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Lithic raw material procurement of the Late Epigravettian hunter-gatherers from Kopačina (island of Brač, Dalmatia, )

Article in Quaternary International · September 2017 DOI: 10.1016/j.quaint.2016.09.017

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Lithic raw material procurement of the Late Epigravettian hunter-gatherers from Kopacina Cave (island of Brac, Dalmatia, Croatia)

* Nikola Vukosavljevic a, , Zlatko Perhoc b a Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, Ivana Lucica 3, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia b Institut für Geowissenschaften, Rupprecht-Karls-Universitat€ Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 234-236, D-69120 Heidelberg, article info abstract

Article history: This paper considers lithic raw material procurement of Epigravettian hunter-gatherers from Kopacina Available online 6 October 2016 Cave on the island of Brac (Dalmatia, Croatia). The most significant group among the determined petrographic categories are different cherts, and a significantly smaller group of radiolarites. Cherts are Keywords: both locally and regionally available, while radiolarites originate from more distant areas. Use of raw Kopacina Cave material that could have been procured within 20 km radius (local) and in the range of 20e50 km Late Epigravettian (regional) is predominant and very similar in all phases. Raw material that could have been procured Lithic raw material procurement from distances ranging from 20 to 50 km shows a gradual trend of increase in frequency from the earliest Mobility Cherts to the latest phase, while the raw material procured from distances greater than 50 km (extra-regional) Radiolarites has an obvious drop in frequency from the eldest to the youngest phase. Temporal trends in lithic raw material use suggest certain continuity during the whole Epigravettian sequence as well as change which shows itself in larger exploitation areas or more intensive long-distance contacts in earlier Epigravettian phases in Kopacina than in the later ones, and possibly a higher degree of hunter-gatherers’ mobility. Presence of radiolarites in Kopacina's Late layers, as well as their potential outcrops suggest movements of hunter-gatherers deeper in east Adriatic continental hinterland where for now only a few traces of human settlements from Late Glacial have been found. Raw material of several found artifacts indicates possible contacts with the west Adriatic coast. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Paleolithic and groups. These superficial analyses yielded conflicting information on the origin of raw material for lithic arti- Lithic raw material provenance studies have been used very facts on certain sites (e.g. for Late Upper Paleolithic site Lopar on the often for exploring prehistoric hunter-gatherers’ territorial patterns, island of Rab, please see Batovic, 1985 vs. Malez, 1974, 1987). This mobility, exchange and social networks (e.g. Pettitt et al., 2012; type of incidental research of lithic raw material origin was Brandl et al., 2014; Aranguren et al., 2015; Fontes et al., 2015; accompanied with quite chaotic use of petrographic terms, as well Lengyel, 2015; Kaminska, 2016; Thomas et al., 2016). Contrary to as with different approaches and research resolution. this, the issue of raw material origin used for production of Late First microscopic analyses of lithic raw material from the east Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic industries has been marginalized Adriatic coast were done on Epigravettian assemblages from for a long time in the analysis of lithic assemblages of east Adriatic Sandalja II Cave (Zupanic, 1975) and from Crvena Stijena rock- coast and its hinterlands. Types of raw materials and their potential shelter (Pamic, 1975) with the objective to determine the type of outcrops were occasionally mentioned (e.g., Batovic, 1985; Malez, rocks used and possible sources of raw material. Since then there 1987) without any deeper analysis that would yield data on raw has been little progress in researching the origin of raw material in material procurement and possible radius of movement of the context of the eastern Adriatic Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic (e.g., Kozłowski et al., 1994; Pawlikowski, 1994; Mihailovic, 1998; Pellegatti, 2009). Until recently, there was no data on types of * Corresponding author. lithic raw material, procurement and potential outcrops that could E-mail addresses: [email protected] (N. Vukosavljevic), [email protected] have been used in Dalmatia. An exception to this is Veli Rat Cape in (Z. Perhoc). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.09.017 1040-6182/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185 165 the northewest part of the island of Dugi Otok in north Dalmatia, surface of 395 m2 (Fig. 1). Island is 36 km in length and 12 km in which has been known in the literature for a long time as an width. Brac represents a mountain of the outer Dinaride mountain important autochthonous outcrop of lithic raw material for Paleo- chain whose lower parts are under sea so the basic relief line is the lithic and Mesolithic communities (Malez, 1979; Batovic, 1988). longitudinal mountain reef. The highest peak of the island is Vidova Recent years witness to the growing body of evidence about gora (778 masl), which is also the highest peak of Adriatic islands Dalmatian prehistoric lithic raw material economy. Since 2005 one of (Derado, 1984). Northern side of the island has mild slopes towards the authors (Z.P.)has been implementing continuous field research of the sea, while the southern slopes are much steeper (Derado, 1984; outcrops of lithic raw material (autochthonous and allochthonous) in Vukadin, 1984; Cubrakovic, 1984). Brac has so called - Dalmatia, surrounding Croatian regions and regions from neigh- orientation, west-east, that is different than the generally prevail- boring countries, as well as microscopic analysis of lithic assemblages ing orientation of the Adriatic coast (Derado, 1984). from Dalmatian Paleolithic, Mesolithic and sites with the The Adriatic area was quite different in the Late Glacial and objective to reconstruct raw material procurement in the Dalmatian partly Post-Glacial than it is today, due to the lower sea level. Sea Stone Age (Perhoc, 2009a, 2009b; Perhoc and Altherr, 2011; level rise has resulted in gradual flooding of the Adriatic Plain, as Forenbaher and Perhoc, 2015; Vukosavljevic et al., 2014, 2015). Be- well as other coastal Mediterranean plains (Shackleton et al., 1984; sides approximately 50 smaller and larger recorded autochthonous van Andel, 1989; Lambeck, 1996; Suric and Juracic, 2010). Great and allochthonous outcrops of mainly chert in the region of Dalmatia, Adriatic plain has undergone most significant changes (Shackleton we can definitely expect to find new outcrops which are not yet et al., 1984), due to relatively shallow northern part of the Adriatic recorded or published (Perhoc, 2009a, p. 39; Perhoc, unpublished basin with a low gradient (0.02) down to 100 m (Suric and research). For detailed list of outcrops with exact location, type of Juracic, 2010). The North Adriatic was a paleoplain approximately rock, type and size of outcrop, and degree of usability please see 300 150 km in size, which connected the Apennine and Balkan Perhoc (2009a, 2009b). Chert outcrops in Dalmatia were recorded Peninsula (Mussi, 2002). According to P.T. Miracle (1995,117e118) less in Triassic and Jurassic, and more in Cretaceous, Palaeogene and the Adriatic Plain was the biggest during Dryas I and has not Quaternary geological layers. In the layers ranging from Triassic to significantly shrunken during the sea level rise from 100 Palaeogene age, cherts appear in limestone, and not as often in do- do 93 m (around 12,500 bp) when it has occupied approximately lomites, while in Quaternary deposits they appear in loose sediments 92% of its previous size. Between 12,500 bp and 11,800 bp the sea (Perhoc, 2009a, 2009b). Because of non-homogenous structure of level has risen to approximately 75 m, and the Adriatic Plain at sedimentary rocks, such as chert, which during creation only partially this sea level has occupied approximately 64% of its previous size. takes over the structure of the host rock, it is difficult to exactly Before approximately 10,500 bp the Adriatic Plain covered 53% of associate a raw material of an artifact with a specific outcrop (Perhoc, its previous space, while around 9000 bp only 17% and was reduced 2009a, p. 27). Lithic assemblages of Dalmatian Late Upper Paleolithic only to a narrow zone in the Gulf of Trieste. and Mesolithic sites, including Kopacina, also have some petro- Rossignol-Strick et al. (1992) on the basis of analysis of pollen graphic types of rocks that do not exist in Dalmatia, therefore, in order cores from Adriatic seabed approximately 90 km south of to correlate artifacts and sources of raw material it was necessary to Dubrovnik give us an idea of paleovegetation of the South Adriatic do field research in certain regions of neighboring countries. The area. Part of the core that can be approximately situated between results of these research studies also bring some new findings 16,700 and 13,800 bp is characterised by significant presence of regarding contacts and communication of Paleolithic and Mesolithic pollen of Artemisia, Graminae and Chenopodiaceae, with presence populations in Dalmatia (Vukosavljevic et al., 2014, 2015). Besides the of deciduous trees (oak, hazel, elm, beech) therefore suggesting diagenetic cherts in lithic assemblages from Late Upper Paleolithic presence of dry but not cold grassland. Since approximately 13,800 (e.g., Kopacina Cave, Vela Spila Cave on the island of Korcula) there are bp there is an increase in the quantity of pollen from pine, birch and also radiolarites. However, there are no autochthonous radiolarite alder. After 13,200 bp there is an increase in the share of thermophil outcrops on Dalmatian coast and islands. Since some artifacts from deciduous species including hornbeam. Between 10,900 and Kopacina have a preserved pebble rind, suggesting fluvial and/or 10,000 bp there is a drop in share of trees of all types, but an in- fluvio-glacial origin of the outcrop, Perhoc (2009a, 2009b) suggests crease in share of Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae. After 9400 bp possible collection of pebbles from gravel of Neretva River or Mon- there is an increase in the frequency of pollen from trees with tenegrin coast where has been recorded a noticeable share of radi- addition of Mediterranean species (pistachio, olive and hornbeam) olarites, and particularly in the gravels of rivers Una, Vrbas and Bosna (Rossignol-Strick et al., 1992,416e417). where radiolarites come from an ophiolitic melange (Perhoc and In fauna assemblage from Kopacina not one large mammal Altherr, 2011). species is an indicator of certain paleoecological conditions, but In our earlier paper (Vukosavljevic et al., 2011) we undertook a rather suggest the existence of different environments. Species preliminary analysis of lithic raw material used in Kopacina adapted to cold were not found in the assemblage (Miracle, 1995, assemblage and techno-typological analysis of lithic assemblage. 146e148). The main goal of this paper is to reconstruct lithic raw material Boschian and Fusco (2007) describe Late Glacial environment of procurement strategies and importance of certain outcrops in lithic the Adriatic Plain as a monotonous, flat and dry environment of production of Late Epigravettian hunter-gatherers from Kopacina shrubby-herbaceous communities. Uniformity of this environment Cave and their possible relation to Late Glacial environmental is occasionally interrupted by swamp areas and small surfaces change in the Adriatic region. Proposed raw material procurement covered with trees of different pine species and some deciduous strategies are based on petrographic analysis and correlation of species which are most probably appearing near the river flows geological and archeological samples. which are subject to seasonal flooding.

