Principles of Christian Prayer from the Third Century: a Brief Look at Origen, Tertullian and Cyprian with Some Comments on Their Meaning for Today

D. Richard Stuck wisch

Principles of Christian Prayer from the Third Century: A Brief Look at Origen, Tertullian and Cyprian With Some Comments on Their Meaning for Today

Treatises on the Our Father — whether in the form of catéchèses, sermons, lectures, or written commentaries — are not uncommon in the history of the Church, especially after the fourth century. Early examples are found among the works of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, Saint Gregory of Nyssa, Saint Augustine of Hippo, Saint Maximus the Confessor, et al.1 Similar treatises on the Our Father are part of Martin Luther's Reformation legacy, as well.2 In this essay, however, we turn our attention to three of the earliest discussions of the Our Father, all dating from the first half of the third century: Tertullian's De Oratione {circa A.D. 200), Origen's Περί Ευχής (circa A.D. 233), and Cyprian's De Dominica Oratione (ehm A.D. 250).3 Each of these three treatises provides an exegetical com­ mentary on the Our Father, discussing petition-by-petition the theological meaning of our Lord's words as a model for Christian

D. Richard Stuckwisch, a member of the Lutheran Missouri Synod, is a doc­ toral student in liturgical studies at the University of Notre Dame.

1 Cf. Geoffrey Lampe, " Our Father' in the Fathers," in Christian Spiritual­ ity: Essays in Honour of Gordon Rupp, ed. Peter Brooks (London: SCM Press Ltd 1975) 11-31; also, Willy Rordorf, "The Lord's Prayer in the Light of its Liturgical Use in the Early Church," Studia Liturgica 4 (1980/81) 1-19. 2 Cf., e.g., Douglas D. Fusselman, " Tray Like This': The Significance of the Lord's Prayer in Luther's Catechisms," Concordia Journal 18 (April 1992) 132-52. Though Fusselman's focus is Luther and Lutheranism, the entire first half of his article consists of a survey of the Our Father in early Christian literature and liturgies. 3 Unless otherwise noted, the following translations have been employed for the purposes of the present study: Cyprian of Carthage, The Lord's Prayer, tr. Roy J. Deferrari (New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc. 1958); Origen, On Prayer, tr. Rowan A. Greer, in Origen: Exhortation to Martyrdom . . . (etc.) (New York: Paulist Press 1979); Tertullian, On the Prayer, tr. Ernest Evans (London: S.P.C.K. 1953).

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2 prayer. In addition, to a greater or lesser extent, these treatises also describe (either directly or indirectly) some of the aspects of prayer in general, as it was practiced by Christians of that time (at least among those familiar to our three authors). It is the purpose of this essay to consider these general characteristics of Christian prayer. As such, in our comparison of these third-century treatises, we will not be exploring the theological interpretations of the Our Father, per se, though these are surely also of great interest and importance in their own right. Instead, we will glean and interpret what we can about prayer, under a series of three categories: 1) the basic contents of Christian prayer, 2) the times and places of Christian prayer, and 3) the disposition and posture of Christian prayer.4 In doing so, we will endeavor to highlight points of es­ sential agreement between the three treatises, as well as points of divergence. Hopefully, in this way, some insights will be gained about the way of prayer among Christians in the early-third cen­ tury. Finally, on the basis of these insights, we will conclude with some comments on the principles and practices of Christian prayer in our own day and age.

THE CONTENTS OF CHRISTIAN PRAYER The Our Father as a Model of Christian Prayer. As already indicated, we are not here concerned with the interpretations of the Our Father that Tertullian, Cyprian, and Origen provide. However, it does need to be said from the start, that all three treat the Our Father as the model for Christian prayer. As Origen describes it: "The prayer written by the Lord as a model" (On Prayer XVIII.1). Tertullian, likewise, writes that Jesus "has marked out for the new disciples of the new covenant a new plan of prayer" (On the Prayer 1). And Cyprian — who regards the Our Father as the prayer, par excellence — writes, "He who, among His other salutary admoni­ tions and divine precepts by which He counsels His people unto salvation, Himself also gave the form of praying, Himself advised and instructed us what to pray for" (The Lord's Prayer 2); and again, "Such is the prayer that God has taught, who by His in­ struction has abbreviated our every prayer in a saving word" (The

4 Compare Paul F. Bradshaw, Daily Prayer in the Early Church (New York: Oxford University Press 1982); also. Two Ways of Praying (Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press 1995).

