1 Cartography Spectrum, and Maps Have the Function to Present These 1.2.1 Thematic Maps Fact in a Feasible Manner

1 Cartography spectrum, and maps have the function to present these 1.2.1 Thematic Maps fact in a feasible manner. Maps have different scales, The weather map is the most common thematic map. Bengt Rystedt, Sweden functions and contents and can be grouped as follows: Weather maps are presented every day on the TV for showing the present weather and for prediction of the 1.1 Introduction 1. Topographic maps showing spatial relations weather. Weather maps can also be used for showing Cartography is the science, technique and art of making between different geographical phenomena the movement of hurricanes and snowstorms, and in risk and using maps. A good cartographer can not only have such as buildings, roads, boundaries and management for showing risks in flooding, draught and a good knowledge in science and technique but must waters. Official topographic maps are landslides. Weather maps are becoming more and more also develop the skill in art when choosing types of lines, produced by the National Mapping useful in showing the effects of the Climate Change, e.g. colour and text. Organization (NMO). Most cities are also the melting of the polar ice. A lot more information can producing city plans. Topographic maps are be found on the Internet. All maps are intended to be used for either navigation by also produced for special use in biking and foot, vehicles, or for describing spatial planning or for canoeing. Many car navigation systems and Geological maps are thematic maps and very valid for finding information in an atlas. Maps are very useful and services on Internet also provide topographic finding minerals and oil, and the conditions of soil. They never before have so many maps been distributed in maps. Topographic maps are also used as include rather complicated information and several many different information systems. The map is an background maps in property mapping and in geological map sheets are included in the result of efficient interface between a producer and a user, and maps for presenting the geographical aspects doctoral studies in geology. by using GPS many things can be located on a map. in spatial planning. 2. Special maps e.g. Sea Charts and maps for Atlases, however, have many types of thematic maps. For a long time paper has been the most common flying. These maps are for professional use and The most common one is the choropleth map (choro for material for maps. Nowadays, most maps are produced standardized by the UN. There are also specific place and pleth for value) for showing the geographical by using cartographic software and are distributed via sea charts for private use and special maps for distribution of a statistical variable in a given set of Internet, but the cartographic rules are the same for all orienteering, standardized by the International areas. As an example the population density per types of distribution. In this book we will describe how Orienteering Association (See Chapter 12). The municipality can be shown in a choropleth map (See maps are produced and used, and how they are Metro Map of London is also a special map. Chapter 7, Figures 7.11 -12). Start with making a table distributed, and how to get the needed data. 3. Thematic maps contain descriptions of the with the columns: municipality area identifier, the area, geographical phenomena such as in geology the size of the population, and perhaps also columns for 1.2 Different Types of Maps (esp. soil and bedrock), and in land use and in the population divided in different sex and age groups. The map deals with two fundamental elements: position vegetation. Statistical maps are also thematic Open then a mapping or a geographic information and its attributes. Attributes may be occurrence, activity, maps. They show the geographical distribution system (GIS) software, where the boundaries for the incident, amount and changes over time. From the of a statistical variable. See Chapter 7 Atlases municipalities should be given. The population density position and its attribute many relations may be for more information on statistical maps. must also be given in different classes. It is important to described such as distance, dissemination, direction and have almost the same amount of objects in each class. variation, and combinations of different qualities such as Colour should be chosen to get a low intensity for low income per person and level of education in different population density and darker intensity for a higher places. Different types of maps gives parts of this density. For a detailed information on colour choice see

Brewer (2005). It is also possible to use Google Earth for represents their reality objects by showing their the construction of choropleth maps. The divisions into geometric and geographic attributes; a road is shown by age groups can be used for construction of diagram lines and a lake by a polygon and so on. It is also possible maps and maps with pie charts (See Figure 1.1). to give more information. By giving the symbols different colours and different patterns it is possible to let area symbols represent different types of forest and let line symbols represent roads of different class (See Figure 13.1). Also more abstract symbols, e.g. figurative symbols or icons, may be used as point symbols. These symbols are very useful in city plans and tourist maps (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.1 shows a thematic map with diagram and pie Figure 1.2. The design process starts with Map order. charts. © Diercke International Atlas (p. 48). When the manuscript satisfies the demands it is time to go to production. 1.3 Cartographic Principles 1.3.2 Symbolization 1.3.1 Map Design Symbolising means to use correct symbols in form and Maps like all other products must be designed before colour for the objects that will be represented. A map production. The design process is an iterative process has different symbols and text. The symbols are used for and starts with a demand process telling the theme of describing some part of the reality, while the text is used the map and how it shall be used. The cartographer for a more detailed description of the object that are takes over and make a proposal that is tested on the depicted in the map. criteria that have been given. When the demands are satisfied the map can be produced. The map design Figure 1.3 shows different icons for drug store, bathing Seen in a geometrical concept there are three types of process is described in Figure 1.2. See also Chapter 4 and place, camping site, road for biking, golf course, track for symbols: point symbols, line symbols and area symbols Anson and Ormeling (2002). jogging with light, remarkable site, historical site and a (Examples of point, line and area symbols are given in geological site. the legends of e.g. topographic maps. In Figure 13.1, © Lantmäteriet Dnr R50160927_130001. houses are shown as points, road as lines and land use as areas). The symbols may also vary in abstraction. The For more information on graphics and symbolization, it is simplest symbols are the pure geometric ones. They possible to have a detailed study of Bertin´s Semiology of

