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EMPIRICAL ARTICLES an Exploratory Study of the Categorical JOURNAL OF SEX RESEARCH, 51(4), 446–453, 2014 Copyright © The Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality ISSN: 0022-4499 print/1559-8519 online DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2013.871691 EMPIRICAL ARTICLES An Exploratory Study of the Categorical Versus Spectrum Nature of Sexual Orientation Ritch C. Savin-Williams Sex and Gender Lab, Department of Human Development, Cornell University This exploratory study investigated the nature of sexual orientation (categorical or spectrum) by assessing the relative ability of sexual and romantic indicators to be predicted by sexual orienta- tion labels. Young adults from a variety of community and college venues (N = 292) reported their sexual orientation label on a 9-point scale; from a 10-item list, their sexual identity; and the percentage of their sexual attraction, fantasy, genital contact, infatuation, and romantic relation- ship directed to males and females. Although the five indicators were significantly intercorrelated and sexual orientation labels predicted each indicator, discrepancies existed across indicators in relationship to sexual orientation (highest for attraction, lowest for romantic relationship). Sexual identity and sexual orientation label were strongly related at the ends of the sexual spec- trum, less so in the middle. Men were nearly as nonexclusive as women. Study results supported the perspective that sexual orientation is a continuously distributed individual characteristic. Sexual orientation is defined as an internal mechanism The spectrum perspective was noted nearly 30 years that directs a person’s sexual and romantic disposition ago by McConaghy (1987), who argued that sexuality toward females, males, or both, to varying degrees exists along a continuum with degrees of nonexclusivity (LeVay & Baldwin, 2012). It is manifested by a variety of in between heterosexuality and homosexuality. A decade indicators, including physiological arousal, erotic desire, later, in an invited critique of sex research, McConaghy sexual attraction, sexual fantasy, infatuation, genital (1999) concluded that this category versus continuum behavior, romantic relationship, and public and private debate regarding the nature of sexual orientation remained sexual identity (Sell, 1997). These indicators have been one of the major unresolved issues in sex science, reflected used to assess sexual orientation, either in terms of dis- in part by conflicting findings regarding whether sexual crete categories (heterosexual, bisexual, homosexual) or as orientation consists of taxa or is a matter of degrees existing along a continuum from exclusively to the oppo- (Gangestad, Bailey, & Martin, 2000; Haslam, 1997). site sex to exclusively to the same sex, with degrees of non- Although Kinsey (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948) and exclusivity in between. Although investigators frequently others (e.g., Klein, Sepekoff, & Wolf, 1985) believed that theoretically accept and empirically assess sexual orienta- sexual orientation is continuous, Haslam (1997) noted tion as if it exists along this continuum (a 5– or 7–point that the Kinsey Scale, a 7-point scale to assess sexual ori- Kinsey-like scale), in practice they usually place research entation, more often than not has been used as a categori- participants into one of the three discrete, mutually exclu- cal measure. Because most people tend to congregate at sive groups. This dissolution of the sexual spectrum into the extreme ends of the Kinsey Scale, investigators use three categories is usually undertaken for methodological this pattern as justification to dichotomize research par- or practical considerations (e.g., small sample size in non- ticipants as either heterosexual or gay/lesbian; all extrane- heterosexual groups), although recently also for theoreti- ous (nonexclusive) orientations are labeled bisexual, cal reasons, especially for males (Bailey, 2009). although frequently grouped with gays/lesbians. The position assumed here is that dissolving sexual ori- The author is indebted to Dr. Gerulf Rieger for statistical assistance entation into three groups distorts our understanding of and comments on earlier drafts of this manuscript. sexuality. The prevalence of unacknowledged in-between Correspondence should be addressed to Ritch C. Savin-Williams, Director, Sex and Gender Lab, Department of Human Development, sexualities (between heterosexual and homosexual) can be Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853. E-mail: [email protected] substantial, sufficiently such that they should not be NATURE OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION grouped with another set or eliminated from consider- generalize to younger and older age groups was not ation. For example, research over the