Mohawk Watershed Symposium 2017.Pdf

Mohawk Watershed Symposium 2017

Abstracts and Program College Park Hall, Union College Schenectady NY 17 March 2017

Mohawk Watershed Symposium 2017 Abstracts and Program College Park Hall Union College Schenectady, NY 17 March 2017

Edited by J.M.H. Cockburn and J.I. Garver

Copyright Information: © 2017 Geology Department, Union College, Schenectady NY. All rights reserved. No part of the document can be copied and/or redistributed, electronically or otherwise, without written permission from the Geology Department, Union College, Schenectady NY, 12308, U.S.A.

ISBN: 978-1-939968-12-8

Digital version of MWS 2017 abstract volume available as a free PDF download format from the main Mohawk Watershed Symposium website, under the 2017 symposium link: http://minerva.union.edu/garverj/mws/mws.html

Suggested Citation: Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., 2017. Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017, Volume 9, 75 pages

On the cover: Leaking pipes and a new way to connect with the River in Amsterdam NY are juxtaposed in this photograph taken from the bank of the Mohawk River in January 2017. Raw sewage leaked into the North Chuctanunda Creek, and then into the Mohawk (circular pipe to right carries the Creek). This leak (millions of gallons of sewage) is symptomatic of our failed infrastructure, which contrasts sharply with the new pedestrian bridge designed to link communities and to highlight the River as a community asset (bridge to the left).

For some time, now there has been a effort to look to the River for economic and cultural transformation in river-lining cities on the Mohawk. The newly completed Mohawk Valley Gateway Overlook Bridge in Amsterdam was funded through the 2005 Rebuild and Renew New York Transportation Bond. At the time the funding was controversial because there was a clear need to address more basic infrastructure issues, like sewers and pipes. It is good to see that the new linking bridge is causing change in a positive way, but we need to address our aging infrastructure. Both ideas are woven into the Symposium this year.

The MVGO Bridge is important because it allows the city to connect with the River. In a unique collaboration, the Schoharie River Center, NY Folklore Society, Youth FX, the Amsterdam Free Library, and the Amsterdam Environmental study team have produced a short video about how the bridge links the community to the River, and how it has helped foster a sense of place. Their project entitled “Developing a sense of Place: the Amsterdam bridge” will be presented by Scott Haddam (Schoharie River Center).

Meanwhile, millions of gallons of sewage flowed into the River for much of the year, researchers were in the water and taking samples aimed at addressing water quality. These studies include pathogen testing in the Amsterdam area, which was a collaborative effort between SUNY Cobleskill and Riverkeeper. Barbara Brabetz (SUNY Cobleskill) will present results from this pathogen testing and will show that water quality failed to meet EPA standards for recreational use. Sampling and quantification of microplastics in the River was completed for the first time and Jacquie Smith (Union College) will show that these troublesome contaminants are ubiquitous in the River. So the cover this year is a study in contrasts and it reminds us of the opportunities and challenges we face.

(Photo: J.I. Garver, 15 January 2017)

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, i Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Preface This is the 9th annual Mohawk Watershed Symposium and over the years the meeting has taken on an important role in unifying and galvanizing stakeholders in the Basin. Building and sustaining a coalition of concerned and invested stakeholders allow us to be informed about important issues that affect water quality, recreation opportunities, and other developments in the basin.

This was a big year in the Watershed with a number of exciting and interesting developments. The NYS Canal System was designated a National Historic Landmark and this designation places the currently operating canal system among the premier historic sites in the United States. In addition, this year we celebrate the 200th anniversary of the Canal, it is important to think about how the canal has affected NY State and the watershed. Earlier in 2016, the Erie Canal, which is a big part of the State Canal Corp, was taken over by the NY Power Authority (NYPA). Since 1992 it was under the Thruway Authority, and this new transfer is certainly an interesting development as the Canal struggles with costs, some of which are a hangover from Irene in 2011.

This last summer was a pretty dry, and drought and near drought conditions affected much of the basin. In the early part of summer 2016, the Canal Corporation directed the NYPA to reduce releases from Hinckley Reservoir according to the 2012 Operating Diagram. The newly completed Mohawk Valley Gateway Overlook Bridge in Amsterdam was funded through the 2005 Rebuild and Renew New York Transportation Bond, and this development is part of an effort to look to the River for economic and cultural transformation in river-lining cities on the Mohawk.

Water contamination, brownfields, and water quality are intricately intertwined. PCBs, PFOS and PFOA, Pb, microplastics, and other toxins in our environment and our drinking water dominated this past year’s headlines. Locally we are making progress: Schenectady had one of the more contaminated brownfields in the basin, and the important remediation effort allowed this river-lining property to be developed into the new Rivers Casino, which opened in February of 2017. This is an important lesson in cleaning brownfields, and development of urban areas in communities that are along the River.