2. Regional setting 2.2. Geology and characteristics of lithic outcrops

2.1. Geography and paleoenvironment The following simplified geological overview of part of Dalmatia includes chert outcrops (Fig. 2) which according to our research on Kopacina is located at the northewest part of the island of Brac, lithic production were used by populations of Kopacina Cave. the biggest island in the group of middle Dalmatian islands, with a Central Dalmatia is made mainly of Cretaceous limestones and 166 N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185

Fig. 1. Map showing the location of Kopacina Cave and other Dalmatian Epigravettian sites mentioned in the text (map by Staso Forenbaher). dolomites and Eocene limestones and flysch (Geoloska karta We recorded black chert outcrops (including the brownish black Republike Hrvatske, 2009; Velic and Vlahovic, 2009). variety) in Upper Cretaceous limestones on the southern slopes of Cretaceous limestones and dolomites have sedimented Opor Mountain and on the Kozjak and Mosor Mountains. More continuously on Jurassic sediments together with which they compact smaller nodules, as well as developed chert lenses that are form the Adriatic carbonate platform (Velic and Vlahovic, 2009). bigger than 10 cm, appear in smaller zones, but they are easy to find Upper Cretaceous series of these limestones is characterized by in karst which is not covered with soil and vegetation. Fragmented disintegration of the platform and changes in the environment of eroded nodules are often found in the surrounding debris. sedimentation from shallow-water to deep-sea (Marincicetal., Besides the cherts in Upper Cretaceous carbonate rocks, they 1971; Magas and Marincic, 1973). Almost entire Island of Bracis also appear in Eocene rocks developed in East Adriatic coast and made of sediments of rudist (biomicritic) white and gray Upper hinterlands. In Dalmatian region these rocks lithostratigraphically Cretaceous limestone (Cenomanian-Maastrichtian; Borovicetal., belong to units of Upper Paleocene foraminiferal limestones (un- 1977; Geoloska karta Republike Hrvatske, 2009, stratigraphic certain), as well as Lower to Middle Eocene (Geoloska karta unit 34) in which we have recorded gray chert outcrops in Republike Hrvatske, 2009, stratigraphic unit 39) and Middle to limestone of Pucisce and Dol (GusicandJelaska,1990)(Fig. 2). Upper Eocene flysch (Geoloska karta Republike Hrvatske, 2009, Chert nodules are mainly small, rarely larger than 10 cm or they stratigraphic unit 40). They are made of platy bituminous, forami- appear in complex form of lenses in small groups. Nodular cortex niferal and nodular marly limestone and flysch. In sediments of is thick and gradually transforms into chert core of mediocre Lower Eocene foraminiferal limestone we have recorded most quality, and rarely of good quality. We have recorded fragments of frequent and most abundant chert outcrops of good quality which eroded nodules in the immediate vicinity of the bedrock. It is were developed in predominantly alveolineenummulitic lime- justified to assume that this raw material could have been stone (Magas and Marincic, 1973). We are here mentioning only brought to Brac from other, more distant sources based on the those which are geographically nearest to the Island of Brac, and very limited presence of gray chert outcrops (including pale these are the locations of Saldun and Cape of Ciovo on the island of yellowish brown variety) used for majority of artifacts from Ciovo, location of Kastelica on the Opor Mountain and area of set- Kopacina Cave. This is also supported by the presence of other tlement Seget Donji near Trogir (Fig. 2). It is possible to see series of raw material types originating from the continental part of Dal- nodules and lenses on large surfaces of bare rocks, which follow the matia and its hinterland. We have recorded several gray chert sedimentation rhythm of limestones. These cherts could have been outcrops on Vilaja Mountain and in the central part of Ciovo Is- easily accessible as prehistoric raw material because nodules pro- land, which appear in Upper Cretaceous limestones, same as on truding from limestone exposed to corrosion are easy to break-off the Island of Brac. While outcrops from Ciovo Island (at the or to take them out entirely because they are already separated location of Prijace) and Vlaska Mountain (northewest from Tro- from the host rock in the washed-out bed. Whole and fragmented gir) are very modest, the outcrops on Vilaja Mountain (locations nodules are often found in the immediate vicinity of the bedrock, in of Siristak and Labinstica) are of good quality and several deci- terra rossa and in shallow sea-bed. Small chert debris exposed to meters in size. Our newest research shows that gray cherts from atmospheric weathering is entirely light gray and of poor quality, location of Lozice, as well as black cherts from location of Stra- while in the bigger eroded fragments it is possible to find fresh raw cincica from Upper Cretaceous limestones of the Island of Korcula material of fine quality. Foraminiferal chert nodules have a hard and near , microfacially do not correspond to macroscopi- thin cortex. Primary colors of the cortex are light gray or white cally similar cherts of artifacts from Kopacina Cave. (visible on a fresh break), while cortex on the surface exposed to N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185 167

Fig. 2. Map showing lithic raw material outcrops mentioned in the text. 1e4: cherts from Upper Cretaceous limestone, 5e8: cherts from Middle Eocene limestone, 9e11: cherts from Lower Eocene limestone, 12e13: black cherts, 14: radiolarites. 1: Pucisca, 2: Dol, 3: Mt. Vilaja, 4: Lozica on Korcula Island, 5: Starosevski gaj on Mt. Kozjak, Mt. Opor, 6: Marjan peninsula, 7: Mt. Mosor, 8: Mt. Biokovo, 9: Bay of Saldun on Ciovo Island, Seget Donji, 10: Cape of Ciovo, 11: Kastelica on Mt. Opor, 12: Stracincica on Korcula Island, 13: Mt. Kozjak and Mt. Opor, 14: Neretva River.