Principles of Prayer Lord's Prayer 28). Tertullian makes explicit the relationship of the Our Father to other Christian prayers: "As there are things to be asked for according to each man's circumstances, we have the right, after rehearsing the prescribed and regular prayer as a foun­ dation, to make from other sources a superstructure of petitions for additional desires: yet with mindfulness of the precepts, lest we be as far from the ears of God as we are from the precepts" (On the Prayer 10). The "precepts" here refer to the biblical war­ rants for many of the aspects of prayer that are discussed in this essay. On the basis of these comments, without going into detail, we may at least assume that the contents of prayer would emulate in some way the petitions of the Pater Noster. In a reciprocal fashion, however, a comprehensive theology of prayer has clearly in­ fluenced the interpretation of those same petitions. Especially in the case of the fourth petition, for example, the conviction that prayer "must ask for heavenly and great things" mitigates the opinion "that we are told to pray for corporeal bread" (Origen, On Prayer XXVII.1).5 Willy Rordorf is likely correct in setting this interpretation of the fourth petition in the context of a liturgical — that is to say, Eucharistie — use of the Our Father.6 However, it should also be noted, that Origen refers specifically to those who do hold the corporeal view of this petition (cf. On Prayer XXVII. 1). No doubt, the content of their prayers in general would also differ from that of Origen and his circle.

The Various Kinds of Prayer. Origen alone among our three authors carefully distinguishes between various kinds of prayer. In the first place, he draws a contrast between the common Old Testa­ ment meaning of "prayer" (ενχη) and "our customary usage" of the same word. Although he does find examples of both in the Scriptures, he notes "that the word prayer is often used in a way different from the customary usage," namely, as a "vow" or "promise to do what the prayer announces if [the one praying] obtains his requests from God." By the "customary usage" of ενχη, Origen seems to have in mind a simple petition or request,

5 Cf. also Tertullian, On the Prayer 6.1-3; also Cyprian, The Lord's Prayer 19-20. 6 Cf. Rordorf: 6-9.

D. Richard Stuckwisch

4 which he identifies more often with "the other word for prayer," τιροσενχη (On Prayer III.1-IV.2). Origen also distinguishes more precisely between four different kinds of "prayer," on the basis of 1 Timothy 2:1 ("First of all, then, I urge that supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanks­ giving be made for all men."). Briefly stated, "thanL·giving7 is a statement of gratitude made with prayers for receiving good things from God"; ''intercession is a petition for certain things ad­ dressed to God"; "supplication is a prayer offered with entreaty to get something a person lacks"; and finally, "prayer is something nobler offered by a person with praise and for greater objects" (On Prayer XIV.2). Of these four kinds of "prayer," thanksgiving and intercession may be addressed generally, not only to the saints, but to all other people; supplication may be addressed only to particularly worthy saints, such as Peter and Paul, or to those we have wronged, when we seek forgiveness from them; but "prayer in its most exact sense" should be offered to no one other than the Father, "not even to Christ Himself, but only to the God and Father of us all, to whom even our Savior Himself prayed." Though such prayer is not addressed to Christ, "it is especially true that no prayer should be addressed to the Father without Him," since He is our great High Priest (On Prayer XIV.6-XV.2). Consider, too, Origen's Dialogue with Heraclides (1.1-6.5), which also requires that the oblation should be offered "to the Father through the Son," not twice but once "to God through God," so to speak.

The Component Parts of Prayer. In spite of the "customary usage," prayer is not primarily "petition" for Origen, but contem­ plation of God and doxological praise of the Father through the Son in the Holy Spirit. Furthermore, whatever petitions are made, must be "for the things that are chiefly and truly great and heavenly," leaving it to God to supply "what we need because of our mortal body before we ask Him" (On Prayer XVII.2). In the final paragraphs of his treatise, Origen provides an out­ line for Christian prayer: 1) It ought to begin with "something having the force of praise," offered to "God through Christ, who

7 We note that for Origen, εξομολογούμαι ("I give thanks") is a synonym of ευχαριστώ ("I thank") (cf. On Prayer XIV.5).

Principles of Prayer

5 is praised with Him, and by the Holy Spirit, who is hymned with Him." 2) Next should come a general thanksgiving for all the benefits that God has given to many people, including of course those benefits given to the one who is praying. 3) Then should fol­ low a confession of sins, and petitions, "first, for healing that [the one praying] may be delivered from the habit that brings him to sin and, second, for forgiveness of the sins that have been com­ mitted." 4) The final topic of prayer is "the request for great and heavenly things, both private and general," including intercession for the household and dearest of the one who is praying.8 5) Just as it began, "the prayer should be concluded with a doxology of God through Christ in the Holy Spirit" (On Prayer XXXIII.i). Tertullian offers a similar "outline" for prayer, based upon the model of the Our Father: 1) We begin with the honor of God; 2) then a witness and confession of the faith; 3) followed by a sacrifice of obedience; 4) a commemoration of our eschatological hope; 5) a petition for life (both spiritual and corporeal); 6) then a confession of sins and a prayer for pardon; 7) and finally, a re­ quest for protection from all manner of evil and temptations (cf. On the Prayer 0). Much later in his treatise, Tertullian writes that "the more conscientious in prayer are accustomed to append to their prayers Alleluia and such manner of psalms, so that those who are present may respond with the endings of them" (On the Prayer 27). This comment suggests that certain psalms were some­ times utilized in conjunction with Christian prayer, though it is difficult to know precisely which Psalms might have been used in this way. Perhaps more important is the implicit indication of communal prayer in his remark.