Our infrastructure needs attention because its failure is affecting water quality. One of the sad stories of the past year is the sewage leak in Amsterdam where millions of gallons of raw sewage has dumped into the Mohawk. Discovered in July 2016, the spill continues (March 2017), and this has become symbolic of the struggle to fix our aging infrastructure and its impact on water quality in the Basin. Amsterdam will receive millions from the state Water Infrastructure Improvement Act and loans from the Clean Water State Revolving Fund. Some positive news from the upper part of the watershed as money and work has gone into improving the sewage system in Utica / Oneida county. Once done, the project will reduce the amount of sewage that flows into the Mohawk River by reducing the reliance on Combined Sanitary and Sewer outfalls.

There is hope that our aging infrastructure, and thus water quality, is being addressed at the State and Federal level. The Water Infrastructure Improvements act passed the U.S. House of Representatives and was subsequently signed by President Obama. The bill included Representative Tonko's AQUA Act and legislation updating the Safe Drinking Water Act.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, ii Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 There has been considerable activity in the State, one highlight was the recent introduction of the Safe Water Infrastructure Action Program (SWAP) bill (S.3292/A.3907) introduced by Senator Tedisco and Assemblyman Steck in February 2017, which is designed to fund and maintain our local infrastructure including water, sewer, and storm water.

We are making progress in the Mohawk Watershed, and the Symposium will highlight much of the new and exciting work that has happened over the last year. We are seeing money flow in the basin to address watershed science and education, and some of that money has gone directly to water quality studies. The NY Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) awarded more than $155,000 in Mohawk River Basin Program grants for four projects in the Mohawk River Basin Watershed. Results from these four projects will be presented this year as part of the invited presentations at the 2017 Symposium. We are indebted to our sponsors NYSDEC for their continued support, which helps to make each Symposium a success. We appreciate support from Cornell and from the Union College Geology Department.

This year we have 39 presentations to shape the discussion and dialog. Some of these presentations are a direct result of funding from the new grants program at the NYSDEC that is aimed at fostering the five items on the Mohawk Basin Action agenda. We continue to see new ideas, many of them presented by students from a number of different educational institutions, this growth in student participation is both exciting, and a welcome sign of continued progress. By the end of the day, the Mohawk Watershed Symposium series will have been the forum for 281 talks, posters, and special presentations since inception in 2009.

It takes a community to make this happen and we are delighted to see so many familiar names and we welcome those new to the Mohawk Watershed Symposium.

Enjoy the day.

J.H.M Cockburn, Univ. of Guelph J.I Garver, Union College

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, iii Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Schedule Mohawk Watershed Symposium - 2017

17 March 2017, College Park, Union College, Schenectady NY

Oral session (College Park) - Registration and Badges required

8:00 AM 8:25 AM Registration, Coffee, College Park 8:25 AM 8:30 AM Introductory Remarks Jackie Cockburn, MWS Co-Chair, University of Guelph 8:30 AM 8:45 AM Developing a formula for fair distribution of water for rivers with multi riparian states Ashraf Ghaly, Union College Electric and solar electric boats for the Mohawk Basin: Clean tourist navigation to match clean canal- side 8:45 AM 9:00 AM tourism David Borton, Sustainable Energy Systems 9:00 AM 9:15 AM Making connections: A win-win proposition Amanda Post, Sterling Environmental Engineering 9:15 AM 9:41 AM Climate change and extreme events: impacts on streamflow and water quality - Invited Douglas Burns, New York Water Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey

9:41 AM 10:26 AM COFFEE and POSTERS (see below for listing)

10:26 AM 10:52 AM The distribution of microplastic pollution in the Mohawk River - Invited Jacqueline Smith, Union College 10:52 AM 11:07 AM Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA): A local water contamination crisis Laura MacManus-Spencer, Union College 11:07 AM 11:33 AM PCBs: How the Mohawk fits into the Hudson’s legacy of contamination - Invited Sean Madden, NYS Department of Environmental Conservation Project overview of lessons for the Mohawk River: Youth engagement and environmental stewardship 11:33 AM 11:59 AM - Invited Amy Samuels and Stephanie Johnson, Onondaga Environmental Institute 11:59 AM 12:09 PM Developing a sense of Place: the Amsterdam bridge Scott Hadam, Schoharie River Center

12:09 PM 1:29 PM - LUNCH and Poster Sessions - Lunch at College Park

Enhanced water quality monitoring in support of modeling efforts in the Mohawk River Watershed - Invited 1:29 PM 1:55 PM Alexander J. Smith, NYS Department of Environmental Conservation The leak, the rain, and the river: What we learned about CSO’s, run-off, and the Mohawk River’s water 1:55 PM 2:21 PM quality in 2016 - Invited Barbara Brabetz, SUNY Cobleskill Mohawk River water quality: Spatial and temporal trends in bacterial indicators of fecal 2:21 PM 2:36 PM contamination during the Summer of 2016 Carolyn Rodack, SUNY Polytechnic Institute 2:36 PM 3:02 PM Stream and river restoration in the Mohawk River Watershed in Oneida County - Invited Jo-Anne Humphreys, Oneida County Soil and Water Conservation District

3:02 PM 3:47 PM COFFEE and POSTERS (see below for listing)

