R. pseudoumbilica and Discoaster asymmetricus. The Miocene/Pliocene boundary (the base of Zone CN10) is defined by the first occurrence of Ceratolithus acutus in Sample 121-757B-05H-02 (45-46 cm). The presence of Discoaster surculus and Amaurolithus primus marks Zone CN8. The absence of Discoaster hamatus, and D. surculus in Sample 121- 757B-06H-06 (45-46 cm) characterizes Zone CN8. The first and last occurrences of D. hamatus mark Zone CN7. Zones CN5 and CN6 are combined due to the absence of Catinaster coalitus, the marker of the boundary between these two zones. The last occurrence of Sphenolithus

11 heteromorphus in Sample 121-757B-10H-01 (45-46 cm) marks the beginning of CN5. The absence of D. deflandrei and the presence of C. macintyrei and S. heteromorphus define Zone CN4. The first occurrence of S. heteromorphis, the presence of D. deflandrei, and the absence of C. macintyrei mark Zone CN3. Zone CN2 is characterized by the first occurrence of S. belemnos and the absence of S. heteromorphus. The last occurrences of S. ciperoensis and Reticulofenestra bisecta in Sample 121-757B-12H-02 (45-26 cm) mark the Oligocene/Miocene boundary and the start of Zone CN1.

3.3.2 Oligocene

The first and last occurrences of Sphenolithus ciperoensis indicate Zone CP19.

3.4 Ninetyeast Ridge – Hole 758A

The abundances and distribution of calcareous nannofossils for this site are given in Table 4. The paleo-water depth for site 758 was ~3000 m from the Miocene to the Holocene.

3.4.1 Neogene

The last occurrence of Discoaster brouweri in Sample 121-758A-04H-02 (45-46 cm) marks the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary. The absence of Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilica and the presence of Discoaster tamalis, Discoaster surculus, Discoaster pentaradiatus, and D. brouweri characterize Zone CN12. Zone CN11 is defined by the absence of Amaurolithus primus and the presence of R. pseudoumbilica. Zone CN10 is characterized by the absence of Discoaster quinqeramus and the presence of Ceratolithus acutus, Ceratolithus rugosus, and A. primus. Zone CN9 is defined by the first occurrences of Discoaster berggrenii and D. surculus and the presence of D. quinqueramus. Zone CN8 is characterized by the last occurrence of Discoaster hamatus in Sample 121-758A-12X-06 (45-46 cm) and the first occurrence of D. berggrenii plus the presence of D. surculus in Sample 121-758A-11X-07 (45-46 cm). The first and last occurrences of D. hamatus in Samples 121-758A-13X-2 (45-46 cm) and 121-758A-12X-06 (45- 46 cm) respectively indicates Zone CN7. Due to the lack of the marker Catinaster coalitius, the boundary between Zones CN5 and CN6 could not be defined. Zone CN4 is indicated by the

12 presence of Sphenolithus heteromorphus and Calcidiscus macintyrei and the absence of Discoaster deflandrei. The presence of S. heteromorphus and the absence of Calcidiscus macintyrei characterize Zone CN3. Zone CN2 is indicated by the presence of Sphenolithus belemnos and the absence of S. heteromorphus. The first occurrence of S. belemnos, in Sample 121-758A-18X-4 (45-46 cm) denotes the zonal boundary of CN1 and 2. The absence of Sphenolithus ciperoensis and the abundance of Cycliargolithus absectus denote Zone CN1 in Sample 121-758A-21X-3 (45-46 cm).

3.4.2 Oligocene

Sample 121-758A-21X-5 (45-46 cm) represents the Oligocene/Miocene boundary based on the last occurrence of S. ciperoensis. The last occurrence of Sphenolithus distentus in Sample 121- 758A-23X-5 (45-46 cm) marks Subzone CP19b.

CHAPTER FOUR

DISCUSSION

Figures 3 – 8 show the zonal correlations between sites.

At Hole 754A the assemblage lacks discoasters possibly to due to the latitude of Broken Rdige during the late Oligocene, ~45°S. There is an abundance of reticulofenestrids during the upper Oligocene to middle Miocene. There are overgrowths on the Miocene discoasters that made species identification difficult. The biostratigraphy of the Miocene was further impeded by the lack of some of the low-latitude marker species.