THE TIMES AND PLACES OF CHRISTIAN PRAYER The Times of Prayer. All three of our authors refer to the three daily hours of prayer: the third, sixth, and ninth hours of the day. Ori­ gen begins by noting the standard "rule" of prayer, namely, "pray constantly" (I Th 5:17). So also Tertullian writes, "Concern­ ing the times of prayer no rules at all have been laid down, except of course to pray at every time and place" (On the Prayer 24). And

8 As far as intercessory prayer goes, Tertullian and Cyprian both refer to the precept of prayer, that we pray also for our enemies. Cf. Tertullian, On the Prayer 3 and 29; also Cyprian, The Lord's Prayer 17.

D. Richard Stuckwisch 6 earlier, in his comments on the first petition, Tertullian makes a similar remark: "Of course it is very seemly that God should be well spoken of at every place and time by every man, with a view to that remembrance of His benefits that is always due" (On the Prayer 3). Thus, argues Origen, "let us not suppose that the Scrip­ tures teach us to say Our Father' at any appointed time of prayer. Rather ... let our whole life be a constant prayer in which we say Our Father in heaven' . . ." (Origen, On Prayer XXII.5). In this way, he includes, "the entire life of the saint taken as a whole is a single great prayer," and "what is customarily called prayer is, then, a part of this prayer." It is prayer in the "ordi­ nary sense" that should take place "no less than three times each day," as shown by the example of Daniel. In addition, Origen writes, "we do not even complete the nighttime properly without that prayer of which David speaks when he says, 'At midnight I rise to praise You because of Your righteous ordinances' (Ps 119:62)" (On Prayer XII.2). In similar fashion, Tertullian also indi­ cates that, in addition to "constant" prayer, "we shall not find superfluous the observance from extraneous sources of certain hours also," namely, "those common ones which mark the periods of the day, the third, sixth, and ninth, which you may find in the Scriptures were in established use" (On the Prayer 24). The point here seems clear enough, not that any particular hours have been required by Scripture — Tertullian has already denied any such rule — but that these three hours of prayer are con­ venient and have scriptural precedent. Likewise, the statutory prayers are due "without any behest" at daybreak and evening, while "it is seemly for the faithful not to take food or go to the bath without first interposing a prayer." In all of these cases, prayer is regarded as the appropriate means of marking the cycles and activities of daily life, thereby indicating that for Christians "heavenly things have precedence over earthly" (On the Prayer 25). By the same principle, whenever Christians receive one another in their homes, they should mark the occasion with prayer, whereby the guests "bring peace to those in the house and receive it as a gift from them" (On the Prayer 26). In line with both Tertullian and Origen, Cyprian likewise refers to the three daily hours of prayer, which were established "a long time ago" as the "lawful times for prayer." He also indicates the

Principles of Prayer 7 need for prayer in the morning, "that the resurrection of the Lord may be celebrated by morning prayer." And again, "at the setting of the sun and at the end of day necessarily there must again be prayer," because "Christ is the true Sun and the true Day." By the same token, not only should we Christians "be insistent throughout the whole day in our petitions," we should "not cease praying even in the night" (The Lord's Prayer 34-36). On prayer in the night, Cyprian cites the example of our Lord: "If He prayed continually, watching through the whole night with uninterrupted petitions, how much more ought we to lie awake at night in con­ tinuing prayer!" (The Lord's Prayer 2g).9 Cyprian thus represents the development of theological rationalizations for the various times of prayer, which in Tertullian were more pragmatic.10

