An Examination of the Impact of Marketing Fashion To
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FROM CHILDHOOD TO TWEENHOOD FROM CHILDHOOD TO TWEENHOOD: AN EXAMINATION OF THE IMPACT OF MARKETING FASHION TO TWEENS ON TWEEN SELF-IMAGE AND MOTHER-CHILD INTERACTIONS By SARAH JANE CLANCY, B.A. (Hons)., M.A. A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy McMaster University © by Sarah Jane Clancy, July 2011 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (2011) McMaster University (Sociology) Hamilton, Ontario TITLE: From Childhood to Tweenhood: An Examination of the Impact of Marketing Fashion to Tweens on Tween Self-Image and Mother-Child Interactions AUTHOR: Sarah Jane Clancy SUPERVISOR: Dr. Charlene E. Miall NUMBER OF PAGES: ix, 334 ii ABSTRACT Scholars and laypersons are increasingly concerned about the marketing of inappropriate adult fashions directly to tweens, children between the ages of eight and thirteen. Using a symbolic interactionist approach, I consider strategies used to market tween fashion images, and their influence on tween self-image and mother-child relationships. Through content analysis of images in two magazines, Today's Parent and Tiger Beat, I establish that contradictions exist between traditional images of childhood as a time of innocence, and more recent adult or sexualized images of tweenhood; that both these types of representations are gendered; and that both reinforce gender roles in childhood and tweenhood alike. Through qualitative interviews with mothers and tweens, I explore the meanings they associate with tween fashion and their influence on tween self-image. Both mothers and tweens are somewhat influenced by marketing strategies that use brands, logos and celebrity role models to market tween fashion. However, mothers use maternal "gatekeeping" strategies such as solo shopping, and control of financial resources, to mitigate the influence of fashion marketing on their tweens, and to avoid disagreements with their children over potentially inappropriate fashion styles. Tweens themselves actively filter corporate messages based on their own internalized gendered meanings learned through socialization. The opinions of their mothers, primarily, and their peers, influence their assessments of clothing as appropriate or inappropriate, regardless of marketing strategies. Notably, tween girls use internalized gendered meanings to differentiate between fashions that convey a "good girl" image or a "trampy" image, reproducing patriarchal versions of women as madonnas or whores, even at this age. Despite moral panics, a symbolic interactionist approach inspired by the principles of the new sociology of childhood, privileges tweens' voices and reveals them to be embedded within social networks that temper the influence of tween fashion. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have reached fruition without the assistance of a number of people. First, I could not have done this without the love and support of my parents and other family members. To Mom and Dad: I cannot imagine achieving this milestone without your love, laughter, kindness, generosity, support and encouragement. You have supported me in so many ways, had confidence in me, have exhibited enduring patience, and always listened. Mom: you are my best friend; thanks for everything from listening, encouraging me, making me laugh/laughing with me, and just being wonderful. I can always count on both of you. I dedicate this dissertation to both of you, as none of this would have even been possible without you. To Liane, Paul and Kristyn Rogers: thanks for all of your support. To Kristyn, my beautiful new niece: you are a constant reminder of all that is good in the world. To my grandparents, Attilio and Olga Padovan and the late Cliff and Anne Clancy: I am blessed to have such loving, kind, engaged, and encouraging grandparents. I treasure all of our memories more than words can express. To Marie and Ron Saunders: I cannot thank you enough for your love, support, laughter, encouragement and enthusiasm; it means the world to me and I am so blessed to have you both in my life. To Lisa Boucher, Stephanie Howells, Rebecca Casey, and Odette Tunks: you are wonderful and supportive - thank you for being such great friends. To my supervisory committee, Charlene Miall, Dorothy Pawluch and William Shaffir: thank you for your support, encouragement, assistance, and guidance over the years. I also want to extend my thanks to David Young, Corinne Jehel, Olga Cannon and Jackie Tucker. Finally, I would like to acknowledge McMaster University and the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada for supporting this research project. As Walt Disney once said, "All your dreams can come true if you have the courage to pursue them." Thank you to everyone for helping me pursue my dreams. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................... v CHAPTER ONE: Introduction ..................................................................................... 1 The Sociological Context ..................................................................................... 4 Research Questions .............................................................................................. 6 Organization of the Dissertation Chapters ............................................................ 7 CHAPTER TWO: Historical Conceptions of Children and Childhood ..................... 13 The Evolution of Concepts of Children and Childhood ...................................... 14 Existence of Childhood as an Identity Construct................................................. 15 Chattel: A New Identity for Children and the Stage of Childhood ...................... 18 Cherub Reversion: Childhood Identity as a Happy and Playful Period ................ 21 Not a Cherub, Not Yet an Adult: The Loss of Childhood Identity and Emergence of 'Tweens'? ...................................................................................................... 24 Fashion, Tweens and Changing Identities ........................................................... 26 CHAPTER THREE: A Review of the Literature on Fashion, Identity, and Youth: The Emergence of Tweens as a Developmental Stage and a Marketing Niche ......... 31 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 31 Early Beginnings: Studies of Fashion Within Sociology ..................................... 32 Feminist Views on Fashion ................................................................................ 33 Fashion in a Late Modern Context ..................................................................... 35 Fashion and Identity ........................................................................................... 37 Mods, Rockers and Teddy Boys and the Evolution to Branded Youth ..... 37 Influences on Identity and the Sexualization of Tweens...................................... 40 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 45 CHAPTER FOUR: Theoretical Overview of Symbolic Interactionism .................... 47 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 47 Symbolic Interactionism and the Chicago School ............................................... 48 Identity Formation: Interactionist Contributions ................................................ 56 Theoretical Assumptions and their Relevance to the Research ............................ 58 Self-reflexiveness and Agency ................................................................ 59 Socialization, Shared Meaning and the Definition of the Situation .......... 59 Socialization, Roles, and the Looking-Glass Self .................................... 61 CHAPTER FIVE: Research Methodology ................................................................. 64 Introduction to Qualitative Methods ................................................................... 64 v Little People, Big Voices: Methodological Issues when Conducting Research with Children and Tweens.......................................................................................... 67 Ethical Methodological Concerns: Access, Consent and Assent ......................... 68 Child and Tween Friendly Methodological Techniques and Strategies ............... 72 Self as Researcher and the "Least-Adult Role" ........................................ 73 "Tell me about yourself": Establishing Rapport and Bonding with Research Participants .............................................................................. 74 Tween Photographers ............................................................................. 77 The Research Process ........................................................................................ 79 Interview Schedule for Mothers ............................................................. 80 Interview Schedule for Tweens ............................................................... 81 Sample Characteristics ........................................................................... 83 Duration of the Interviews ...................................................................... 84 Data