3:47 PM 4:02 PM Drinking source water protection: A case study and call for comprehensive action Dan Shapley, Riverkeeper 4:02 PM 4:28 PM Safe water infrastructure action program (SWAP) Plenary Address: Assemblymember Phil Steck, NYS Assembly District 110, Colonie, Niskayuna & Schenectady 4:28 PM 5:28 PM Linking an empire: Understanding the historical significance of the Mohawk River Keynote Address: L.F. Tantillo, Artist and Historian 5:28 PM 5:33 PM Closing remarks and the future of the Symposium John Garver, MWS Co-Chair, Union College

5:45 PM 7:15 PM Symposium Reception College Park Hall Lobby, 5:45 - 7:15 PM

*The presenting author (and affiliation) is listed in the schedule, for complete author listing and affiliations please refer to the abstract.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, iv Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Poster session (all day)

P1 The Flat Creek and Otsquago Creek: A rapid bio-assessment of two tributaries of the Mohawk River E. Abrams, B. Behan, M D’Arcangelis, Z. D’Arcangelis, M. Elliott, M. Hoffamn, J. Huang, Q. Jones, C. Logan, P. Murphy, J. Stockwell, B. Thibodeau, L. Veitch, M. Wintermute, L. Elliott, J. McKeeby, Z. McKeeby, & S. Hadam Environmental Science Team, Fort Plain, NY P2 NYC-DEP and NYPA: Comparing and contrasting public policy and institutional adaptation to climate change H. Bartholomew, Dam Concerned Citizens, Middleburgh, NY P3 The need for a geohazard app in Herkimer, NY: Government entity preparedness for future flooding A. Catalano, M. Jones, M. Lovejoy, A. Marsellos, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY

A series of snap-shots: Data and observations from the Riverkeeper & SUNY Cobleskill Mohawk River water quality P4 project as it enters year three T. Dell’Acqua, B. Brabetz, N. Law, J. Epstein, J. Lipscomb, & D. Shapley, SUNY Cobleskill, NY P5 Impacts of urbanization of stream biogeochemistry in Schenectady County, NY C. Connors & A. Verheyden, Union College, Schenectady, NY P6 Union College Water Initiative A. Dolcimascolo, H. Frey, K. Hollocher, A. Ludlam, J. Dunn, Union College, Schenectady, NY

Assessing mobile application importance for future flooding using statistical analysis and GIS: a study in Fort Plain, P7 New York L. D'Orsa, K. Nandlall, J. Sacket, & A. Marsellos, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY

Water quality and hydrodynamic characterizations of sturgeon spawning habitat in the St. Lawrence River and P8 tributaries C. Fuller, J. Bonner, S. Islam, W. Kirkey, P. O’Brien, & P. Kirkey, Clarkson University, Postdam, NY

Efficacy of environmental DNA and traditional fish sampling methods to monitor the expansion of invasive round P9 goby in the Mohawk River-Barge Canal System S. George, C. Rees, & B. Baldigo, NY Water Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Troy, NY P10 Dams: Miraculous or disastrous? A. Ghaly, Union College, Schenectady, NY

Early detection and range expansion of the Mohawk watershed’s newest aquatic invader, the bloody red shrimp: P11 A citizen science and survey-based approach A. Gundeck, J. Roellke, M. Foucek, M. Warren, E. Stapylton, E. Hedlund, & B. Boscarino, Poughkeepsie Day School, Poughkeepsie, NY

Our river… Our home: The Amsterdam pedestrian bridge, sense of place and environmental concern for the Mohawk P12 River S. Hadam, J. McKeeby, E. McHale, B. Suchak, J. Naple, L. English, F. Stately, K. Helmsley, & J. Schmidtmann, Schoharie River Center, Burtonvsille, NY P13 Temporal and spatial variability of PFOA in Hoosick Falls, NY A. Hayden, L. MacManus-Spencer, & A. Verheyden Union College, Schenectady, NY

Monitoring the Hudson and beyond with HRECOS: The Hudson River environmental conditions observing system P14 G. Lemley & A.J. Smith, Hudson River Estuary Program/NEIWPCC, Albany, NY P15 Blue-green algae in the Mohawk Watershed E. Lennon, K. Reynolds, A. Feldmann, K. Terbush, G. Cebada Mora, & J. Morisette, Environmental Management Bureau, NYS Office of Parks, Recreation, & Historic Preservation

Evaluating the efficacy of environmental DNA (eDNA) as an early detection tool for the Mohawk Watershed’s newest P16 aquatic invader, the bloody-red shrimp, Hemimysis anomala. S.Oyagi, B. Boscarino, M. Brown, & M. Tibbetts, Poughkeepsie Day School, Poughkeepsie, NY

Statistical analysis of damage to local businesses due to flooding events along the Mohawk River valley in P17 Amsterdam, New York T. Pascucci, D. Chernoff, S. Lakeram, & A. Marsellos, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY P18 Revealing local history and inspiring change through the art of future canallers A. Slawienski & L. Biggers, Harry Hoag Elementary School, Fort Plain, NY P19 Fly ash and coal ash in the Mohawk River J.A. Smith, J.I. Garver, J.L. Hodge, & B.H. Kurtz, Union College, Schenectady, NY