The Places of Prayer. With respect to the places of prayer, all three treatises allude to both private and communal practice. As in the case of times, "every place is suitable for prayer," writes Ori­ gen, "if a person prays well" (Origen, On Prayer XXXI.4). Tertul­ lian makes a similar point: "How 'at every place,' when we are forbidden to pray at street corners? In every place, he means, which propriety or even necessity suggests" (On the Prayer 24). However, just as there are particular hours set aside for prayer, for the sake of convenience and propriety (if for no other reason), so also, Ori­ gen suggests, "everyone may have ... a holy place set aside and chosen in his own house, if possible, for accomplishing his pray­ ers in quiet and without distraction." In choosing such a place, one should consider "whether any transgression or anything con­ trary to right reason has been done in the particular place," which would interfere with the proper attitude of prayer. Even the place where legitimate sexual intercourse takes place should probably be avoided, on the basis of the principle that "it is impossible to have leisure for prayer as we should unless someone dedicates himself to this 'by agreement for a season' (I Cor 7:5)" (Origen, On Prayer XXXI.4). Cyprian also writes of private prayer, noting that "the Lord bade us to pray in secret, in hidden and remote

9 Cyprian also highlights the confession of sins in prayer. Cf. The Lord's Prayer 6, 22, and 26. 10 Cf. also Dirán Y. Hadidian, "The Background and Origin of the Christian Hours of Prayer," Theological Studies 25 (1964) 59-69.

D. Richard Stuckwisch 8 places, in our very bed-chambers, because it is more befitting faith to realize that God is everywhere present, that He hears and sees all, and by the plenitude of His majesty penetrates also hidden and secret places" (The Lord's Prayer 4). Regarding this "precept of praying in secret," Tertullian, too, indicates that the one who is praying "should trust that the sight and hearing of God Almighty are present within the house and even in the hidden chamber" (On the Prayer 1). Even when offered in private, however, Chris­ tian prayer is never offered "privately." Rather, the Our Father teaches that we pray to our Father, always in common: "We pray not for one but for the whole people, because we, the whole people, are one" (Cyprian, The Lord's Prayer 8). Of course, it comes as no surprise, to find Cyprian emphasizing the unity of the Church. In addition to the special place of prayer in one's own home, Origen also advocates "the spot where believers assemble together." For "when a great number of people are assembled genuinely for the glory of Christ, each one's angel, who is around each of those who fear Him, encamps with that man whom he is believed to guard and order," and thus, "there is a double Church, one of men and the other of angels." For this reason, "let no one disdain prayers in the churches, since they have something exceptional for the person who assembles in them genuinely" (On Prayer XXXI .5). We cannot help but wonder whether Origen's remarks in this matter are indicative of a problem with people avoiding the public prayers of the Church.

THE DISPOSITION AND POSTURE OF CHRISTIAN PRAYER The Spiritual Disposition of Prayer. Perhaps the most emphatic fea­ ture of Origen's treatise On Prayer is his insistence on the need for preparation and a proper disposition for prayer. "It is necessary," he writes, "not only to pray, but also to pray 'as we ought' and to pray for what we ought" (On Prayer II.1). The "as we ought" refers to the spiritual attitude of the person praying. The impor­ tance that Origen attaches to this disposition is shown by his com­ ment that no one receives his requests "unless he has prayed with such and such a disposition, believes this way, has not led such a way of life before his prayer." Along these lines, "vain repetitions ought not be used, nor should little things be requested

Principles of Prayer

9 nor prayers made for earthly things, nor should we go to prayer with anger and with troubled thoughts" (On Prayer VIII.1-2). Else­ where, Origen writes, "When we pray, let us not 'heap up empty phrases,' but let us discuss divine truths. Now we heap up empty phrases when we fail to find fault with ourselves or the words we offer in prayer and when we speak of corrupt deeds, words, or thoughts, things that are lowly, blameworthy, and foreign to the incorruptibility of the Lord" (On Prayer XXI. 1). Even if the prayer itself provided no additional benefits, the disposition required of the one who comes to prayer would already be of great profit. "It must not be supposed that he gains something insignificant when he so harmonizes himself reverently at the time of prayer" (On Prayer VIII. 1-2). Thus, writes Origen, "it seems to me that the per­ son who is about to come to prayer should withdraw for a little and prepare himself, and so become more attentive and active for the whole of his prayer" (On Prayer XXXI.2). As far as Origen is concerned, reconciliation and forgiveness be­ tween Christians is the foremost virtue in preparation for prayer. As he writes of the one preparing for prayer: "All malice toward any one of those who seem to have wronged him he should put away as far as any one would wish God to put away His malice toward him" (On Prayer XXXI.2). Tertullian, too, regards reconcili­ ation as the chief precept of prayer, that is, "that we go not up to the altar of God before we cancel whatever of discord or offence we have contracted with the brethren," for "when in the way of prayer we should not journey towards the Father in anger" (On the Prayer 11). With reference to the fifth petition, Cyprian likewise stresses the need to forgive others, "knowing that what we seek for our sins cannot be obtained, unless we ourselves shall have acted likewise toward those sinning against us" (The Lord's Prayer 23). This pervasive emphasis on forgiveness and reconciliation, it would seem, suggests a concomitant insistence on the communal character of prayer. Although "the question of the disposition must be referred to the soul, that of the posture to the body," Origen discusses the spiritual disposition of prayer in a way that anticipates already the physical posture. Thus, for example, "the person praying must stretch out 'holy hands' by thoroughly purging the passion of 'anger' from his soul and harboring no rage against anyone and