weathering is brownish patinated with iron oxide. Nodule cores are than the core itself. Fresh cherts of this type are moderately brown, of different shades of brown, high waxy gloss and different degrees dark brown or brownish black, while the worn-out ones which we of translucence. Macrofossils, most often benthic foraminifera, are find in the talus rock and soil deposits of bedrock are very light gray visible with naked eye on the cortex as well as on the core part of and pale brown. the nodule. Cherts were not recorded in small zones of Eocene foraminiferal In clastic and carbonate Middle Eocene sediments we recorded limestones (Geoloska karta Republike Hrvatske, 2009, stratigraphic very frequent and abundant brown chert outcrops, in particularly unit 39) and flysch (Geoloska karta Republike Hrvatske, 2009, on the southern slopes of Opor Mountain, hillslopes of Kozjak stratigraphic unit 40) on the island of Brac. Mountain (location Starosevski gaj), Marjan peninsula in Split (here There are no autochthonous sources of radiolarites in Dalmatia. cherts also appear in Lower Eocene limestones) and on several However, in deep East Adriatic hinterlands, along the Dinarides and locations on Mosor and Biokovo Mountain (Fig. 2). Cherts are Helenides, spreads out a belt of ophiolites in which the facies of developed in flysch-like Middle Eocene marly limestones of ophiolitic melange is abundant with radiolarites (Pamic, 2000; different lithological types (Magas and Marincic, 1973), and the Turku, 2000). Debris from those rocks comes to Bosnian- highest number was recorded in sandy calcarenites. Nodules are Herzegovinian rivers and represents numerous easily accessible densely grouped in the host rock; their size often exceeds several allochthonous sources of prehistoric raw material. Preserved decimeters, while lenses' size exceeds even a meter. Cortex is soft pebble cortex from Kopacina artifacts made from radiolarites sug- and unusually thick so sometimes it covers greater part of nodule gests fluvial origin of this raw material, therefore it is just to assume 168 N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185 the pebbles come from the gravel of Neretva River. Archaeologically was found. Same authors think that Early Holocene date from relevant share of radiolarites is particularly present in the gravel of Kopacina (Z-778) should be taken with caution or even rejected as Bosnian-Herzegovinian rivers Una, Vrbas, Bosna and others (Perhoc inaccurate, given the fact that dates obtained by dating shells of and Altherr, 2011). In recent Neretva fluvial deposits and terraces land snails very often differ from the true date (Tamers, 1970; we have recorded pebbles of different levels of roundedness of Goodfriend and Stipp, 1983; Goodfriend, 1987, 1992). reddish brown radiolarites (and more rarely reddish green and black radiolarites) of solid technical quality. Radiolarites probably make their way into the Neretva in its upper course from the zone of Bosnian flysch (Cretaceous e Lower Paleogene), and partly from Table 1 Middle Triassic surroundings of Konjic, Jablanica and Dreznica Radiocarbon dates from Kopacina. Dates with laboratory label Z-2403 and Z-2404 (Hazim Hrvatovic, personal communication, 2010; cf. Pamic, 2000; are listed according to Obelic et al. (1994) and are older than the dates given by P. Miracle (1995, 77) (Z-2403 12935 ± 250; Z-2404 11850 ± 220). Dates given by P. Hrvatovic, 2005). Further possible sources of radiolarites are Miracle probably were not corrected for d13C (personal communication B. Obelic, N. Montenegrin beaches. Outcrops of Mesozoic sediments with radi- Horvatincic, I. Krajcar-Bronic). olarites in East Adriatic, from Kamenar in Boka Kotorska to Bar, Lab. No. Uncal bp Cal BP (2s) Material Depth (cm) Reference spread along the slopes of Montenegrin mountains all the way to the sea (Gorican, 1994). Beaches with particularly large shares of Z-2403 13,160 ± 310 16,800e14,870 Animal 140e160 Miracle, 1995; bone Obelic radiolarite pebbles (in addition to layered and nodular chert) were et al., 1994 found at seashores of Budva and Sveti Stefan. Z-2404 11,980 ± 270 14,910e13,290 Animal 20e40 Miracle, 1995; bone Obelic et al., 1994 3. Archaeological background of Kopacina Cave Z-778 9160 ± 100 10,650e10,160 Land snail Unknown Cecuk, 1996; shell Miracle, 1995 3.1. Site description, excavation history, stratigraphy and Z-776 5340 ± 65 6280e5950 Travertine Unknown Miracle, 1995 chronology Dates calibrated using OxCal 4.2 (Bronk Ramsey, 2009) and IntCal 13 calibration curve (Reimer et al., 2013). Kopacina Cave has been well known in archaeological literature since the end of the 19th century when first test excavations were done (Bulic, 1891). There were also some test excavations during This paper discusses lithic assemblage from the front part of the 60's of the 20th century when the finds were placed in a general cave (excavated from 1982 do 1993) from bags that have the range framework, from Mesolithic till the end of third millennium BC of depth of 20 cm, while the other finds were excluded from (Vrsalovic, 1960). Systematic excavations in Kopacina lasted from analysis. Bags with following depth labels were analyzed: 0e20, 1978 till 1993 (Cecuk, 1996). Recently there have been some revi- 20e40, 40e60, 60e80, 80e100, 100e120, 120e140, 140e160, sion excavations in Kopacina (Kliskic, 2007, 2008, 2010), the results 160e180, 180e200, 200e220, 220e240, 240e260, 260e280, of which have not been published yet. 0 0 280e300 cm. Kopacina is located at the 280 masl (43 22 N and 16 32 E). It is Entire stratigraphic sequence was split in several phases oriented towards west. Cave consists of the front part, well-lit (Kopacina I e IV) by using available radiocarbon dates and vertical throughout the day, and the back part which was dark and closed distribution of artifacts (for details see Vukosavljevic, 2012). The off until sediments were taken out from the front. Front area of the smallest number of lithic artifacts appear at depth of 300 to cave is oval, covering the area of 55 m2, while the cave ceiling today 220 cm bellow surface (BS), so that was the main criterion for covers approximately 40 m2. Entrance to the cave is approximately singling out the phase marked as Kopacina I, given the fact that in 10 m wide and 3.5 m high. Approximately 6 m from the entrance, the upper layers of stratigraphic sequence there is a greater fre- the cave narrows down to 5 m, and this is where the back part of quency of artifacts. Small number of artifacts at greater depths the cave starts, 7 m in width and 6 m in depth. Internal part was could also be interpreted as a consequence of a smaller excavated almost entirely filled with sediments (Miracle, 1995, p. 68). surface, due to the configuration of cave bottom, but unfortunately According to Cecuk (1996), cultural stratigraphy of Kopacina there is no field data that would support this assumption. Kopa- can be divided in three large horizons: , Mesolithic and cina II represents the phase encompassing depths from 220 to Late Upper Paleolithic. This kind of stratigraphic sequence has 160 cm BS for which we can say that is older than approximately been recorded only on the inside part of the cave, while in the 13,100 bp. Kopacina III has been deposited between approximately front part of the cave there are no Bronze Age remains (Cecuk, 13,100 and 11,900 bp and encompasses depths of 160 to 40 cm BS, 1996). Because of inability and difficulties to track and differen- while Kopacina IV encompasses depths from 40 to 0 cm and is tiate layers belonging to Late Upper Paleolithic from those 11,900 bp old, or a bit younger. This kind of classification is arbi- belonging to Mesolithic (Cecuk, 1981, 1989, 1996), layers were trary and does not avoid potential mixing of layers, but allows to excavated arbitrarily from 15 to 20 cm in depth, and the depths present long-term trends in lithic raw material use. Total number were measured in comparison to the existing walking surface in and weight of lithic artifacts according to each phase are shown in the cave. When taking into account the slope of the cave floor Table 2. (Cecuk, 1981), and therefore probably deposited layers and exca- vation methods there had to be certain mixing of different geological and/or archaeological layers during arbitrary excava- tion of layers, as was pointed out by P. Miracle (1995,p.71). Table 2 Excavated sediment was not sieved. Frequency (by number and weight) of knapped stone artifacts for each phase. On the basis of radiocarbon dating (Table 1) cultural remains Phase N % Weight (g) % from Kopacina were attributed to Late Glacial and Early Holocene Kopacina IV 1543 19.1 8861.1 22.3 (Cecuk, 1996). Vukosavljevic et al. (2011) have proposed Late Glacial Kopacina III 3693 45.6 19,165.3 48.2 age for the most part of stratigraphic sequence on the basis of ab- Kopacina II 2497 30.9 10,408.9 26.2 solute dates and depth from which the samples were taken for Kopacina I 359 4.4 1310.8 3.3 Total 8092 100.0 39,746.1 100.0 dating, with the exception of the one in which Bronze Age material N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185 169