past decade has addressed in this study. Because male sexual orientation is revealed that mostly heterosexuals (Kinsey Scale 1) show a frequently construed as rigid, stable, and exclusive and unique physiological and behavior profile of sexual and female sexual orientation as flexible, fluid, and nonexclu- romantic characteristics that distinguishes them as a sepa- sive (Bailey, 2009; Baumeister, 2000; Diamond, 2008; rate sexual orientation group in between heterosexuals and Peplau, 2001), all analyses are presented here separately substantial bisexuals (Savin-Williams, Rieger, & Rosenthal, by sex. Finally, because of the recruitment strategy to 2013; Savin-Williams & Vrangalova, 2013). Indeed, there solicit a range of sexual orientations, the sample is not are more mostly heterosexual men and women than generalizable to a larger population that would be neces- bisexual, mostly homosexual, and gay/lesbian individuals sary to resolve the categorical versus spectrum dispute. combined (Savin-Williams, Joyner, & Rieger, 2012). A second example is reports of the behavioral and attrac- Method tion diversity within the bisexual group (Kinsey Scale 2 to 4) (Rodríguez Rust, 2002; Taywaditep & Stokes, 1998; Participants Weinberg, Williams, & Pryor, 1994; Weinrich & Klein, 2002), suggesting that the label bisexual itself covers mul- Of 325 individuals who responded to advertisements tiple subgroups. Third, in a nationally representative study about a study on gender and sexual orientation, 146 men of young adults there were nearly as many or more mostly (mean age = 21.7, SD = 3.4) and 146 women (mean homosexual (Kinsey Scale 5) individuals than male bisexu- age = 21.7, SD = 3.4) were 32 years or younger (90% of the als or lesbians (Chandra, Mosher, & Copen, 2011), with a total) and thus were included in analyses reported here. pattern of sexual attraction and sex partners distinct from Nearly two-thirds were currently in a university, commu- adjacent bisexuals and gays/lesbians (Vrangalova & nity college, or trade school (66% men, 61% women); the Savin-Williams, 2012). Finally, a significant minority of rest either had no further formal education after high heterosexual (Kinsey Scale 0) and homosexual (Kinsey school (10%, 9%), had graduated from college and were Scale 6) individuals report a small degree of attraction, currently working (11%, 16%), were enrolled in postgradu- fantasy, and/or behavior toward their less preferred sex ate work (7%, 8%), or had received a graduate degree (4%, and a majority of those with at least some same-sex attrac- 6%). Although the most common ethnicity was Caucasian tion do not identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual (Ellis, (62% of men and 66% of women), the sample reflected a Robb, & Burke, 2005; Hoburg, Konik, Williams, & range of ethnicities, including mixed ethnicities (13%, Crawford, 2004; Morales Knight & Hope, 2012; Preciado, 11%), Asian (8%, 11%), African American (8%, 6%), Johnson, & Peplau, 2013; Savin-Williams et al., 2012; Hispanic (6%, 6%), and Native American Indian (3%, 0%). Vrangalova & Savin-Williams, 2010). The aims of this study were to provide data on whether Measures dimensional aspects of sexual orientation exist by explor- ing the varying indicators that have been identified by On a computer-based survey, participants completed a previous research. Although these sexual orientation 20-page questionnaire that included demographic infor- indicators are usually highly intercorrelated and are thus mation (age, sex, educational level, ethnicity) and other said to measure the same construct, this study explored measures used in this study. whether discrepancies exist within and across indicators such that individuals can be distributed not in a trifurcated Sexual orientation label. Sexual orientation label was system as straight, bisexual, or gay/lesbian but along a sex- assessed with an expanded version of the traditional ual orientation spectrum. The research questions follow: Kinsey Scale (i.e., two responses were added: exclusively straight and exclusively gay/lesbian). Participants responded to a prompt, “Please check the one that most RQ1: Which indicators (attraction, fantasy, sex behavior, infatuation, romantic relationship) have the accurately reflects your current understanding of your- strongest relationship to sexual orientation labels? self,” by checking one of nine responses: Exclusively RQ2: Is there a distribution of these indicators that sig- Straight = Only sexually attracted to the opposite sex; nificantly differentiates sexual orientation along a Straight = Nearly always sexually attracted to the oppo- continuum from exclusive heterosexuality to site sex. Rarely attracted to the same sex; Mostly exclusive homosexuality? Straight = Mostly sexually attracted to the opposite sex. RQ3: Is sexual identity related to sexual orientation?
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