D. Richard Stuck wisch

10 by forgiving each the sins he has committed against him." Like­ wise, "the eyes of the mind are lifted up from their preoccupation with earthly things and from their being filled with the impression of material things," and "the soul is lifted up and following the Spirit is separated from the body." So also, a Christian woman "must be calm and orderly in soul, as well as body, standing in awe of God most especially when she prays." The bottom line for everyone is this, that the one who is praying "must forget for the time being everything but the prayer" (On Prayer IX. 1-2). As Ter­ tullian succinctly puts it, "not from anger only, but from all and every perturbation of mind, ought the intensity of prayer to be free" (On the Prayer 12). Or, as Origen summarizes, "This is how he should come to prayer, stretching out his soul, as it were, in­ stead of his hands, straining his mind toward God instead of his eyes, raising his governing reason from the ground and standing it before the Lord of all instead of standing" (On Prayer XXXI.2). Cyprian makes a similar point, that "when we stand for prayer ... we should be alert and intent on our petitions with a whole heart." Thus, he writes, "let every carnal and worldly thought depart, and let the mind dwell on nothing other than that alone for which it prays." And by way of example, he cites the Sursum Corda, with which the people are "admonished that they should ponder on nothing other than the Lord" (The Lord's Prayer 31). Cyprian emphasizes that we should approach prayer with modesty, discipline, and restraint, bearing in mind "that we stand in the sight of God" (The Lord's Prayer 4). As such, "we ought to remember and to know that, when we speak to God, we ought to act as sons of God, so that, just as we are pleased with God as Father, so too He may be pleased with us." We should "live as if temples of God, that it may be clear that the Lord dwells in us" (The Lord's Prayer 11). Likewise, we ought to bring the fruits of faith — that is, good works, such as fasting and alms — along with the words of our prayers, because "words without fruits can­ not merit God's favor, since they are fruitful in no deed." But God "is a kindly listener to prayer which comes with works" (The Lord's Prayer 32).

The Physical Postures of Prayer. With Origen's emphasis on the spiritual disposition of prayer, it might come as something of a

Principles of Prayer surprise to find him describing the importance of certain physical postures of prayer, as well. He treats the physical aspects as both a training ground for, and a reflection of, the spiritual attitude. Thus, "although there are a great many different positions for the body, [the one praying] should not doubt that the position with the hands outstretched and the eyes lifted up is to be preferred before all others, because it bears in prayer the image of the characteristics befitting the soul and applies it to the body." However, for those who cannot stand, because of sickness or infir­ mity, it is permissible to sit, or even to remain lying down if necessary. In other circumstances, if we are unable "to withdraw to offer the prayer that is owed, it is right to pray acting as though we were not doing it." And when we make confession of our sins before God, then "kneeling is necessary," because "it symbolizes someone who has fallen down and become obedient" (On Prayer XXXI.2-3). Origen also insists on the importance of praying toward the East, "since this is a symbolic expression of the soul's looking for the rising of the true Light." As such, even from inside a building with no openings to the East, prayer should still be directed that way, for "the buildings of men arbitrarily face in certain directions or have openings in certain directions, but by nature the east is preferred over the other direc­ tions, and what is by nature must be ranked ahead of what is arbitrary" (On Prayer XXXII.i). Of our three authors, Tertullian supplies the most commentary on the postures of prayer, though much of what he says is directed against the practice of others. He goes through a whole series of "postures," commenting on their appropriateness or non- appropriateness for Christian prayer. First of all, he offers a critique of those who make a point of ritually rinsing their hands at every prayer. Supposedly, these people had taken the example of Pon­ tius Pilate as the precedent for their practice, which leads Tertul­ lian to write, "we ought to set ourselves against the example of the man who delivered Him up, and for that reason not rinse our hands." In any case, there is no sense "in addressing oneself to prayer with washen hands but a dirty spirit" (On the Prayer 13). Instead of making a point to rinse their hands, Christians "not only lift them up, but also spread them out, and, modulating them by the Lord's passion, in our prayers also express our faith