3.2. Techno-typological characteristics of the lithic industry represented (criterion for differentiating blades from bladelets is width, blades 12 mm). Ratios of blades and bladelets show very 3.2.1. Debitage and cores little differences throughout the phases. Although blades and bla- Knapped stone industry is primarily oriented towards flake delets are much less represented in debitage, the percentage of production, which accounts for over 80% of debitage in all phases. their use in tool production is always higher than in the case of Second biggest group are blades, while the bladelets are least flakes. The only exception is Kopacina IV where the percentage of

Fig. 3. Selected Epigravettian cores from Kopacina Cave (phase Kopacina III). 1e3, 10: single platform flake cores; 4, 6e9: single platform bladelet cores; 5: single platform mixed core; 11e15: bipolar cores. 170 N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185 bladelets' use is lower than in the case of flakes (Vukosavljevic, to collect samples at a certain outcrop to cover all the characteris- 2012). tics of the rocks which characterize the lithic material type of that All phases are characterized by a very high frequency of cores in outcrop. Therefore, the geological samples are as a group repre- lithic assemblages. This can be a result of better visibility of bigger sentative of one lithic type according to the totum pro parte prin- artifacts during excavations (as sediment was not sieved), such as ciple. This is proved to be justifiable in classification of very cores, which are then more often collected than the smaller arti- different lithic finds and their correlation with geological samples, facts. Flake cores are predominant among the cores of all four not only in the case of Kopacina Cave. All varieties of the researched phases. This prevalence of flake cores is in accordance with the high rock on autochthonous outcrop were sampled, as well as in the incidence of flakes present in debitage. Single platform cores are parautochthonous area while taking into account patinated and most frequent in all phases, with great portion of bipolar cores weathered forms. Varieties of traces of resedimentation and patina (Fig. 3). on clasts were sampled on allochthonous outcrops, mainly allu- viums. Given the relatively small frequency and surface, and often 3.2.2. Tools large distances between the individual outcrops within one strat- Tool assemblage in all four phases is predominantly done on igraphic unit, the sampling was done on all known outcrops, flakes, however the frequency of tools on flakes in phase I is lower without any exception. than the frequency in later phases. Therefore tools on blades and bladelets are more frequent in phase I than in the later phases (Fig. 4). 4.2. Materials and methods Endscrapers are the most numerous group of tools present in all fi phases showing a clear temporal trend of increase in frequency In the preparatory stage of classi cation we have selected the from older to younger phases. Among them, thumbnail endscrapers artifacts from Kopacina lithic assemblage which according to their are the most numerous type in all phases and show the same primary and secondary characteristics represent the petrographic fi temporal trend of increase from older to younger phases. After type or variety. Lithic type was de ned through microscopic ex- endscrapers, retouched pieces and denticulates are the most amination of these samples on polished section and microfacies frequent tools in all four phases. analysis on thin section, as a sum of all characteristics pointing to a fi Geometric microliths in Kopacina are very rare, probably as a type of used raw material. Lithic assemblage raw material classi - result of not sieving the sediment, and only one segment has been cation was based on macroscopic analysis of all artifacts from recorded, in phase II. Backed bladelets and arched backed points are Kopacina Cave according to representative samples of lithic types. also not very frequent (Figs. 5 and 6). There are certain differences Type of lithic raw material was determined for all artifacts larger in frequency of tools in Kopacina, but when looking at the entire than 15 mm. Geological samples of rocks were analyzed in the same lithic industry from Kopacina it can be observed as a part of one way. Collected data on geological and archaeological samples were unique techno-complex which shows very little variations mutually correlated (Table 3). According to correlation results we throughout time (Vukosavljevic, 2012). determined the possible origin of lithic raw material of Kopacina Transformation tools are predominant in all phases, suggesting assemblage. different activities in the cave and probable use of the cave as a residential base, at least in phases IIeIV. This assumption based on lithic assemblage, is also supported by the results of zooarchaeo- Table 3 logical analysis. Data on seasonality were obtained exclusively from List of analyzed archaeological and geological samples. the deer remains, suggesting hunting from spring till fall, and Figure Sample code Site Sample, sample probably very rarely in winter time (Miracle, 1995, p. 433). Fre- preparation quency of skeletal elements suggests relatively complete carcass and outcrop types transport of medium ungulates to Kopacina Cave, where they were 7ab KOP19 Kopacina Cave A; TS processed and consumed (Miracle, 1995, p. 427). When combining 7cd N21 Neretva River, Capljina, G; TS; alluvial deposit zooarchaeological and lithic analyses we can conclude that Kopa- cina could have been a long-term residential base of hunter- 8ab KOP34 Kopacina Cave A; PS 8cd CI5 Saldun, hillslope on the island G; PS; bedrock gatherers. Ornaments and bone tools found in Kopacina also sup- of Ciovo, Dalmatia, Croatia port this assumption, although they were found out of the strati- 9ab KOP39 Kopacina Cave A; TS graphic context. 9cd KO1 Starosevski gaj, hillslope of G; TS; bedrock Mt. Kozjak, Dalmatia, Croatia 4. Sampling strategy, materials and methods 10ab KOP6 Kopacina Cave A; TS 10cd DOL2 Dol, island of Brac, G; TS; bedrock Dalmatia, Croatia 4.1. Sampling strategy 11ab KOP7 Kopacina Cave A; TS 11cd PRO8 Provalusa, Mt. Opor, G; TS; bedrock Dalmatia, Croatia Geological samples of lithic raw material used in correlation 12ab KOP42 Kopacina Cave A; TS with lithic artifacts from Kopacina Cave and other prehistoric 18ab KOP81 Kopacina Cave G; TS archaeological sites from Dalmatia and neighbouring regions, were 18cd IN1 Intreseglio, hillslope G; TS; bedrock collected through systematic field research (Perhoc, 2009a, 2009b; near Defensola, Geoarcheological Lithothec Perhoc). Outcrops on researched area Gargano peninsula, were heterogeneous in terms of type, accessibility, surface and 19ab KOP59 Kopacina Cave A; TS 19cd MCH1 Misa River, near Borgo Passera, G; TS; alluvial deposit frequency within one geological unit, therefore the sampling Province Ancona, Italy strategy was not uniform as well. The method of collecting Sample type: G e geological, A e archaeological; sample preparation type: TS e thin geological samples of rocks from outcrops was adapted to the section; PS e polished section. characteristics of individual outcrops. Basic sampling principle was N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185 171

Flakes Blades Bladelets

Kopačina IV

Kopačina III

Kopačina II

Kopačina I

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Fig. 4. Blank selection for tools by phases.