Graphics (Bertin, 2011). The book is rather complex, but theme of the map is in the foreground and the it is provides a good opportunity for someone who topography is in the background mostly for orientation. wants a full description of the graphic issues that cartography deals with. The best way to handle visual hierarchy is to use colour. More intense colours are used for the foreground that is 1.3.3 Text the theme of the map, and less intense colours for the The text is an important part of the map and makes it background. In a map for car navigation the roads would easier for the user to understand the map. Typographical be depicted with stronger colour. Also icons may be used guidelines must be followed in order to achieve an to strengthen the foreground. City plans for visitors have understandable map. The typography includes dealing icons to make things such as hotels and restaurants with fonts, size, colour and placement. more obvious.

There are many fonts that can be used, but on the map 1.4.2 Communication Figure 1.4 shows a model of the communication process their number should be limited to a few. The size should and that there are a different view of the reality between never be less than six points in order to be legible. In many communication processes maps as well as text, the user and the cartographer. Colour may be used to distinguish between different diagrams and images are important tools for giving a types of object, e.g. black for place names, blue for user important information about geographical aspects 1.5 Scale and Projection waters and green for nature objects. For a river the text of the realty. There are, however, many realities. A 1.5.1 Scale should follow the line of the river. The name of an ocean topographic map represents the physical landscape, a geological map represents the geological landscape, and may be curved to indicate that the area of the ocean is A map may be seen as a description of the real world a demographic map the demographic landscape. The big. The placement should also indicate where the object into a symbolical form but also in a geometrical form. map is a model of the reality as the cartographer is located. The name of a city should be placed upon The chosen scale of the map is a compromise between understand it. The cartographer uses a cartographic land and the name of a lake should be placed in the lake. the amount of object that will be given and the view that language to produce the map to be read by a map user. More information about typography is given in Chapter will be given in order to give an understandable Here we see a problem. The map user may not have the 13 Printing Maps. geographical context. Scale indicates the ratio between same view of the reality. In Figure 1.4 we see that the the length of a given distance in reality and the length of realities as seen by the cartographer and as seen by the 1.4 Visual Hierarchy and Communication that distance as represented on the map. If a distance of user of the map are different. 1.4.1 Visual Hierarchy 8 kilometres is rendered on the map by a length of a line of 4 cm, the scale of that map is 4cm/8km or When studying a map we found different information 4cm/800,000cm = 1:200,000 layers and that one layer is more visual forming the foreground of the map. The background of the map On a map with a larger scale, such as 1:50,000, that line gives the location and orientation to other objects of the would be longer 16cm) and on a map with a smaller map. A topographic map for car driving has the roads in scale (such as 1:1,000,000), that length would be smaller the foreground. In atlases that is more obvious. The (0.8cm). It is also obvious that a small scale map (which has less space on the paper or screen for the same area)