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12 in Christ" (On the Prayer 15). Thus, in the conclusion to his trea­ tise, Tertullian remarks that "the birds now arising are lifting themselves up to heaven and instead of hands are spreading out the cross of their wings" (On the Prayer 29). Among the other practices that Tertullian rejects, he mentions those who "pray with their coats off, for so do the nations ap­ proach their idols" (On the Prayer 15). Others are in the habit "of sitting down at the sealing of the prayer," supposedly on the basis of the Shepherd of Hermas, but Tertullian regards this action as "most irreligious in the presence of the living God." Sarcasti­ cally, he asks, "If that Hermas, whose writing is entitled The Shepherd or something of that sort, had not sat down upon his bed when he had finished his prayer, but had done you know what, would we claim that that also must be made an obser­ vance?" (On the Prayer 16). Far from sitting down in the presence of God, we should stand before God with humility, "not even lifting the hands too high but raising them temperately and meetly, not even holding up our eyes in presumption." On this point, Tertullian cites the example of the Publican in the Gospel, "who prayed with humility and dejection not of prayer only but of countenance" (On the Prayer 17). Likewise Cyprian, who writes, "Let him who adores not ignore this, how the publican prayed with the Pharisee in the temple. Not by impudently lifting his eyes to heaven nor by insolently raising his hands, but striking his breast and testifying to the sins inclosed within did he implore the help of divine mercy" (The Lord's Prayer 6). In fact, "even the tones of our voice need to be subdued," indicates Tertullian, and his rationale is interesting for what it says about communal prayer. He writes, "What profit will these win who are praying too articulately, except that they are shouting down the people next to them? Nay but, by divulging their own petitions what less are they doing than if they were praying at street corners" (On the Prayer 17). This comment seems to indicate that even together in groups, each of the people was offering his or her own petitions (sometimes in competition with those around them). Thus, Cyprian also writes, "We must be pleasing in the sight of God both with the habit of body and the measure of voice. For as it is charac­ teristic of the impudent to be noisy with clamors, so on the other hand does it benefit the modest to pray with moderate petitions" (The Lord's Prayer 4).

Principles of Prayer

13 Another practice that Tertullian criticizes is a refusal by those who are fasting to join the kiss of peace. As "the seal of the prayer," the kiss of peace should by no means be avoided. Besides, those who are fasting ought to observe "the precept by which we are commanded to conceal our fasts." Only on days when the entire congregation is fasting, as for example on the day of the Passover, do "we rightly omit the kiss, taking no heed to keep hidden a thing we are doing in the company of all" (On the Prayer 18). As regards the clothing of women in prayer, Tertullian refers to a treatise that he has written on the topic, but he summarizes here with a paraphrase of Peter and Paul, who restrained "both the vain glory of apparel and the pride of gold and the seductive elaboration of the hair" (On the Prayer 20). Tertullian then spends the next several sections of his treatise, explaining that virgins also need to follow the precept, that women should wear veils in wor­ ship (cf. On the Prayer 21-22). Finally, he mentions that some have begun to abstain from kneeling also on Saturdays. Tertullian does not dismiss this practice, because "this dissension is even now on trial before the churches," but he does indicate that his custom has been to abstain from kneeling only on the Day of the Lord's Resurrection (and throughout the fifty days of Pentecost). On ordi­ nary days, "who would hesitate to prostrate himself to God, at least at the first prayer with which we enter on daylight?" Further­ more, in the case of fasts and stations, "no prayer is to be per­ formed without kneeling and the rest of the attitudes of humility" (On the Prayer 23).

CONCLUSIONS: WHAT DOES THIS MEAN FOR US? The treatises of Origen, Tertullian and Cyprian on Christian prayer are important because of their antiquity, and because of the in­ fluential positions of their respective authors in the history of the Church. True, they should not be viewed as definitive of the broad practice of Christian prayer in the third century. What other Christians might have been doing, especially in other parts of the Empire, remains unknown. Yet, the relative similarity and agree­ ment of these three treatises is compelling. Thus we can safely say, it would seem, that the practice of prayer for many Christians took seriously both the internal disposition and the external posture of prayer; and that Christian prayer in the third century

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14 was understood as a way of regulating life and the passage of time, even as life itself was offered to God as a kind of prayer. It also seems clear that prayer for these early Christians, no matter how much it might have been a personal communing with God, was likewise engaged in communion with the Church as the people of God. In each of these aspects of prayer, we do well to listen.