The following elements were taken in consideration during 134) cores are the best indicator of proportional lithic raw material macroscopic characterization of lithic types: chronostratigraphy procurement, and not the intensity of exploitation because (for geological samples determined through correlation of the po- different reduction does not have an impact on the number of cores sition of the outcrop and geological map), morphology (nodule, but does have on the number of debitage produced from cores. pebble, cobble, chunk), cortex (type: nodular, pebble or cobble- In order to consider whether raw materials from more distant rind; thickness; induration: hard, friable; surface: harsh, rough, areas were more intensively used, we took maximum linear smooth, impact marks), core (structure: homogeneous, spotted, dimension (measured in millimeters) (MLD) multiplied by the mottled, shaded, streaked, laminated, banded; inclusions; macro- weight (measured in grams) of the core (Andrefsky, 2005) and fossils; porosity; translucence: opaque, semitranslucent, trans- minimum number of tools (MNT):core ratio to measure the in- lucent, transparent; luster: matt, porcelain, waxy, glassy; fracture: tensity of reduction. MNT was calculated by adding the number of conchoidal, uneven). For researching samples we used a magnifier intact tools to the largest value among tool fragments (proximal, with built-in light with 10 and 20 magnification. In microscopic medial and distal) (Shott, 2005). MLD multiplied by core weight analysis we included the elements of texture: mudstone, wacke- was used here as numerous cores from Kopacina are amorphous stone, packstone, floatstone, rudstone and microfossils content. and application of other consistent criteria for measuring cores Chert texture was determined analogously to the texture of the host would be very difficult. rock in which they were developed according to the limestone classification of Dunham (1962) and Embry and Klovan (1972) (as cited in Tisljar, 2001). Rock color was determined according to the 5. Results Rock-Color Chart (1995). In microfacies analysis we relied on Flügel (1978) and on MacKenzie and Adams (2001, 2009). Microscoping of 5.1. Lithic raw material types polished sections and thin sections was performed on Carl Zeiss Polarization microscope, Axioskop 40 A Pol for ortho- and cono- Lithic assemblage from Kopacina, based on petrographic anal- scopy (transmitted and reflected light). In selection of particular ysis is classified in 5 raw material categories: radiolarites, cherts elements of methods we relied on the experiences of several au- from Lower Eocene limestone, cherts from Middle Eocene lime- thors (Affolter, 2002; Bressy and Floss, 2006; Tarantini et al., 2016), stone, cherts from Upper Cretaceous limestone and black cherts however adapting them to suit the specific circumstances of our (Table 4). Also, a group of thermally altered artifacts was estab- researched area and complementing them with elements tested lished, as well as a group of finds of different petrography, i.e. the through our own research. undetermined group. The following description of lithic raw ma- In spite of methodical limitations resulting from sedimentary terial is partially based on preliminary results published by character of researched siliceous rocks, the above described Vukosavljevic et al. (2011) and on new research results based on methods can be used to correlate lithic artifacts with potential raw new field surveys and petrographic analyses. Here-used classifica- material sources. The abovementioned methodical approach is tion of lithic raw material and terminology are a little bit different applied in the analysis of prehistoric lithic assemblages from from our preliminary determination as listed in Vukosavljevic et al. archaeological sites of the Croatian part of East Adriatic coast and (2011). Old terms, if different from those presented here will be hinterlands, while taking into account local and cultural special indicated in parenthesis. We consider the new terms for different features (Forenbaher and Perhoc, 2015). lithic raw material categories more appropriate because they better Each group of raw material is described in terms of weight and describe their geological and geographic origin. Furthermore, this frequency in different phases. Also, frequency of cores according to change in terminology is a result of larger number of analyzed thin each raw material type is given. According to Marks et al. (1991,p. sections and polished sections. Table 4 172 Macroscopic and microscopic description of analyzed archaeological and geological samples.

Figure Sample Petrographic Chrono-stratigraphy Macroscopic description Microscopic description code determination Morphology Cortex Core Texture Fossil content

Type Thickness Induration Surface Color Structure Translucence Luster Fracture (mm)

7ab KOP19 Reddish brown Cretaceous Chunk Absent / / / Dark reddish HO OP WX CF PS Numerous radiolaria; radiolarite e Lower brown 10R 3/4 rare spiculae of spongia Paleogene or M. Triassic 7cd N21 Reddish brown Cretaceous Pebble Pebble-rind <1 Hard Smooth, 10R 3/4 HO OP WX CF PS Numerous radiolaria; radiolarite e Lower impact rare spiculae of spongia Paleogene marks or M. Triassic 8ab KOP34 Cherts from Lower Eocene Nodule Nodular 1 Hard Harsh Pale yellowish MAF STL PL CF WS Numerous benthic foraminiferal brown 10YR 6/2 foraminifera; undefined Vukosavljevi N. limestone lithoclasts, bioclasts 8cd CI5 Cherts from Lower Eocene Nodule Nodular 2 Hard Rough Moderate yellowish MAF STL WX UF WS Numerous benthic foraminiferal brown 10YR 5/4 foraminifera; undefined limestone lithoclasts, bioclasts ,Z Perho Z. c, 9ab KOP39 Cherts from Middle Eocene Nodule Nodular 5 Hard Smooth Dark yellowish HO OP WX CF PS Numerous planctonic marly limestone brown 10YR 4/2 foraminifera; few radiolaria; undefined lithoclasts, bioclasts 164 (2017) 450 International Quaternary / c 9cd KO1 Cherts from Middle Eocene Nodule Nodular 5e10 Hard Harsh 10YR 4/2 HO OP WX CF PS Numerous planctonic marly foraminifera; few limestone radiolaria; undefined lithoclasts, bioclasts 10ab KOP6 Chert from Upper Cretaceous Nodule Nodular 4 Hard Harsh White e medium HO OP PL CF MS Rare calcisphera or/and biomicritic light gray N9-6 radiolaria; rare planctonic limestone foraminifera 10cd DOL2 Chert from Upper Cretaceous Nodule Nodular 4e12 Hard Harsh N9-6 HO OP PL CF MS Rare calcisphera or/and biomicritic radiolaria; rare planctonic limestone foraminifera 11ab KOP7 Black chert undefined Chunk Absent / / / Grayish black O2, HO OP GS CF MS Rare calcisphera or/and brownish radiolaria black 5YR 2/1

< e

11cd PRO8 Black chert from Upper Cretaceous Nodule Nodular 1 Hard Harsh O2, 5YR 2/1 HO STL GS CF MS Rare calcisphera or/and 185 12ab KOP42 Black radiolarite Cretaceous e unknown absent / / / Grayish black e LA STL WX UF PS Numerous radiolaria reef limestone radiolaria Lower black O1-2 Paleogene or M. Triassic 18ab KOP81 Chert from Middle Eocene Nodule Nodular 2 Hard Harsh Pale yellowish INC, MAF OP PL UF PS Numerous benthic nummulitic brown 10YR6/2 foraminifera, lithoclasts, limestone bioclasts a 18cd IN1 Chert from Middle Eocene Chunk Absent / / / Light gray N7 INC, MAF OP_STL PL CF PS Numerous benthic nummulitic foraminifera, lithoclasts, limestone bioclasts 19ab KOP59 Reddish cherts Lower Eocene Chunk Absent / / / Dusky red 5R 3/4, light MO OP WX CF WS Numerous planctonic from limestone olive brown 5Y5/6 foraminifera; few of the Scaglia spiculae of spongia; Rossa type undefined lithoclasts, bioclasts 19cd MCH1 Reddish cherts Lower Eocene Cobble Cobble-rind 1e2 Hard Harsh, Moderate reddish brown MO, INC OP WX CF WS Numerous planctonic from limestone impact 10R 4/6, moderate foraminifera; few spiculae of the Scaglia marks olive brown 5Y 4/4, black O1 of spongia; undefined Rossa type lithoclasts, bioclasts a fresh surface; CF conchoidal; GS glassy; HO homogeneous; INC inclusions; LA laminated; MAF macrofossil; MO mottled; MS mudstone; OP opaque; PL porcelain; PS packstone; STL semitranslucent; TL translucent; UF uneven; WS wackestone; WX waxy. N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185 173

Fig. 5. Selected Epigravettian artifacts from Kopacina Cave (phase Kopacina III). 1e8: thumbnail endscrapers; 9e10: circular endscrapers; 11: carinated endscraper; 12e15: end- scrapers on flake; 16e19: arched backed points; 20e24: backed bladelets; 25e26: truncations; 27e29: sidescrapers.

5.1.1. Radiolarites of average diameter of 0.1e0.2 mm built of microcrystal quartz, or This category includes varieties of reddishebrown (e.g., 10R 3/4, less often from spherolitic chalcedon. Radiolaria on thin section Fig. 7) and grayish-green colors (e.g., 10GY5/2) with the predomi- could not be more precisely determined (Spela Gorican, personal nant share in the group, and less numbered yellowish brown communication), therefore the geological age of radiolarites could specimens. They have homogeneous structure. not be determined. Microfacies analysis has established also a black They are opaque or very poorly translucent, have waxy gloss and variety of radiolarites, which could not be macroscopically distin- are non-transparent. Numerous fossils of radiolaria are visible in guished from the black diagenetic chert, hence was not statistically the microcrystal matrix with grain-support (packstone), which are included in this group. 174 N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185

Fig. 6. Selected Epigravettian artifacts from Kopacina Cave (phase Kopacina III). 1e2: sidescrapers; 3e6: denticulates; 7: notch; 8: burin-sidescraper; 9: endscraper-perforator; 10: marginally retouched piece; 11e12: retouched pieces; 13: dihedral burin; 14: transversal burin; 15e16: perforators; 17: burin spall; 18: core tablet.