Systematic investigation of the effects of perfluoroalkyl acid chain length and ionic head group on human serum P20 albumin binding J. Ulrich & L. MacManus-Spencer, Union College, Schenectady, NY P21 The IAEA global network of isotopes in precipitation and rivers (GNIP and GNIR) stations at Union College A. Verheyden, S. Katz, & D. Gillikin, Union College, Schenectady, NY

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, v Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Keynote and Plenary Speaker Biographies

Keynote Speaker: Len Tantillo Len Tantillo graduated from the Rhode Island School of Design and worked as a licensed architect until 1986. Mr. Tantillo is an internationally recognized artist with several honorary degrees, four authored books, a Fellow of the American Society of Marine Artists and in 2016 he was elected a Fellow of the New York Academy of History. His work can be found in the Fenimore Art Museum, the Minnesota Museum of Marine Art, numerous historical societies, and corporate and private collections in the USA and abroad. With more than 300 paintings and drawings of New York State history Mr. Tantillo is an important leader in helping the world to visualize and experience New York State landscape. Tantillo continues to bring the past to life through his art and passion for the region. http://lftantillo.com/len-tantillo-biography.html

Plenary Address: Assemblymember Phil Steck Assemblymember Phil Steck grew up in the region and now represents Assembly District 110. Together with New York Senator James Tedisco and other colleagues, Assemblymember Steck has worked to make water infrastructure a top priority through the Safe Water infrastructure Action Plan (SWAP) (Senate Bill S.3292/Assembly Bill A.3907) by calling for legislation to either be included in the state budget or passed separately to create a new state program to repair and maintain vital local drinking water, sewer, stormwater management, gas line and water tower infrastructure to protect lives and save tax dollars by avoiding costly repairs when systems break. http://nyassembly.gov/mem/Phil-Steck/bio/

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, vii Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Table of Contents Preface ...... ii Schedule ...... iv Abstracts are organized alphabetically be the last name of the first author The Flat Creek and Otsquago Creek: A Rapid Bio-Assessment of Two Tributaries of the Mohawk River E. Abrams, B. Behan, M. D’Arcangelis, Z. D’Arcangelis, M. Elliott, M. Hoffamn, J. Huang, Q. Jones, C. Logan, P. Murphy, J. Stockwell, B. Thibodeau, L. Veitch, M. Wintermute, L. Elliott, J. McKeeby, Z. McKeeby, & S. Hadam ...... 1 NYC-DEP and NYPA: Comparing and Contrasting Public Policy and Institutional Adaptation to Climate Change H. Bartholomew ...... 5 Electric and Solar Electric Boats for the Mohawk Basin: Clean Tourist Navigation to Match Clean Canal-side Tourism D. Borton ...... 8 The Leak, the Rain, and the River: What we learned about CSOs, Run-off, and the Mohawk River’s Water Quality in 2016 B. Brabetz, N. Law, J Ratchford, J. Epstein, J. Lipscomb, & D. Shapley ...... 9 Climate Change and Extreme Events: Impacts on Streamflow and Water Quality D. Burns & R. Glas ...... 10 The Need for a Geohazard App in Herkimer, NY: Government Entity Preparedness for Future Flooding A. Catalano, M.Jones, M. Lovejoy, & A. Marsellos ...... 12 Impacts of Urbanization of Stream Biogeochemistry in Schenectady County, NY C. Connors & A. Verheyden ...... 16 A series of snap-shots: Data and Observations from the Riverkeeper & SUNY Cobleskill Mohawk River water quality project as it enters Year Three T. Dell’Acqua, B. Brabetz, N. Law, J. Epstein, J. Lipscomb, & D. Shapley ...... 17 Stream and River Restoration in the Mohawk River Watershed in Oneida County G. Dodici, J. Humphreys, & D. Erway ...... 18 Union College Water Initiative A. Dolcimascolo, H. Frey, K. Hollocher, A. Ludlam, & J. Dunn ...... 19 Assessing Mobile Application Importance for Future Flooding Using Statistical Analysis and GIS: A study in Fort Plain, New York L. D’Orsa, K. Nandlall, J. Sacket, & Antonios Marsellos ...... 22 Water Quality and Hydrodynamic Characterizations of Sturgeon Spawning Habitat in the St. Lawrence River and Tributaries C. Fuller, J. Bonner, S. Islam, W. Kirkey, P. O’Brien, & P. Kirkey ...... 27 Efficacy of Environmental DNA and Traditional Fish Sampling Methods to Monitor the Expansion of Invasive Round Goby in the Mohawk River-Barge Canal System S. George, C. Rees, & B. Baldigo ...... 30 Dams: Miraculous or Disastrous? A.M. Ghaly ...... 31