Using the Our Father. The most obvious lesson to be learned from our three treatises on prayer is the importance of the Our Father as the prayer of the Church. For most Christians, this ad­ vice should come as nothing new, since the Our Father might well be the broadest common denominator of the Christian tradition across denominational lines. But in our regular practice of personal piety, perhaps the Our Father does not provide the foundation of prayer that it did for many of the early Christians. By "founda­ tion" we have in mind, not only a regular use of the Our Father verbatim,11 but also a use of the Our Father as a model and outline for praying in general. As we have seen, that was the attitude of Tertullian, Cyprian, and Origen. Certainly, it is a practice that would prove exceptionally helpful and practical for those who might otherwise struggle to articulate their faith in constructive words of prayer.

Recognizing the Communal Nature of Christian Prayer. Using the Our Father provides, of course, a constant reminder of yet another lesson from our third-century theologians, namely, the communal nature of prayer. Whether we pray "individually," that is, alone in our closets at home, or together in the services of the Church, all of our prayers are offered in, with, and through Christ. And if we pray in union with Christ, then we pray in communion also with His Body and Bride, the Church. Recognizing that fact will encourage a participation in the public prayers of our liturgical communities. And at the same time, it will make even our "pri­ vate" prayers less individualistic and self-centered — two all-too- common traits that are clearly at odds with the Christian faith.

11 As encouraged, for example, both by the use of the rosary and by Luther's Small Catechism.

Principles of Prayer

15 Interceding for the Church and for the World. Because our prayer as Christians is by definition communal, one important aspect of our praying — one of those afforded a prominent place by Origen in his categories of prayer — is the work of priestly intercession. In other words, we pray not only for ourselves, but for all our fellow-members of the household of faith, and likewise, as the Church of Christ, for the world and for all people. This might be the weakest and most frequently neglected aspect of prayer in our day, despite the emphasis placed upon it in the New Testament and the early Church. When we do pray for others, too often we are selective and exclusive in our petitions, instead of opening our hearts to the hurts and needs of all, including also our enemies and those who persecute us. As a sharing in the priesthood of Christ, our prayers should exclude no one. Seeking Forgiveness and Forgiving Those Who Sin Against Us. Closely related to the communal nature of prayer, and especially instruc­ tive for Christians today, is the necessity of forgiveness. If it is difficult for us to understand the intensity with which our' third- century theologians stress the importance of reconciliation with our neighbors, then perhaps we have lost a sense of what it means to be Christians — forgiven and forgiving. Certainly, the ab­ solute importance of forgiveness is prominent in the Gospel of Saint Matthew, whence we have received the Our Father; indeed, it is a theme to which our Lord returns again and again: in the sermon on the mount (Matt 5:23-24, 38-39; 6:14-15; and 7:1-2), in the healing of the paralytic (Matt 9:2-8), in the institution of the apostolic Church (Matt 16:18-19 and 18:15-35), and in the institution of the Lord's Supper (Matt 26:28). And of course, Saint Luke records our Lord's word of forgiveness from the Cross (Luke 23:34), and the analagous forgiveness of Saint Stephen the Pro- tomartyr (Acts 7:60). Thus, it should come as no surprise to find a consistent patristic emphasis on forgiveness as well (especially in times of persecution, when the Church had to grapple with the issue of forgiveness for those who lapsed momentarily from the faith). What is not so easy to grasp is the profound sense of con­ nection that someone like Origen (especially) is able to see be­ tween forgiveness and prayer. Naming sin as such is not popular these days, and political correctness has shifted our concerns from matters of sin and forgiveness to questions of hurt feelings and

D. Richard Stuckwisch

16 politeness. We are often so self-conscious of the growing number of ways that we might unwittingly offend the sensibilities of some individual or special-interest group that we too easily lose a sense of accountability and guilt before God. And if so — if we have for­ gotten our need for the forgiveness of our heavenly Father, and if we have defined our relationships with others in political rather than ecclesial terms — then the fifth petition (Forgive us as we for­ give) surely has lost its dynamic punch, and our praying in general no longer rests on the foundation of God's forgiveness for us and the assumption of our forgiveness for the neighbor. But influence can also move in the other direction. That is to say, if we do pray for the forgiveness of Our Father in Heaven, and if we do ap­ proach our prayer with an active awareness of the ecclesial com­ munity in which we are forgiven and forgiving, then those attitudes of prayer will in turn shape and define our lives. What is more (if I have understood Origen's point correctly), the forgive­ ness that we give to our neighbors forces us to recognize and ac­ knowledge our own need for forgiveness; we see and forgive the sins of others toward us, and thereby realize that we have been guilty of many of the same sins. In this way, everything is mutu­ ally influential, the internal disposition and the external posture alike.