5.1.2. Cherts from Lower Eocene limestone (nummulitic cherts and these cherts are of yellowishebrown color (e.g., 5YR 5/2, 10YR 6/2), micritic limestone cherts) of waxy gloss and poor translucence. These cherts are characterized These are cherts with nummulites and discocyclina, created in by large benthic foraminifera, nummulites and discocyclina which foraminiferal limestone from Lower Eocene. Artifacts made from dominate among the fossils, and which are very often visible to the N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185 175

Fig. 7. Photographs and photomicrographs of radiolarites. a) Artifact from Kopacina Cave made of reddish brown radiolarite, photograph; b) Same as a), photomicrograph of thin section in plain polarized light; c) Geological sample of brown reddish radiolarite from alluvial deposit, Late Cretaceous e Lower Paleogene or Middle Triassic. Gravel bar of Neretva River near Capljina, Bosnia and Herzegovina, photograph; d) Same as c), photomicrograph of thin section in plain polarized light. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) naked eye (Fig. 8). Besides nummulites and discocyclina, there are 5.1.3. Cherts from Middle Eocene limestone (bioclastic limestone also remains of alveolins, brachiopods, algae, echinoderms and cherts) planktonic foraminifera. In spite of numerous incompletely silici- These cherts were created in marly limestone and/or flysch from fied bioclasts and whole fossils, these cherts are of very good Middle Eocene. Thin section shows mainly limestone detritus, quality. numerous bioclasts and well preserved microforaminifera (Fig. 9).

Fig. 8. Photographs and photomicrographs of cherts from Lower Eocene limestone. a) Artifact from Kopacina Cave made of chert from foraminiferal limestone, photograph; b) Same as a), photomicrograph of polished section in reflected polarized light; c) Geological sample of chert from foraminiferal limestone, Saldun on the island of Ciovo, photograph; d) Same as c), photomicrograph of polished section in reflected polarized light. 176 N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185

Fig. 9. Photographs and photomicrographs of cherts from Middle Eocene limestone. a) Artifact from Kopacina Cave made of chert from marly limestone, photograph; b) Same as a), photomicrograph of thin section in plain polarized light; c) Geological sample of chert from marly limestone or flysch from Starosevski gaj, Kozjak Mountain, photograph; d) Same as c), photomicrograph of thin section in plain polarized light.

Cherts are of dark brown varieties (e.g.,10YR 4/2,10YR 5/4), of specific waxy gloss and more translucence compared to gray variety. Some fine-grained sandy surfaces, with waxy gloss and of poor trans- rare radiolaria (and/or calcisphera, cf. Gusuc and Jelaska, 1990) lucence, if any. They are characterized by very thick nodular cortex. fossils and planctonic foraminifera fossils (Fig.10) were found when microscoping thin sections of artifacts and of geological samples of 5.1.4. Cherts from Upper Cretaceous limestone (micritic limestone the assumed raw material source. cherts) This category includes two varieties, gray and pale yellow- 5.1.5. Black cherts ishebrown. Gray variety (N9eN4) has a very poor gloss or is mat This raw material category genetically belongs to the group of and opaque. Pale yellowishebrown variety (e.g., 10YR 5/4) has metasomatic nodular cherts together with Lower and Middle

Fig. 10. Photographs and photomicrographs of cherts from Upper Cretaceous limestone. a) Artifact from Kopacina Cave made of gray chert from biomicritic limestone, photograph; b) Same as a), photomicrograph of thin section in plain polarized light; c) Geological sample of chert from gray biomicritic limestone, Dol Formation, Upper Cretaceous. Dol, island of Brac, photograph; d) Same as c), photomicrograph of thin section in plain polarized light. N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185 177

Fig. 11. Photographs and photomicrographs of black cherts. a) Artifact from Kopacina Cave, photograph; b) Same as a), photomicrograph of thin section in plain polarized light; c) Geological sample of black chert from reef limestone, Upper Cretaceous, Provalusa on the Opor Mountain, photograph; d) Same as c), photomicrograph of thin section in plain polarized light. Poorly preserved fossils of radiolaria (and/or calcisphera) are shown in white circles.

Eocene and Upper Cretaceous cherts. Black cherts (N1eN2) have 5.2. Lithic raw material in diachronic perspective waxy glassy gloss and different degrees of translucence. Rare traces of radiolaria (and/or calcisfera) (Fig. 11) were observed in If we look at the frequencyof individualpetrographic categories we microcrystal matrix (mud-support) of black diagenetic cherts, can conclude there is almost unique system of raw material use most probably from Upper Cretaceous, while in radiolarites there throughout the entire stratigraphic sequence. Upper Cretaceous are usual tightly packed radiolaria fossils with grain support cherts dominate in all phases, with minimal share of 30%, followed by (Fig. 12). As was stated above, it was not possible to macroscopi- Lower Eocene cherts with a share ranging between 13% and 19% except cally distinguish black diagenetic cherts from black radiolarites for phase I in which Middle Eocene cherts are slightly more numerous because it is not possible to see radiolarian fossils with the than the Lower Eocene ones. In case of radiolarites and Lower Eocene magnifier (specific sub-milimeter black dots, or if re-crystallized, cherts it is possible to observe an opposite temporal trend, starting white ones). It is particularly the case for the artifacts lacking from the youngest to the oldest phase. Frequency of radiolarites is cortex which could help identify whether it is a metasomatic dropping, while frequency of Lower Eocene cherts is growing. Similar chert. trends can be observed in terms of weight frequency. Thermally altered artifacts are well-presented in all phases (Table 5).

Table 5 Relative frequency of raw material categories by number and weight for each phase (chips and shatter excluded).

Raw material N % Weight (g) % N % Weight (g) %

Kopacina I Kopacina II Radiolarites 20 5.7 87.2 6.7 134 5.6 459.5 4.4 Cherts from Lower Eocene limestone 46 13.2 178.9 13.7 437 18.4 2064.7 19.9 Cherts from Middle Eocene limestone 49 14.1 143.7 11.0 360 15.1 1699.4 16.4 Cherts from Upper Cretaceous limestone 118 33.9 430.0 32.8 813 34.2 3666.0 35.4 Black cherts (s.l.) 14 4.0 72.5 5.5 89 3.7 388.2 3.7 Undetermined 40 11.5 131.0 10.0 175 7.4 790.8 7.6 Thermally altered 61 17.5 266.2 20.3 371 15.6 1287.4 12.4 Total 348 100.0 1309.4 100.0 2379 100.0 10,356.0 100.0 Kopacina III Kopacina IV Radiolarites 164 4.5 516.6 2.7 40 2.6 117.6 1.3 Cherts from Lower Eocene limestone 668 18.5 3856.4 20.2 283 18.7 1948.5 22.0 Cherts from Middle Eocene limestone 610 16.9 3453.5 18.1 209 13.8 1341.6 15.2 Cherts from Upper Cretaceous limestone 1094 30.2 6466.9 33.8 463 30.6 2881.6 32.6 Black cherts (s.l.) 79 2.2 423.7 2.2 63 4.2 387.2 4.4 Undetermined 254 7.0 1096.0 5.7 120 7.9 670.7 7.6 Thermally altered 748 20.7 3311.9 17.3 337 22.2 1501.7 17.0 Total 3617 100.0 19125.0 100.0 1515 100.0 8848.9 100.0 178 N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185

Fig. 12. Photograph (a) and photomicrograph of thin section in plain polarized light (b) of artifact from Kopacina Cave made of black radiolarite.