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, viii Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Developing a Formula for Fair Distribution of Water for Rivers with Multi Riparian States A.M. Ghaly ...... 32 Early detection and range expansion of the Mohawk watershed’s newest aquatic invader, the bloody red shrimp: A citizen science and survey-based approach A. Gundeck, J. Roellke, M. Foucek, M. Warren, E. Stapylton, E. Hedlund, & B. Boscarino ...... 33 Our River… Our Home: The Amsterdam Pedestrian Bridge, Sense of Place and Environmental Concern for the Mohawk River S. Hadam, J. McKeeby, E. McHale, B. Suchak, J. Naple, L. English, F. Stately, K. Helmsley, & J. Schmidtmann ...... 36 Temporal and spatial variability of PFOA in Hoosick Falls, NY ...... 40 A. Hayden, L. MacManus-Spencer, & A. Verheyden ...... 40 Monitoring the Hudson and Beyond with HRECOS:The Hudson River Environmental Conditions Observing System G. Lemley & A.J. Smith ...... 41 Blue-green Algae in the Mohawk Watershed E. Lennon, K. Reynolds, A. Feldmann, K. Terbush, G. Cebada Mora & J. Morisette ...... 42 Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA): A Local Water Contamination Crisis L. MacManus-Spencer ...... 43 PCBs: How the Mohawk River fits into the Hudson’s Legacy of Contamination S.S. Madden ...... 45 Evaluating the Efficacy of Environmental DNA (eDNA) as an Early Detection Tool for the Mohawk Watershed’s Newest Aquatic Invader, the Bloody-red Shrimp, Hemimysis anomala S. Oyagi, B. Boscarino, M. Brown, M. Tibbetts ...... 47 Statistical Analysis of Damage to Local Businesses Due to Flooding Events Along the Mohawk River Valley in Amsterdam, New York T. Pascucci, D. Chernoff, S. Lakeram, & A. Marsellos ...... 50 Making Connections: A Win-Win Proposition A. Post & T. Johnson ...... 53 Mohawk river water quality: Spatial and temporal trends in bacterial indicators of fecal contamination during the Summer of 2016 C. Rodak, X. Wei, J. Schneider, S. Nguyen, & R. Christoferson ...... 54 Lessons for the Mohawk River Watershed: Youth Engagement and Environmental Stewardship in a School Setting A. Samuels & S. Johnson ...... 58 Drinking Source Water Protection: A Case Study and Call for Comprehensive Action D. Shapley ...... 59 Revealing Local History and Inspiring Change through the Art of Future Canallers AutumnEve Slawienski and Linda Biggers ...... 60 Enhanced Water Quality Monitoring in Support of Modeling Efforts in the Mohawk River Watershed A.J. Smith & E. Nystrom ...... 61 Fly Ash and Coal Ash in the Mohawk River J.A. Smith, J.I. Garver, J.L. Hodge, & B.H. Kurtz ...... 63

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, ix Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 The Distribution of Microplastic Pollution in the Mohawk River J.A. Smith, J.L. Hodge, B.H. Kurtz, and J.I. Garver ...... 67 Systematic Investigation of the Effects of Perfluoroalkyl Acid Chain Length and Ionic Head Group on Human Serum Albumin Binding J. Ulrich & L. MacManus-Spencer ...... 72 The new IAEA Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation and Rivers (GNIP and GNIR) stations at Union College A. Verheyden, S. Katz & D. Gillikin ...... 75

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, x Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Major Financial Support for MWS 2017

Major Financial support for MWS 2016 was provided by the NewYork State Department of Environmental Conservation though the Mohawk River Basin Program

The Mohawk River Basin Program (MRBP) is a multi-disciplinary environmental management program focused on conserving, preserving and restoring the environmental, economic, and cultural elements of the Mohawk River Watershed. Through facilitation of partnerships among local, state and federal governments, the MRBP works to achieve the goals outlined in the Mohawk River Basin Action Agenda (2012-2016). The MRBP sees the continuation of the Union College Mohawk Watershed Symposium as an ideal platform for communication among stakeholders at all levels.

The MRBP partners with organizations such as the New York State Water Resources Institute (WRI), a government mandated institution located at Cornell University, whose mission is to improve the management of water resources. This year, through the cooperative relationship between the MRBP and Cornell University (WRI), funding was offered to help support and sponsor the Symposium.

Union College Geology Department has made a substantial contribution to the Symposium this year, and we appreciate the ongoing support from the College and the Department. We also appreciate the continued support from the Environmental Science, Policy, and Engineering (ESPE) program at Union.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, xi Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 The Flat Creek and Otsquago Creek: A Rapid Bio-Assessment of Two Tributaries of the Mohawk River

Emily Abrams1, Baileigh Behan1, Michael D’Arcangelis1, Zoe D’Arcangelis1, Madeline Elliott1, Michael Hoffamn1, Jason Huang1, Quinn Jones1, Calli Logan1, Patrick Murphy1, Julia Stockwell1, Bryce Thibodeau1, Lexi Veitch1, Mackenzie Wintermute1 Lance Elliott1, John McKeeby2, Zach McKeeby2, and Scott Hadam2

1Fort Plain/Canajoharie Environmental Study Team 2Schoharie River Center - Burtonsville, NY