3 is more generalised than a large scale map. A topographic maps. For large countries many such the use of modern technology such incorrect meandering river may not be shown in detail in a small projections must be used with different meridians measurements of latitudes are avoided. A GPS give both scale map. It is the same with shorelines. When chosen. There is now a standard, Universal Transverse location and a correct time. measuring the length of a shoreline in a map, the scale Mercator (UTM), with 60 zones around the Earth giving must be given. In the real world, the length of a each zone a band of 6 degrees in longitude. shoreline is unlimited. For any length given it is possible to get a longer length by being more detailed. A Mercator projection with the equator as reference results in exaggerated areas in the higher latitudes, and Automatic generalisation is difficult, but it is introduced the poles even become straight lines. Hence, that more and more. In some countries, e.g. United States of projection is not an equal area one. But, on the other America, large scale topographic maps are generalised hand, it is conformal: angles measured on the map are stepwise into smaller and smaller scales. the same as measured on the Earth. If a compass direction is taken e.g. over the Atlantic from Norway to 1.5.2 Projection Rio de Janerio and the compass direction is always The Earth is almost a sphere and it is not possible to followed, the goal will be reached. However, that route represent the image of this spherical Earth on a flat is not the shortest one. The shortest line forms a bow as paper or screen without distorting it. The systematic way can be seen in Figure 15.13. of rendering it two-dimensionally is called a projection. Mercator projection (See Figure 1.5), with Europe and The original Mercator projection is not so usable in Africa in the middle distorts, as areas with longer practice. But if you are very British you may want to see distance from the equator are progressively an area-exaggerated image of the Commonwealth, as exaggerated. From a map in this projection, it is easy to Canada and Australia are partly located in higher understand why America is called the West and Japan latitudes. For Atlases an equal area projection is wanted the Far East. The concept of Western and Eastern such as the Mollweide´s projection (See Figure 1.5). Figure 1.5 shows the World in two different projections. countries cannot be understood in any other way. When mapping it is important to know the location in Above is Mercator´s conformal projection (angle correct) and below is Mollweide´s projection (equal area). Projections, fully described in Chapter 9, may be both latitude and longitude both on Land and Sea. The Source: classified into cylindrical, conic and azimuthal ones. Here latitude has for a long time been found by reference to Esri. only the cylindrical one will be described. In that the stars, the Polar star in the Northern hemisphere and The next phase in mapping is to determine a coordinate projection the Earth is put into a cylinder with the the Southern Cross in the Southern hemisphere. The system, where longitudes and latitudes measured on the equator brushing the cylinder. When we project each longitude is more difficult to find without a correct time. Earth can be transformed to planar coordinates for point on the Earth surface from the centre of the Earth In mapping, old maps frequently have the wrong drawing the Earth or part of it in two dimensions such as on the cylinder, this projection is called the Mercator distance in a West East direction as compared to the on a paper sheet. That is a rather complicated problem projection. If a meridian brushes the cylinder however, more correct distance in a North South direction. In and many decisions must be taken regarding the shape we get a transverse Mercator projection. The transverse sailing, many ships were wrecked because the navigator of the Earth in order to get a good mathematical Mercator projection is often chosen for national could not measure the longitude in a correct way. With solution. Nowadays, we have a solution called the World

Geodetic System, established in 1984 (WGS84). This 1.7 Historical Maps system is also used in Global Navigation Satellite Systems, of which GPS is the best known one. In order to 1.7.1 Antiquity use the map in navigation the reference frame must be The first known cartographer was Klaudios Ptolemaios, a noted on the map in the form of longitudes and latitudes Greek who lived in Alexandria, Egypt. He died about AD measured in accordance with WGS84. 165 and he knew that the Earth was round, a fact that later on was denied by the Church. He was a scientist in astronomy, geography, and mathematics. In geography, Land surveyors use the geodetic network to determine his most important work was the Geographia, a manual positions of points in their measurements. When a new that showed what the Romans knew about the world in land parcel is going to be created, accurate positions for his time, combined with a guide how to produce world all corners must be found and their location should be and regional maps (see figure 1.6), for which he given in the coordinate system. References must also be collected the coordinates of some 8000 towns and other given so the location of that point can be recalculated. geographical objects. Figure 1.7 shows an 11th century manuscript of his Geographia, in the original Greek, More information on projections and coordinate preserved in the Vatopedi monastery on Mount Athos in Greece. systems can be found in Chapter 9 Map Projections and

Reference Systems.

1.6 Different Map Media Figure 1.7 shows Ferjan Ormeling studying the Geographia at Mount Athos, Greece, in May 2006. The oldest maps were made on clay plates and found in Photo: Bengt Rystedt. Babylon. Maps have also been found graved in stones along the Silk Road to show where the camels of the Figure 1.8 shows a road map with the military roads used for transportation of soldiers and distribution of caravans could get water. In Jordan there are maps in messages in the Roman Empire. A series of forts and mosaic. Early maps have also been produced on papyrus stations were spread out along the major road systems and rice paper. In a museum in Olomouc, Check connecting the regions of the Roman world. The relay Republic, there is a map written on a Mammoth task points provided horses to dispatch riders for a post supposed to be a hunting map. If that is a map it is the service. The distances between the points are also oldest map found dated to 25,000 BC. indicated. The map is believed to have been created during the fifth century. The map was forgotten and

However, for a long time ordinary paper has been one of discovered in a library in Worms and then handed over to Konrad Peutinger in 1508, after whom the map is the most common map media. But now, the screens on Figure 1.6. Ptolemaios´s world map. In the centre, the now called. The map is now conserved at the National computers and mobiles are the most common ones and Arabian peninsula and the Nile are depicted. Library in Vienna, Austria. the web is the most popular platform for communicating Source: Wikipedia. information in map form. Note that the Mediterranean looks like a river, so the scale in the North–South is smaller than in West–East.

The whole map can be seen at 1.7.2 The Medieval Time http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50 Independent from these religious T - O maps, in the 13th /TabulaPeutingeriana.jpg. Arabian scholars followed the antique knowledge and century mariners from Italian ports developed highly took care of the work of Ptolemaios, but the theologians accurate charts of the Mediterranean, called portolan of the Christian church tried for incorporation of charts (see figure 1.10). At this moment it is not known cartography into a religious frame. During the period 300 from where they derived their knowledge and to 1100 AD, cartography declined in Western countries. techniques (Nicolai, 2014).