If we look at the frequency of cores per each category of raw quality than the other outcrop (Perhoc, 2009a). Given quite limited material, we will observe that cores made of cherts from Upper quantities of these chert outcrops on the island, it is also possible Cretaceous limestone dominate in all four phases. They are fol- that the residents of Kopacina Cave were obtaining the Upper lowed by the cores of chert from Lower Eocene or Middle Eocene Cretaceous cherts from today's coastal and hinterland areas. The limestone, depending on the phase. Radiolarite cores were not highest quality and most abundant outcrops are recorded on Vilaja found in the first phase. In the second phase radiolarite cores are Mountain and on the island of Korcula. Brown cherts from Middle more frequent when compared to the later phases. Black chert Eocene limestone are of Dalmatian origin and microscopically cores have a very low frequency (Fig. 13). Relative frequencies of correspond to researched outcrops on the southern slopes of Opor cores per each phase according to the listed raw material categories Mountain and Kozjak Mountain (on the location Starosevski gaj) show very similar trends of relative frequency per each raw ma- and on Marjan peninsula in Split, as well as some outcrops which terial type as is found in the entire lithic assemblage. are geographically closer to the island of Brac (on Mosor and Bio- kovo hillslopes) (Perhoc, 2009a; Vukosavljevic et al., 2011). Cherts 6. Discussion and conclusion from Lower Eocene limestone were also recorded, among other places, in the Middle Dalmatian Eocene belt of Split e Kastela re- 6.1. Lithic outcrops gion on several locations (Saldun and Cape of Ciovo on the island of Ciovo, Kastelica on Opor Mountain, Seget Donji near Trogir (Perhoc, Thanks to intensive field research and petrographic analyses of 2009a, 2009b)(Fig. 14). Majority of these outcrops are of very high archaeological and geological samples, it is possible to correlate a level of usability and of good to very good chert quality. Eocene certain type of artifacts' raw material with potential outcrops, and limestones on the island of Brac are insignificant and without on the basis of this it is possible to reach general conclusions on the cherts (Vukosavljevic et al., 2011). Group of black cherts that was hunter-gatherers’ movements across the Late Glacial landscape. documented in the lithic assemblage from Kopacina is similar to Cherts from Upper Cretaceous limestone, which are most dominant outcrops of black chert on location Stracincica near Vela Luka on the in Kopacina, represent a local raw material available on today's island of Korcula (Vukosavljevic et al., 2011) and on the hillslopes of island (Vukosavljevic et al., 2011). Autochthonous outcrops of Opor and Kozjak (Perhoc, unpublished research). According to our cherts from Upper Cretaceous limestone were recorded in Pucisca newest analysis, the black cherts from location of Stracincica from and Dol on the island of Brac, and the outcrop in Dol is archaeo- Upper Cretaceous limestone of the Island of Korcula, near Vela logically most relevant because of the size of nodules and better Luka, microfacially do not correspond to similar cherts used for

radiolarites cherts from Lower Eocene limestone cherts from Upper Cretaceous limestone cherts from Middle Eocene limestone black cherts (s.l.) %

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0 Kopačina I (30) Kopačina II (260) Kopačina III (415) Kopačina IV (199)

Fig. 13. Relative frequency (by number) of cores' raw material category by phase (excluding thermally altered and undetermined categories). N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185 179

Fig. 14. Lithic outcrops used in Kopacina Cave lithic production. a) Dol, island of Brac, Dol Formation, Upper Cretaceous; b) Sample from Dol outcrop; c) Starosevski gaj, Kozjak Mountain, marly limestone with nodules of chert, Middle Eocene; d) Samples from Starosevski gaj outcrop; e) Saldun, island of Ciovo, foraminiferal limestone with nodules of chert, Lower Eocene; f) Samples from Saldun outcrop. artifacts in Kopacina Cave. Reddishebrown radiolarites which are category of raw material coming from the range of 20e50 km present in the lithic assemblage of Kopacina could have been distance, but we have to emphasize that some of them could have collected in the gravel of the Neretva River (Vukosavljevic et al., been procured from smaller distances. We cannot exclude a pos- 2011) or in the more distant Montenegrin coast (Fig. 15). For arti- sibility that the radiolarites were procured within the 50 km radius, facts made of radiolarites of all mentioned color varieties, raw if there was a possibility to collect the raw material in the gravel of material could have been collected in the central ophiolitic zone of Paleoneretva River in the area between islands of Hvar and Korcula inner Dinarides, in Banovina in Croatia and all over Bosnia and (Sikora et al., 2014; Vukosavljevic and Perhoc, in preparation). Herzegovina (Perhoc and Altherr, 2011). Cherts from Middle Eocene limestone were categorized in the We will try to give a sketch of lithic raw material procurement group of raw material procured from the distances ranging be- by taking into account outcrop distance from Kopacina Cave. Dis- tween 20 and 50 km because no outcrops of this raw material were tances from the potential raw material outcrops, that are recorded on the island of Brac. mentioned above, to Kopacina Cave were measured as the crow Use of raw material that could have been brought from up to flies with the help of Google Earth. Lithic raw materials are divided 20 km distance and from 20 to 50 km distance from Kopacina is very into three groups according to their distance from source to similar in all phases. Regarding the raw material that could have Kopacina Cave: 0e20 km (local), 20e50 km (regional) and >50 km been procured from distances ranging from 20 to 50 km, there is a (extra-regional). Cherts from Upper Cretaceous limestone could visible increase in frequency from the oldest to the youngest phase, have been procured in the radius of 20 km from the site, cherts from while for raw material brought from distance greater than 50 km, Lower Eocene and Middle Eocene limestone and black cherts in the there is a significant decrease in frequency from the oldest to the radius of 20e50 km, while radiolarites could have been procured in youngest phase (Fig. 16). If we take the continuous decrease in fre- the radius greater than 50 km. Great number of chert outcrops from quency of radiolarites as a possible indicator of reduction of Kopa- Lower Eocene and Middle Eocene limestone are more than 20 km cina's hunter-gatherers’ exploitation and movement area, then we away from Kopacina, that is why we have included them in the have a similar situation that was pointed out for the Balkans by D. 180 N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185

Fig. 15. Lithic outcrops used in Kopacina Cave lithic production. a) Provalusa, Opor Mountain, reef limestone with nodules of chert, Upper Cretaceous; b) Samples from Provalusa outcrop; c) Gravel bar of Neretva River with reddish brown radiolarite; d) Sample of reddish brown radiolarite from Neretva River. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

% 0-20km 20-50km >50km 60.0

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0 Kopačina I (247) Kopačina II (1833) Kopačina III (2615) Kopačina IV (1058)

Fig. 16. Relative frequency (by number) of raw materials by distances from source to Kopacina Cave for each phase (thermally altered and undetermined groups excluded).

Mihailovic, where the lack of non-local raw material on sites from slightly modified, to try to reconstruct raw material procurement the end of Late Glacial could suggest the reduction of movement strategies. We could say that almost uniformed raw material pro- area (Mihailovic, 2007). Drop in radiolarite frequency cannot be curement strategies were employed during complete Late Epi- correlated with the Late Glacial sea level rise and forming of island gravettian sequence in Kopacina Cave (Table 6). Since no environment because Brac for the entire stay of hunter-gatherers in unmodified nodules or pebbles are present at the site we can Kopacina was part of continent (cf. Forenbaher, 2002, Fig. 2). conclude that all categories of raw material were probably trans- ported to the site as preformed cores or modified blocks. With the 6.2. Lithic raw material transport and use exception of radiolarites in the phase Kopacina I, which could have been brought to the site as blanks and complete tools, we can say How was the lithic raw material transported to the site? To that long operational sequence including onsite lithic production answer this question we will use various technical stages in the was performed throughout the whole Epigravettian of Kopacina operational sequence as suggested by Inizan et al. (1999), and here Cave. Raw material procurement strategies show that despite of the N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185 181 distance of source to the site, the hunter-gatherers from Kopacina smallest supposed lengths of raw material in case of cherts from Cave employed same transport choices. Lower Eocene limestone, Middle Eocene limestone and Upper

Table 6 Raw material procurement strategies defined by presence/absence of various technical changes of operational sequence.

Phase Unmodified nodules Shaping flakes Cores Crests/core Flakes/blades/ Tools and pebbles (cortical pieces) renewal flakes bladelets

Cherts from Upper Cretaceous limestone I BCCCCC <20 km II BCCCCC III BCCCCC IV BCCCCC Cherts from Lower Eocene limestone I BCCCCC 20e50 km II BCCCCC III BCCCCC IV BCCCCC Cherts from Middle Eocene limestone I BCCBCC 20e50 km II BCCCCC III BCCCCC IV BCCCCC Black cherts (s.l.) I BCCCCC 20e50 km II BCCBCC III BCCCCC IV BCCCCC Radiolarites I BCBBCC >50 km II BCCCCC III BCCCCC IV BCCCCC

C e present; B e absent.