Introduction In July 2016, the Fort Plain/Canajoharie Environmental Study Team (EST) and members of the Schoharie River Center partnered together to assess the health of the Otsquago and Flat Creeks. In previous years, the Fort Plain/Canajoharie EST and members of the Schoharie River Center collected data primarily from the Otsquago and Canajoharie Creeks, but this year the Flat Creek was introduced into our investigations as part of our mission to better understand our local watershed. On the 28th of June 2013, the Otsquago Creek flooded the village of Fort Plain. Originally, we hypothesized that the Otsquago’s poor health was linked to this 2013 flood event, however our data shows that no recovery has occurred and that the overall health of the Otsquago may have marginally deteriorated. Last summer we decided to test farther upstream, closer to its source, to look for improved conditions but found results no better. While the health of the Otsquago Creek has stagnated, initial results for the Flat Creek indicate a more diverse and healthy aquatic environment similar to our past analysis of the Canajoharie Creek. Our most recent macro-invertebrate data shows that the Otsquago Creek is still more impacted than its neighboring steams. This suggests that there may be another cause for the relative lack of macro-invertebrate diversity in the Otsquago compared to similar nearby streams. Materials and Methods The Fort Plain/Canajoharie EST collected and evaluated data from a total of three different test sites along the Otsquago and Flat Creeks in 2016 (Figures 1-3). Sites were chosen based on the quality of riffles and the ease of accessibility to the creek with kick nets, a chemical test kit, buckets, along with other equipment. Using the chemical test kit, teams tested for pH, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, and turbidity levels for sites one and five on the Otsquago Creek and site one on the Flat Creek. The team split into groups that allowed one group to test and record water chemistry, while another group used kick nets to collect macro-invertebrates, placing them into five gallon buckets of stream water.

Using the DEC Wadeable Assessment by Volunteer Evaluators (WAVE) method, teams classified macro- invertebrates found at each site and placed them into three categories (Tables 1-3). The macro-invertebrates were first identified and placed into groups of “most wanted”, “least wanted”, or “other” based on the WAVE protocol. During this process, we used kick nets, ice cube trays, tweezers, plastic spoons, and isopropyl alcohol to capture and organize the macro-invertebrates. The data collected using WAVE can be used to determine the health of the stream based on the relative numbers of different species of macro-invertebrates found that are tolerant or intolerant to various stream conditions.

Figure 1 - Site 1, Otsquago Creek (42°55.850’N, 74°37.343’W)

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 1 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Figure 2 – Site 5, Otsquago Creek Figure 3 - Site 1, Flat Creek (42°53.471’N, (42°53.82’N, 74°49.490’W) 74°30.834’W) In addition to WAVE sampling, the team performed a more comprehensive assessment of water quality, based on NYS DEC’s Biological Assessment Profile (BAP) methodology, in which a representative sample of macro-invertebrates were collected and analyzed based on four family indices, or metrics (Figure 4). The metrics that are recommended by the NYS DEC Biomonitoring Unit to provide a biological profile and overall stream water quality assessment are as follows:

1. Family Richness: The total number of families found in the sample. 2. EPT Richness: The number of families in the three most pollution sensitive orders – Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Plecoptera (stoneflies), Trichoptera (caddisflies) - that are present. 3. Biotic Index: The product of the quantity of a particular macro-invertebrate found and its assigned biotic value (pollution tolerance value). 4. Percent Model Affinity, PMA: A comparison of the number of identified macro-invertebrates to a New York model “non-impacted” community, based on percent abundance in seven major groups.

Figure 4 – Site 5, Otsquago Creek Percent Model Affinity (for comparison) Figure 5 – Site 5, Otsquago Creek Biological Assessment Profile

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 2 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 A Biological Assessment Profile (BAP), as outlined by the DEC, is obtained from the four metrics by converting each metrics score to a 0-10 water quality scale and calculating their mean. The mean score identifies the water quality impact as: non-, slightly, moderately, or severely impacted.

To obtain a BAP for site five, our team randomly collected and identified one hundred macro-invertebrates from each kick net sample for analysis. Staff members from the Schoharie River Center helped us process our data with the use of an excel spreadsheet designed to calculate BAP.

Results and Discussion In the Otsquago Creek, alkalinity tested greater than 20 mg/L meaning both sites are not sensitive and therefore in the healthy range for alkalinity. Dissolved oxygen levels at site one and site five were above NYS standards. Although both values were above recommended standards, site five was the closest to “normal” levels. The pH levels of both sites were above the optimal range for life, but out of the two sites, site one was closer to the NYS standards. The measures of turbidity did not show any problems that will cause a visible contrast to natural conditions. Phosphate levels at site one were roughly two and half times greater than a healthy steam, while site five’s phosphate levels were five times greater. High levels of phosphate can lead to overgrowth and we did observe a large amount of algae along the streambed, especially at site five. Nitrates of both creeks tested within the typical natural levels for fresh water, according to DEC standards. From a biological standpoint, site five lacked almost all diversity in macro-invertebrates. Oligochaeta (small aquatic worms) dominated the 100-bug profile, as shown by the “Macroinvertebrates Assemblages” graph (Figure 4). Our results show that it was nowhere near the NYS model community profile. In addition to the site 5 PMA results, all three values for the remaining BAP indices fell into the moderate to severely impacted range (Figure 5).