The youngest of the Ninetyeast Ridge sites is represented by Hole 756B. During the upper Oligocene and lower Miocene there is an abundance of R. bisecta and C. pelagicus and a lack of Heliocosphaera ampliaperta. The assemblages of nannoplankton in the Pleistocene and Pliocene sections are low-latitude flora that include amauroliths, ceratoliths, and discoasters as well as P. lacunosa, C. doronicoides, and R. clavigera (Shipboard Scientific Party, 1989b).

Hole 757B represents the next oldest site on Ninetyeast Ridge. The assemblages of nannofossils of the upper Oligocene to middle Miocene sections contain low-latitude flora such as C. floridanus, D. hamatus, and D. neohamatus. The upper Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene assemblages contain an abundance of ceratoliths and amauroliths.

Site 758 is the oldest drilled of the Ninetyeast Ridge sites. Hole 758A nannofossil assemblages are all indicative of warmer waters. Sphenoliths are present in the upper Oligocene, and there is a lack of reticulofenestrids. The Miocene contains a variety sphenoliths and discoasters. The Pliocene section of this site contains a greater diversity of discoasters. Gephyrocapsa spp., H. selli, P. lacunosa, and C. cristatus are all present in the Pleistocene section.

Although there are relatively minor variations in the assemblages among the different sites of this study, those variations can be attributed to dissolution or diagenesis. This result is expected as the difference in the paleo-latitudinal positions of the sites, as shown graphed Figure 2, is

14 small. The average difference in paleo-latitude between the southern-most site, Site 754, and the northern-most site, Site 758, is ~35° during the Miocene to Pleistocene. This small difference in paleo-latitude does not allow for a large change in the assemblages of the sites. During the Miocene to the Pleistocene, the sites had moved too far north to have high-latitude assemblages. As previous stated, diagenesis made determining some of the marker species very difficult.

Diagenesis can affect the preservation of calcareous nannoplankton by dissolving small coccolith elements. The gradual removal of calcite from smaller forms leads to increased fragmentation of smaller coccoliths. The calcium carbonate from these dissolved elements is deposited on other nannofossils with larger elements. Overgrown discoasters develop crystal faces and ornamentation such as central knobs, ridges, and knobs on the rays, as well as bifurcation on the ray tips gradually disappear. Often times these ornamentations are the features that allow an observer to distinguish one species from another. These features were often obscured in the samples used for this study (Schlanger et al., 1973).

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

The separation of Broken Ridge from the Kerguelen-Heard Plateau was due to rifting and sea floor spreading that began ~42 Ma. Since about the middle Eocene, Broken Ridge has moved north by about 20° in latitude as part of the Indo-Australian plate. Ninetyeast Ridge formed as the trace of the Kerguelen/Ninteyeast hotspot on the Indian plate. Hole 754A is located on Broken Ridge while Holes 756B, 757B and 758A are located on Ninetyeast Ridge. A comparison of these sites was done in order to investigate any significant changes in the assemblages of the sites due to their differences in latitude. There were some small differences in the assemblages during the time periods studied but the changes were not significant, thus differences in the latitudes between the sites were too small for there to be any significant changes in the assemblages,

Appendix A Systematic Paleontology The calcareous nannofossils reported within this thesis. The taxa are listed in alphabetical order according to genus. Amaurolithus delicatus Gartner and Bukry, 1975 Amaurolithus primus (Bukry and Percival, 1971) Gartner and Bukry, 1975 Calcidiscus macintyrei (Bukry and Bramlette, 1969) Loeblich and Tappan, 1978 Ceratolithus acutus Gartner and Bukry, 1974 Ceratolithus cristatus Kamptner, 1950 Ceratolithus rugosus Bukry and Bramlette, 1968 Ceratolithus simplex Bukry, 1979 Coccolithus doronicoides Black and Barnes, 1961 Coccolithus miopelagicus Bukry, 1971 Coccolithus pelagicus (Wallich, 1871) Schiller, 1930 ssp. floralis Wei and Wise, 1992 Coronocyclus nitescens (Kamptner, 1963) Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967 Cycliargolithus abisectus (Müller, 1970) Wise, 1973 Cycliargolithus floridanus (Roth and Hay in Hay et al., 1967) Bukry, 1971 Discoaster assymetricus Gartner, 1969 Discoaster berggrennii Knuttel et al., 1971 Discoaster brouwerii Tan, 1927b emend. Bramlette and Riedel, 1954 Discoaster deflandrei Bramlette and Riedel, 1954 Discoaster exilis Martini and Bramlette, 1963 Discoaster hamatus Martini and Bramlette, 1963 Discoaster neohamatus Bukry and Bramlette, 1969 Discoaster pentaradiatus Tan, 1927 Discoaster quiqueramus Gartner, 1969 Discoaster surculus Martini and Bramlette, 1963 Discoaster tamalis Kamptner, 1967 Discoaster variabilis Martini and Bramlette, 1963 Heliocosphaera carteri (Wallichi, 1877) Kamptner, 1954