Some Cautions about Going Too Far in One Direction or the Other. There is a danger, of course, in taking some of the important points of Origen too far. For example, an over-emphasis on the in­ ternal dispositions of prayer and on the necessary preparations for prayer could easily reduce the act and articulation of the prayer it­ self to a merely perfunctory role. Origen himself does not go that far, since he attaches a significance to the external posture and regular practice of prayer as both the training ground and the em­ bodiment of the internal aspects. We are inclined, however, to ar­ gue even more forcefully that the internal needs the external in such a way that it cannot be separated from it. Logically, these two aspects of prayer can be distinguished, but in fact they belong together. Granted, external observance can be an empty and hypocritical farce, as the Sermon on the Mount makes clear (cf. Matt 6:1-18). Yet, it is significant that the Our Father is taught pre­ cisely in that context. The external prayer can be offered without the necessary faith, but true faith will necessarily give outward

Principles of Prayer

17 voice and embodiment to its internal life. "With the heart we be­ lieve, and with the mouth we confess" (cf. Rom 10:10). Further­ more, as an exercise and training ground, the external postures of prayer shape, strengthen, and sustain the internal dispositions. Thus, even an understanding of life itself as a constant, ongoing "prayer," dare not mitigate the regular practice of praying. Or, to put it bluntly, we need to set aside time to voice our faith in God, "Our Father Who Art in Heaven. . . ." As compared to Origen, Tertullian might represent the opposite temptation, namely, a legalistic definition of external postures and regulations of prayer, which could easily lead to precisely the hol­ low religiosity that Christ (in the Sermon on the Mount) and many of the Old Testament prophets decry. "I don't want your stinking sacrifices," says the Lord through His Prophets, "for in spite of all the blood and guts you offer Me, your hearts remain far from Me" (cf., e.g., Isa 1:10-15 and Jer 7:21-24). Even the ordinances of God, commanded and necessary though they are, cannot of themselves replace or substitute for the sacrificial prayer of a broken and contrite heart (Ps 51:17). Tertullian, to be sure, in his treatise On the Prayer, does understand and recognize the danger to which we refer. But his scrupulosity regarding certain principles and practices of prayer could lead others astray. The rule and order of prayer must be placed in service to the heart of faith, which worships and serves God alone. Origen's accommo­ dation of the elderly and infirm, who are unable to perform some of the physical postures of prayer, suggests the balanced perspec­ tive and sense of priorities that we have in mind. Praising and Confessing God in Prayer. Finally, having in mind again Origen's categories of prayer, we would do well to think of "prayer" not only as intercessions (or "asking") — whether for ourselves or for others — but especially as praise and confession of all that God has done for us already. We glorify our Father in heaven and give Him thanks most faithfully and appropriately, when we recall His mighty deeds of salvation history, and above all, His great love for us in Christ Jesus. When we do come to Him with our petitions, we ask on the basis of His love and mercy in the past, with confidence and trust in His never chang­ ing faithfulness: yesterday, today, and forever. In this way, our prayers have for their focus the only proper object of all Christian

D. Richard Stuckwisch

18 worship, namely, the Holy Triune God, Who was and is and is to come. To the God and Father of us all, together with His Son, our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, in the Unity of His Holy Spirit, throughout the Holy Church, be all glory and honor and praise, now and forever. Amen.

Mark A. Torgerson

An Architect's Response to Liturgical Reform: Edward A. Sövik and his "Non-Church" Design

Edward Anders Sövik is a theologically sensitive, Evangelical Lutheran architect who has been designing spaces for Christian worship for more than forty years. He has designed approximately four hundred church-related projects for Protestant and Roman Catholic communities, and has received numerous awards for his architectural design.1 Sövik has pursued what he calls a "non- church" approach in his designs for Christian worship spaces. Sövik's "non-church" worship space is flexible (meaning most fur­ nishings are portable and can be moved with relative ease) and multi-purpose (capable of hosting liturgical and non-liturgical

Mark A. Torgerson is a member of the Evangelical Covenant Church. This article is based on his doctoral dissertation defended at Notre Dame University.

1 Sövik has been a Fellow in the American Institute of Architects since 1967, was the first recipient of the Edward S. Frey Memorial Award for "great talent and long-term commitment in the field of religious architecture" from the Interfaith Forum on Religion, Art and Architecture (IFRAA) in 1981, was awarded the Gold Medal of the Minnesota Society, American Institute of Archi­ tects (MSAIA) in 1982, has received numerous competitive awards from IFRAA (formerly. Church Architectural Guild of America; Guild for Religious Architecture) and the MSAIA for specific projects, and in 1993 was awarded the 20th Anniversary Bene Award for "most influential liturgical architect of the last 20 years" by Modern Liturgy for his design work, teaching, writing and participation in interfaith organizations (Modern Liturgy 20 [November 1993] 46).

Edward A. Sövik's Design

19 ^s

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