Since we do not have data on the original size of raw material Cretaceous limestone could have been sufficient for successful and packages we can only indirectly assume their size on the basis of efficient lithic production, maybe even for assumed sizes of pack- the greatest lengths of artifacts in each raw material category. The ages of radiolarites and black cherts. smallest packages of radiolarites could have been approximately Core size distribution as shown in Fig. 17 shows clear differences 5 cm, of cherts from Lower Eocene limestone, Middle Eocene between local and regional on one side, and extra-regional lithic limestone and Upper Cretaceous limestone approximately 8 cm, raw material on the other side. Cores made on extra-regional raw and black cherts approximately 6 cm (Vukosavljevic, 2012). On the material are always more reduced than those made on local and example of Klithi rockshelter in whose lithic assemble dominate regional raw material. Cores made of local and regional raw ma- local cherts from the gravel of Voïdomatis River, very often of poor terial show very similar intensity of reduction. It cannot be quality, whose greatest lengths rarely exceed 7e8 cm, and were completely excluded that the smaller sizes of cores made of extra- successfully used for production of entire tool assemblage (Adam, regional raw material are the result of smaller initial size of raw 1989; Bailey, 1999; Roubet, 1999), we can suppose that our material packages; but it has to be taken into account that extra- regional raw material could be reduced more intensively because of its better knapping quality in comparison to local and regional raw materials and because of higher transport costs. Ratios of MNT to cores show that more tools per core were produced on blanks from extra-regional raw material than from local and regional suggesting again more intensive use of raw material from more distant sources (Table 7).

Table 7 MNT (minimum number of tools) to core ratios for each phase.

MNT:core ratio

<20 km 20e50 km >50 km

Kopacina I 1.0 1.2 8:0 Kopacina II 0.9 0.7 2.0 Kopacina III 0.8 0.7 3.7 Kopacina IV 0.5 0.5 2.2

MNT ¼ minimum number of tools.

6.3. Lithic raw material procurement in Dalmatian and Adriatic context

If we compare raw material procurement in Kopacina with Late Fig. 17. Boxplots for complete core sizes grouped according to source to site distance. Upper Paleolithic layers of Vela Spila Cave on the island of Korcula 182 N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185

(horizons LUP-E to LUP-I) (Farbstein et al., 2012) and Vlakno cave on limestone of the Scaglia Rossa type (Fig. 19) that can be found the island of Dugi otok (Brusic, 2005; Vujevic and Parica, 2011)we among other places, in many autochthonous and allochthonous can observe certain similarities, but also some differences. There outcrops in the Ancona province in Italy (Cancellieri, 2010; was a very intense use of local raw material (within the 20 km Guerrera and Tramontana, n.d.). There are only a few artifacts radius) at all three sites, particularly in Vlakno. Use of regional raw made of above mentioned raw materials and they were found out material in Kopacina is much more intensive in comparison to the of the stratigraphic context, so they can serve us only for the other two sites, however, it should be emphasized that part of raw assumption of contacts with the west Adriatic coast during Late material from Kopacina that was allocated to the 20e50 km dis- Upper Paleolithic, but not as a reliable indicator thereof. Since they tance category, could have originated from the less distant out- were found out of any stratigraphic context, we cannot even crops. In that case the share of local raw material would be greater, exclude a possibility that they belonged to Bronze Age layers and share of regional raw material would be smaller. Unlike Vlakno discovered in Kopacina. On the other hand, lithic raw material from and Kopacina, in Vela spila there is a significantly larger share of very well dated Late Upper Paleolithic layers from Vela spila Cave raw material coming from over 50 km from the site, which is (island of Korcula) (for dates see Farbstein et al., 2012) documents probably suggesting higher mobility of Vela Spila Cave hunter- connections between eastern and western edges of Great Adriatic gatherers (Vukosavljevic, 2012). Presence of raw material coming Plain during Late Glacial (Vukosavljevic and Perhoc, in preparation) from greater distances in Late Upper Paleolithic layers of Kopacina, and similar could be proposed based on lithic raw material used as well as their potential outcrops, could suggest that hunter- during Late Upper Paleolithic in Vlakno Cave on the island of Dugi gatherers were going deeper into the east Adriatic continental otok (Vukosavljevic et al., 2014). hinterlands, where for now we have only a few traces of human settlement from Late Glacial; e.g. in Badanj rockshelter (Whallon, 6.4. Concluding remarks 1999) and Zala Cave (Komso and Vukosavljevic, 2011; Sosic Klindzic et al., 2015). Dalmatian hunter-gatherers from former When talking about continuity and/or change in raw material edges of the Great Adriatic Plain could have used the open biotope acquisition during Late Epigravettian in Kopacina Cave we could say of the Plain on one side (Miracle, 2007), but also today's continental that continuity best expresses the nature of procurement, but on hinterlands on the other side, as is confirmed by the raw material in the other hand some temporal trends suggest some changes. analyzed lithic assemblages (Vukosavljevic et al., 2014, 2015). Be- Continuity is clearly visible in acquisition of same raw material sides the contacts with the east Adriatic continental hinterlands, types throughout the whole Epigravettian sequence and transport there are also several artifacts which were found in revision exca- patterns. Change is marked by temporal trend in raw material vation of Kopacina that suggest possible contacts with the west acquisition that points to larger exploitation areas or long-distance Adriatic coast. These are artifacts produced from light-grayish contacts in earlier stages of Epigravettian hunter-gatherers’ resi- cherts with benthic and planktonic foraminifera from Eocene dence in Kopacina than in the later stages, and also maybe to higher detritic limestone, such that exists on the Gargano peninsula degree of mobility. According to Floss (2002), changes in lithic raw (Fig. 18) at the locations Defensola and Archiprete (Martinis, 1965; material acquisition reflect changes in mobility strategies that are Martinis and Pavan, 1967; Di Lernia et al., 1990e91) and another connected with environmental changes. We could agree with Floss' group made of reddish cherts with microforaminifera from Eocene explanation as probably one of the main reasons for changes in

Fig. 18. Photographs and photomicrographs of cherts from Eocene nummulitic limestone. a) Artifact from Kopacina Cave, photograph; b) Same as a), photomicrograph of thin section in plain polarized light; c) Geological sample, Formation Calcare di Peshici, Middle Eocene, Hill Intreseglio by Defensola, Gargano peninsula, Province of Foggia, Italy, photograph; d) Same as c), photomicrograph of thin section in plain polarized light. N. Vukosavljevic, Z. Perhoc / Quaternary International 450 (2017) 164e185 183

Fig. 19. Photographs and photomicrographs of reddish cherts from Eocene limestone of the Scaglia Rossa type. a) Artifact from Kopacina Cave, photograph; b) Same as a), photomicrograph of thin section in plain polarized light; c) Geological sample of chert from limestone of the Scaglia Rossa type, Lower Eocene, gravel bar of Misa River by Borgo Passera, Province of Ancona, Italy, photograph; d) Same as c), photomicrograph of thin sections in plain polarized light. lithic raw material procurement in the Adriatic area could be Acknowledgments paleogeographic changes across the PleistoceneeHolocene transi- tion that dramatically changed Great Adriatic Plain and the way Microscopic analyses were made in the laboratory of Curt- hunter-gatherers used their landscape. Such changes could be Engelhorn-Zentrum Archaometrie€ Mannheim and for this we visible very well in early Holocene lithic raw material economy of would like to thank Prof. Dr. Ernst Pernicka and PD Dr. rer. nat. sites which are getting closer to the Adriatic Sea with Pleistoce- Roland Schwab. We would also like to thank Martina Roncevic for neeHolocene sea transgression when procurement was based artifact drawings and Staso Forenbaher and Tomislav Kaniski for almost completely on local raw materials (Vukosavljevic, 2012; base maps (Figs. 1 and 2). We are also thankful to late Bozidar Vukosavljevic et al., 2014; Vukosavljevic and Perhoc, in prepara- Cecuk, who excavated assemblages presented here, for giving us tion). Environmental change could also be responsible for the in- the opportunity to analyze them. Lastly, we would like to thank two crease in the number of sites in the East Adriatic and its hinterlands anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions after 13 000 uncal BP (Vukosavljevic, 2012), and it can be, at least on the first draft of the paper. partially, related to the Late Glacial Interstadial Bølling/Allerød during which there was a significant flooding of the Great Adriatic References Plain (Miracle, 1995). Such increase could be taken with caution as fi potential indicator of population rise that could de nitely affect Adam, E., 1989. A Technological and Typological Analysis of Upper Palaeolithic Stone mobility strategies of Adriatic hunter-gatherers. Industries of Epirus, Northwestern . BAR, Oxford. British Archaeological Used raw materials document hunter-gatherers’ use of Late Reports International Series 512. Adams, A.E., MacKenzie, W.S., 2001. 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