Heliocosphaera compacta Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967 Heliocosphaera intermedia Martini, 1965 Heliocosphaera recta (Haq, 1966) Jafar and Martini, 1975 Heliocosphaera wallichi (Lohmann, 1902) Boudreaux and Hay, 1969 Pseudoemiliania lacunosa (Kamptner, 1963) Gartner, 1969 Pyrocyclus organensis (Bukry, 1971) Backman, 1980 Reticulofenestra bisectus (Hay, et al., 1966) Roth, 1970 Reticulofenestra minuta Roth, 1970 Reticulofenestra minutula (Gartner, 1967) Haq and Berggren, 1978 Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilica (Gartner, 1967) Gartner, 1969 Sphenolithus abies Deflandrei in Deflandrei and Fert, 1954 Sphenolithus belemnos Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967 Sphenolithus ciperoensis Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967 Sphenolithus distentus (Martini, 1965) Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967 Sphenolithus heteromorphus Deflandrei, 1953 Sphenolithus moriformis (Brönnimann and Stradner, 1960) Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967 Sphenolithus predistentus Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967 Zygrhablithus bijugatus (Defladre in Deflandre and Fert, 1954) Deflandre, 1959

APPENDIX B

RANGE CHARTS

Table 1. Broken Ridge, Hole 754A range chart

Table 1. continued

Table 2. Ninetyeast Ridge, Hole 756B range chart

Table 2. continued

Table 3. Ninetyeast Ridge, Hole 757B range chart

Table 3. continued

Table 4. Ninetyeast Ridge, Hole 758A range chart

Table 4. continued

APPENDIX C FIGURES

Fig 3. Correlation of Hole 754A and Hole 756B, adapted from Shipboard Scientific Party (1989b) and (1989c) with nannofossil data from the present study.

Fig 4. Correlation of Holes 754A and Holes 757B, adapted from Shipboard Scientific Party (1989b) and (1989d) with nannofossil data from the present study.

Fig 5. Correlation of Hole 754A and Hole 758A, adapted from Shipboard Scientific Party (1989b) and (1989e) with nannofossil data from the present study.

Fig 6. Correlation of Holes 756B and Hole 757B, adapted from Shipboard Scientific Party (1989c) and (1989d) with nannofossil data from the present study.

Fig 7. Correlation of Hole 756B and Hole 758A, adapted from Shipboard Scientific Party (1989c) and (1989e) with nannofossil data from the present study.

Fig 8. Correlation of Hole 757B and 758A, adapted from Shipboard Scientific Party (1989d) and (1989e) with nannofossil data from the present study.

APPENDIX D: PLATES

Plate 1 1. Amaurolithus delicatus Sample: 758A-10H-7, 45-46 cm, PL 2. Ceratolithus acutus Sample: 758A-8H-3, 45-46 cm, X-pol 3. Ceratolithus acutus Sample: 758A-8H-3, 45-46 cm, PL 4. Ceratolithus cristatus Sample: 758A-4H-4, 45-46 cm, X-pol 5. Ceratolithus cristatus Sample: 758A-4H-4, 45-46 cm, PL 6. Cyclicargolithus abisectus Sample: 758A-16X-4, 45-46 cm, X-pol 7. Cyclicargolithus abisectus Sample: 758A-16X-4, 45-46 cm, PL 8. Reticulofenestra bisecta Sample: 757B-16X-4, 45-46cm, X-pol 9. Reticulofenestra bisecta Sample: 757B-16X-4, 45-46cm, PL 10. Cyclicargolithus floridanus Sample: 758A-16X-4, 45-46 cm, X-pol 11. Cyclicargolithus floridanus Sample: 758A-16X-4, 45-46 cm, PL 12. Calcidiscus macintyrei Sample: 756B-5H-2, 45-46 cm, X-pol 13. Calcidiscus macintyrei Sample: 756B-5H-2, 45-46 cm, PL 14. Coccolithus pelagicus Sample: 758A-16X-4, 45-46 cm, X-pol 15. Coccolithus pelagicus Sample: 758A-16X-4, 45-46 cm, PL 16. Coronocyclus nitescens Sample: 758A- 16X-4, 45-46 cm, X-pol 17. Coronocyclus nitescens Sample: 758A- 16X-4, 45-46 cm, PL 18. Discoaster asymmetricus Sample: 758A-9H-7, 45-46 cm, PL 19. Discoaster berggrennii Sample: 758A-10H-7, 45-46 cm, PL