However, some maps have been produced and several maps are covering the known antique world. A diagram with the letter T in an O, equal to the surrounding ocean, was constructed (see Figure 1.9). If the island Delos earlier had been the centre of the world, it was now Jerusalem.

Figure 1.9 A diagram showing a medieval T-O-map Figure 1.8 shows a part of the Peutinger map. The height oriented towards the East. The horizontal line is the Don of the original map is 0.34 meters, the length is 6.75 and Nile rivers. The vertical line is the Mediterranean. O meters and it covers the area from Portugal to India. represents the surrounding ocean. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org Source: Ehrensvärd (2006, pp. 26). /wiki/Tabula_Peutingeriana.

In roughly the same period in China, under the Han Figure 1.10 The portolan chart by Diogo Homem (1561). dynasty, scientist Zheng Hang developed a grid system Source ICA, 1995, pp. 93. on which he mapped his country.

1.7.3 Renaissance and beyond City Plans can be found in City Archives; they show how References cities have been rebuilt at different times, giving a good th In the first half of the 16 century land surveying understanding of the development of the municipality. Anson, R. W. and Ormeling, F., J., 2002: Basic techniques were developed that enabled surveyors to Cartography for students and technicians (Volume 2). accurately survey towns, provinces and countries. During 1.7.4 Well-known Cartographers Butterworth & Heinemann, Oxford, England. ISBN 978- the Age of Discovery Europeans were able to establish 0750649964. direct contact with inhabitants of other continents and Zhang Heng (AD 78-139) was a Chinese cartographer, map their territories, with the help of celestial living during the Han dynasty, to whom the Bertin, J., 2011: Semiology of Graphics, Esri Press, navigation techniques.. Similtaneously, of an increasing establishment of the Chinese grid system in cartography Redlands, USA. ISBN 978-1-58948-261-6. number of towns outside Europe the coordinates were is attributed. See: measured enabling cartographers to produce more and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Heng Brewer, C. A., 2005: Designing Better Maps: A Guide for GIS Users. Esri Press, Redlands, USA. ISBN 978-1-58948- more detailed and accurate maps. In the beginning of Abraham Ortelius (1527 –1598) was a Flemish 089-6. the Age of Discovery it were the Portuguese, Spanish cartographer and geographer, generally recognized as and Italian cartographers that produced manuscript Diercke International Atlas 2010. Westermann, the creator of the first modern atlas, the Theatrum Orbis maps of the new doscoveries. From the second half of Brunswick, Germany. ISBN 978-3-14-100790-9. Terrarum (Theatre of the World). He is also believed to the 16th century cartographic publishing houses be the first person to imagine that the continents were developed in Flanders and Amsterdam, where Ortelius Ehrensvärd, Ulla (2006). Nordiska Kartans Historia (The joined together before drifting to their present positions. History of the Nordic Map and Blaeu published lavishly decorated European and ). Art-Print Oy, Helsingfors, See: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Ortelius. Finland. ISBN 951-50-1633-9. world atlases, consisting of small-scale overview maps..

Joan Blaeu (1596-1673), a Dutch cartographer, not only ICA, 1995: Portolans de col-leccions espanyoles. Institute Simultaneously, large-scale property or cadastral produced maps, but he also collected maps, which he of Cartography de Catalonia. Barcelona, Spain. ISBN 84- mapping also flourished, its results can be found in 393-3582-2. redrew and printed in his company. different archives. The most detailed ones are the (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Blaeu). property or cadastral maps that can be found in Survey Nicolai, Roel (2014) A critical review of the hypothesis of Archives. A paper by Rystedt (2006) shows how the a medieval origin of portolan charts. Thesis, Utrecht Another European is Johann Babtist Homann (1664- Survey Archive of Sweden has been used to give an University, Netherlands. 1724), a German geographer and cartographer. He overview of the development of property mapping in a produced many maps, but also collected maps, which he Rystedt, B., 2006: The Cadastral Heritage of Sweden. village of Sweden. These detailed maps are also of great redrew and published together with his own maps in his http://www.e-perimetron.org/Vol_1_2/Vol1_2.htm interest when earlier generations are looked for. The own publishing house, early emigrants, to e.g. the USA, have many descendants (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Homann). that want to find out their forefathers relatives and where these lived. The property maps were called Ino Tadataka (1745-1818) was a Japanese surveyor and geometric maps and were used to construct geographic cartographer, the first to produce a complete map of maps at a smaller scale. Maps of early defence Japan using modern surveying techniques. See: constructions are also common and can be used for the http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%C5%8D_Tadataka same purpose.