In the Flat Creek, the team performed another rapid bio-assessment using the WAVE method. Macro- invertebrates were collected and split into the three groups. Using the data collected from the end of the WAVE process the team was able to determine the creek’s health. In the Flat Creek, we found many “Most Wanted” macro-invertebrates and only one “Least Wanted” macro-invertebrate (Figure 8). This suggests that the Flat Creek is a healthier water body that supports a more diverse population of macro-invertebrates, including those that are less tolerant to pollutants. Conclusion Our most recent macro-invertebrate data suggests that the Otsquago Creek is more impacted than its neighboring steams. This suggests that there may be another cause for the relative lack of macro-invertebrate diversity in the Otsquago. All three streams our team has tested over the last three years have numerous potential agricultural inputs, yet the Otsquago consistently shows less macro-invertebrate biodiversity. Perhaps something farther upstream is the cause. Known pollutants that could hinder the stream’s health include possible runoff of fecal matter and fertilizer from farms and polluted water from discharge pipes. We conclude that, although the flood may have negatively impacted the Otsquago, an unknown source of pollution may be preventing the stream from recovering. Our findings warrant further studies, even farther upstream, for the summer of 2017.

The Fort Plain/Canajoharie Environmental Study Team consists of high school students with an interest in science and service. Our goal is to create partnerships with other like-minded groups, such as the Friends of Fort Plain and the Schoharie River Center, to encourage environmental awareness within the local community.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 3 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Table 1: Otsquago Creek Site 1 Classification Few Some Many Scientific Name Common Name (only 1) (2-10) (>10) Most Wanted X Heptagenidae Flat Headed Mayfly Nymph Most Wanted X Isonychiidae Brush Legged Mayfly Nymph Most Wanted X Philopotamidae Finger Net Caddisfly Larva Least Wanted X Chironmidae-genys Red Midge Larva Chironomus Other X Baetidae Small Minnow Mayfly Nymph Other X Coleoptera Adult/Larva Beetle Other X Decapoda Crayfish Other X Hydropsychidae Common Netspinner

Table 2: Otsquago Creek Site 5 Classification Few Some Many Scientific Name Common Name (only 1) (2-10) (>10) Most Wanted X Rhyacophilidae Free living Caddisfly Larva Least Wanted X Amphipoda Scud Least Wanted X Lymnaeidae Air-breathing snail Other X Tipulidae Crane fly Other X Chironomideae Non-biting midges Other X Hydropsychidae Common NetSpinner Caddisfly Larva Other X Oligochaeta Aquatic Worm Unknown X Tricoptera Unknown Caddisfly

Table 3: Flat Creek Site 1 Classification Few Some Many Scientific Name Common Name (only (2-10) (>10) 1) Most Wanted X Corydalidae Dobsonfly/Hellgrammite Most Wanted X Isonychiidae Brush Legged Mayfly Nymph Most Wanted X Perlidae Common Stonefly Nymph Most Wanted X Philopotamidae Finger Net Caddisfly Larva Most Wanted X Psephenidae Water Penny Least Wanted X Chironomidae Red Midge Larva Other X Annelida Aquatic Worm Other X Coleoptera Adult/Larva Other X Decapoda Crayfish Other X Hydropsychidae Common Netspinner Caddisfly Larva Other X Tipulidae Crane Flies

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 4 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 NYC-DEP and NYPA: Comparing and Contrasting Public Policy and Institutional Adaptation to Climate Change

Howard R. Bartholomew

President, Dam Concerned Citizens, Inc., Middleburgh, NY

The Schoharie Creek is at present the most hydrologically productive tributary of the Mohawk River. Rising in the northern Catskills at Indian Head Mountain, Green Co., elevation 3,583’, a distance of ~8.5 miles from the Hudson River. Thus, the Schoharie Creek benefits from orographic features that provide it with abundant precipitation. Windham High Peak, elevation 3,524’, and Black Dome, elevation 3,980’, provide the Bataviakill, a principal Catskill Mountain tributary of the Schoharie Creek, with >60” of annual precipitation. Because of its abundant water resources, the upper Schoharie Creek drainage basin has been exploited for public benefit. A drinking water reservoir, the Schoharie Reservoir/Gilboa Dam, owned an operated by the NYC Department of Environmental Protection (NYC-DEP), has been in full operation since 1926. In the late 1960’s the Power Authority of the State of New York, now known as the New York Power Authority (NYPA), proposed the development of a pumped-storage hydroelectric power plant to be located in the towns of Blenheim and Gilboa in southern Schoharie County. Known as the Blenheim/Gilboa Pumped-Storage Power Plant (B/G), this project went into full operation in 1973, and is located 5 miles downstream of the Gilboa Dam. The Schoharie Reservoir has a catchment area of 314 square miles, while B/G, with catchment of 356 square miles, benefits from a further 42 square miles of catchment area. Thus, there are two different governmental bodies operating public utility infrastructure that is >50 years old within 5 miles of one another along the same productive stream. Given the close proximity and age of these structures along the Schoharie Creek, it is enlightening to compare and contrast their design and current operational practices, especially given the recent developments near Oroville, CA, and the challenges facing public utilities during a time of climate change.