Plate 2 1. Coccolithus miopelagicus Sample: 756B-11H-2, 45-46 cm, X-pol 2. Coccolithus miopelagicus Sample: 756B-11H-2, 45-46 cm, PL 3. Discoaster brouweri Sample: 758A-8H-3, 45-46 cm, PL 4. Discoaster deflandrei Sample: 756B-7H-4, 45-46 cm, PL 5. Discoaster exilis Sample: 757B-4H-5, 45-46 cm, PL 6. Discoaster surculus Sample: 758A-8H-3, 45-46 cm, PL 7. Discoaster variabilis Sample: 758A-13X-6, 45-46 cm, PL 8. Discoaster neohamatus Sample: 758A-13X-4, 45-46 cm, PL 9. Discoaster pentaradiatus Sample: 758A-13X-6, 45-46 cm, PL 10. Discoaster quinqueramus Sample: 758A-10H-7, 45-46 cm, PL 11. Discoaster tamalis Sample: 757B-3H-4, 45-46 cm, PL 12. Heliocosphaera carteri Sample: 758AH-14X-4, 45-46 cm, X-pol 13. Heliocosphaera carteri Sample: 758AH-14X-4, 45-46 cm, PL 14. Heliocosphaera intermedia Sample: 758A-14X-4, 45-46 cm, X-pol 15. Heliocosphaera intermedia Sample: 758A-14X-4, 45-46 cm, X-pol 16. Heliocosphaera intermedia Sample: 758A-14X-4, 45-46 cm, PL 17. Heliocosphaera wallichi Sample: 757B-2H-5, 45-46 cm, X-pol 18. Heliocosphaera wallichi Sample: 757B-2H-5, 45-46 cm, PL 19. Sphenolithus abies Sample: 758A-8H-3, 45-46 cm, X-pol 20. Sphenolithus abies Sample: 758A-8H-3, 45-46 cm, PL 21. Sphenolithus belemnos Sample: 757B-10X-5, 45-46 cm, X-pol 22. Sphenolithus belemnos Sample: 757B-10X-5, 45-46 cm, X-pol 23. Sphenolithus belemnos Sample: 757B-10X-5, 45-46 cm, PL

Plate 3 1. Sphenolithus ciperoensis Sample: 758A-23X-2, 45-46 cm, X-pol 2. Sphenolithus ciperoensis Sample: 758A-23X-2, 45-46 cm, PL 3. Sphenolithus distentus Sample: 756B-10H-6, 45-46 cm, X-pol 4. Sphenolithus distentus Sample: 756B-10H-6, 45-46 cm, PL 5. Sphenolithus heteromorphus Sample: 757B-11H-1, 45-46 cm, X-pol 6. Sphenolithus heteromorphus Sample: 757B-11H-1, 45-46 cm, X-pol 7. Sphenolithus heteromorphus Sample: 757B-11H-1, 45-46 cm, PL 8. Sphenolithus moriformis Sample: 756B-7H-4, 45-46 cm, X-pol 9. Sphenolithus moriformis Sample: 756B-7H-4, 45-46 cm, X-pol 10. Sphenolithus moriformis Sample: 756B-7H-4, 45-46 cm, PL 11. Sphenolithus predistentus Sample: 757B-16X-4, 45-46 cm, X-pol 12. Sphenolithus predistentus Sample: 757B-16X-4, 45-46 cm, X-pol 13. Sphenolithus predistentus Sample: 757B-16X-4, 45-46 cm, PL 14. Zygrablithus bijugatus Sample: 757B-16X-2, 45-46cm, X-pol 15. Zygrablithus bijugatus Sample: 757B-16X-2, 45-46cm, PL

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Peterson, Marie Louise

A. Date and Place of Birth November 25, 1980 at Tallahassee, Florida

B. Education and Training Institution and location Degree Date Major Florida State University, Tallahassee, Fl B.A. 08/07 Chemistry Florida State University, Tallahassee, Fl M.Sc. 12/14 Geology

C. Professional Memberships 2009- Student Member, American Association of Petroleum Geologists 2009- Student Member, Geological Society of America 2010- International Nannoplankton Association