Biology and Management of the Invasive Mealybug Phenacoccus Peruvianus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Urban Landscapes

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Biology and Management of the Invasive Mealybug Phenacoccus Peruvianus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Urban Landscapes UNIVERSITAT POLITÈCNICA DE VALÈNCIA Biology and management of the invasive mealybug Phenacoccus peruvianus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in urban landscapes. DOCTORAL THESIS Presented by: Aleixandre Beltrà Ivars Directed by: Dr. Antonia Soto Sánchez and Dr. Ferran Garcia Marí València, February, 2014 Als meus pares Agraïments Sense la contribució directa i indirecta de moltes persones aquesta tesi mai s’haguera portat a terme i és per a elles el meu més sincer reconeixement. Especialment, vull agrair a tots els que han conseguit que gaudira de l’elaboració de la tesi ja que amb ells tinc un deute impagable. En primer lloc a la professora Antonia Soto qui m’ha donat l’oportunitat de realitzar la tesi, oferint la seua guia i ensenyança durant tot aquest procés. Per la paciència i confiança depositada permetent-me aprendre dels errors comesos. Sempre recordaré amb molta estima, la il·lusió trasmessa en aquelles primeres lliçons d’entomologia al Jardí Botànic. A Alejandro Tena per aconseguir motivar-me dia rere dia contagiant involuntàriament la seua passió per l’entomologia. Per la seua original contribució en els experiments que ací s’adjunten. Les seues ensenyances han produït un increment significatiu en la capacitat científica de l’estudiant de doctorat (P < 0.0001). A Thibaut Malausa, per la seua confiança al rebrem en Sophia Antipolis i en la resta de col·laboracions posteriors. Per mostrar-me el món de la genètica. Per la seua amistat i per tindrem present per a la futura revisió de la família de còccids més desconeguda. Als professors Ferran, Paco i Rafa als quals considere un exemple a seguir, per tot l’aprés i per tindre sempre la porta oberta. També amb molta estima a Carmen i Paloma pel treball i el temps compartit. Al voltant d’una taula blanca hem segut capaços de discutir tots els enigmes de l’entomologia, a més d’arreglar sense cap ambició, els principals problemes de l’agricultura, seguretat alimentaria mundial, màsters, comunitat universitària i el món en general. Per ells em sent capaç per treballar com assessor del president de la FAO, grup Bilderberg, José Ignacio Wert, Christine Lagarde o Edward Wilson. Gràcies per això i per molt més Cristina, Juan Antonio, Altea, Tolis, Carlos i Amparo. A tots els meus amics, per honorar cada any el sopar de Nadal, la festa de l’avutarda, el dia de l’avís, la fira del vi i San Xanclis. Em fa por pensar que podria haver passat els últims anys sense eixos dies. A la meua família, que ocupa el lloc més gran als meus pensaments, especialment als meus pares, a Teresa i Clara. A Mireia capaç de pronunciar Metcalfa pruinosa i fins i tot Protopulvinaria pyriformis. Per la seua capacitat de treure el millor de mi i contagiar el més grans dels somriures dia rere dia en la nostra retrobada a casa. INDEX INDEX Resum ............................................................................................................... Resumen ........................................................................................................... Abstract ............................................................................................................ 1. Introduction and objectives ...................................................................... 1 1.1. Pest management in urban landscapes .............................................. 2 1.1.1. Urban landscapes ......................................................................... 2 1.1.2. Urban pest management ............................................................. 3 1.2. Mealybugs .......................................................................................... 4 1.2.1. General characteristics ................................................................. 4 1.2.2. Mealybugs as invasive pests ........................................................ 7 1.2.3. Taxonomy .................................................................................... 8 1.2.4. Sampling ..................................................................................... 11 1.2.5. Management .............................................................................. 12 1.2.6. Biological control ........................................................................ 13 1.2.7. Mealybugs in urban landscapes ................................................. 15 1.3. The Bougainvillea mealybug Phenacoccus peruvianus .................... 16 1.2.1. Genus Phenacoccus ................................................................... 16 1.2.2. Phenacoccus peruvianus ........................................................... 16 1.4. Justification and objectives .............................................................. 19 2. Molecular and morphological characterisation of Pseudococcidae surveyed on crops and ornamental plants in Spain .................................. 20 2.1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 22 2.2. Material and Methods ...................................................................... 24 2.3. Results .............................................................................................. 28 2.4. Discussion ......................................................................................... 32 2.5. Acknowledgements .......................................................................... 34 INDEX 2.6. Supplementary material .................................................................... 34 3. Seasonal phenology, spatial distribution and sampling plan for the invasive mealybug Phenacoccus peruvianus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) ...................................................................................................................... 40 3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 42 3.2. Material and Methods ...................................................................... 43 3.3. Results .............................................................................................. 47 3.4. Discussion ......................................................................................... 56 3.5. Acknowledgements .......................................................................... 59 4. Fortuitous biological control of the invasive mealybug Phenacoccus peruvianus in Southern Europe .................................................................. 60 4.1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 62 4.2. Material and Methods ...................................................................... 63 4.3. Results .............................................................................................. 66 4.4. Discussion ......................................................................................... 70 4.5. Acknowledgements .......................................................................... 73 5. Reproductive strategies and food sources used by Acerophagus n. sp. near coccois, a new successful parasitoid of the invasive mealybug Phenacoccus peruvianus ............................................................................. 74 5.1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 76 5.2. Material and Methods ...................................................................... 77 5.3. Results .............................................................................................. 81 5.4. Discussion ......................................................................................... 84 5.5. Acknowledgements .......................................................................... 88 6. General discussion .................................................................................. 89 7. Conclusions ............................................................................................. 94 8. References ............................................................................................... 97 RESUM Resum Phenacoccus peruvianus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) és un cotonet invasor d’origen Neotropical que va ser observat per primera vegada en la Conca Mediterrània a Almeria (Espanya) en l’any 1999. Durant els següents anys la seua presència es va estendre per altres àrees del Mediterrani, detectant-se també a Portugal i França, a més de les illes de Sicília, Còrcega i Balears. Phenacoccus peruvianus és una espècie polífaga que ocasiona danys rellevants en plantes ornamentals d’alta importància econòmica. Degut al desconeixement d’aquesta espècie, durant els primers anys del procés d’invasió la seua gestió és va portar a terme mitjançant l’ús de tractaments químics amb matèries actives d’ample espectre. Amb tot, la nova directiva europea sobre l’ús sostenible de productes fitosanitaris ha qualificat les àrees verdes urbanes com zones d’ús reduït o nul de plaguicides i insta a la utilització d’estratègies de gestió més sostenibles com el control biològic. En aquesta tesi es presenten les bases per a la introducció del control biològic en un programa de gestió de P. peruvianus en àrees verdes urbanes, centrant-se en la seua caracterització, mostreig, biologia i control. Amb l’objectiu de facilitar la identificació d’aquesta i altres especies de pseudocòccids, es van caracteritzar 33 poblacions de cotonets presents en cultius i plantes ornamentals a l’est d’Espanya mitjançant la combinació de tècniques morfològiques i moleculars. Aquesta caracterització va permetre el reconeixement de deu
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