Comparison of NYC-DEP and NYPA structures on the Schoharie Creek Criteria/Structure NYC-DEP Gilboa Dam NYPA B/G Project Completion Date: 1926 1973 Owner: City of New York State of New York Location: 42°23’28.9”N, 74°27’01.3”W 42°27’15.0”N, 74°27’22.2”W Masonry Spillway with PT anchors, Lower Res: Earthen Dam, 1,324’ long, elev. 1,130’ 1,810’ long, elev. 910’ Dam Construction: Earthen w/concrete core: 660’ long, Upper Res: Earthen Dike, elev. 1,150’ 2.25 mi. long, elev. 2,008’ Shandaken Tunnel: 1,000CFS Obermeyer Gates: ~8,600 CFS Release Works: 2 Siphons: 500 CFS Lower Reservoir: (type and output Low Level Outlet: 2,400 CFS 3 Tainter Gates: 174,000CFS capacity) (completed 2020) Ungated Spillway: 312,000 CFS Storage Capacity: 17.5 billion gallons 10 billion gallons Probable Maximum 312,000CFS 174,000 CFS Flood Estimates: Finances: Sale of bonds, water/sewer taxes Sale of bonds and electricity Tax Liability: Yes No, exempt from property taxation Flood Mitigation Yes No Hunting, fishing, hiking, limited Hiking, fishing, XC skiing, Recreational Usage: boating swimming at Minekill SP

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 5 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Changes in Infrastructure Intended to Cope with Climate Change NYC-DEP Gilboa Dam NYPA B/G Project -Modifications of dam spillway to better -Excellent regime of routine maintenance dissipate energy from falling water. -No major modifications of dam, spillway -Increase spillway mass by adding 109,900 capacity, or operating procedure since cubic yards of concrete construction -Addition of 80 PT anchors -Enhanced instrumentation (piezometers, extensiometers and load-cells on select PT anchors) -Planned low level outlet (to be completed by 2020)

Map showing projected increase in percentage 1-day 100 year rainfall amounts for 2010-2039 vs. 1970-1999. Dark blue quadrant, showing a 10-15% predicted increase potential, is situated directly over the upper Schoharie Creek drainage. Source: http://ny-idf-projections.nrcc.cornell.edu/map_viewer.html

Current Flood Mitigation Plans Flood mitigation can reduce the impact of increased precipitation by ‘peak shaving’ or attenuating the discharge of peak flows from reservoirs. Currently, the NYC-DEP has a flood mitigation plan in place known as the Snow-Pack Based Management Plan that takes into account the amount of water tied up in snow-pack distributed over the catchment area of the Schoharie Reservoir during the winter months. This plan allows for a drawdown of the reservoir during the fall in anticipation of snowmelt in the spring to refill the reservoir, thereby reducing the potential for spring, snowmelt-induced high discharge events. No such flood mitigation plans are currently in place for the NYPA B/G Project.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 6 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Graph illustrating the monthly average number of days of flow coming into the Schoharie Reservoir >5,000cfs (bars, 1902-2004) vs. average elevation of water level in the reservoir (line, 1963-2002). Also shown (in dark gray and light gray horizontal arrows) are the months when the obermeyer gates are raised and lowered in the spillway notch to retain more water. Note that gates are raised during low inflow times to build reservoir volume and lowered during times of possible snowmelt runoff to allow for flood mitigation where possible. Source: NYC-DEP.

Conclusion Over the last 15 years, the NYCDEP has diligently pursued a course of updating and upgrading its dam infrastructure to cope with the increased frequency and intensity of precipitation events in the 21st century. It has worked cooperatively with climate scientists, such as Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, to project the impact of climate change on their operating procedures and infrastructure.

In contrast, the NYPA at B/G has devoted time and resources in maintaining the 1970s-dam infrastructure in a very diligent manner. Emphasis in modernization of infrastructure at B/G has instead been focused upon increasing the efficiency of electrical generation and storage. This commendable goal should not conflict with the enhancement of release works to better cope with the increased potential of peak stream flow due to climate change. Dam safety and efficient energy production should not be at odds with one another. As long as the release works at B/G persist in being able to pass only 40% of the probable maximum flood as estimated for the Gilboa Dam by the NYC-DEP, located only five miles upstream, the lives and property of those residing in the Schoharie Creek corridor downstream of B/G are in jeopardy.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 7 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Electric and Solar Electric Boats for the Mohawk Basin: Clean Tourist Navigation to Match Clean Canal-side Tourism

Capt. David Borton, Ph.D.

Sustainable Energy Systems, Inc., Troy, NY

The Mohawk River, and the various canals connecting to it, has been a vital commercial corridor since the American Revolution, but its commercial value to the Empire State has been severely threatened in recent years. The main tourist and recreational economic attractions that input to the economy are often clean, human powered pursuits: biking, running, dog-walking, etc. On the water, however, noisy, smelly, polluting marine transportation is in sharp contrast to the riverside and canal-side recreational activities.

Electric, and solar electric, boats provide the kind of clean, wholesome recreation on the water that is available along the banks, and may also be viable solutions to some of the remaining commercial opportunities on the waterways as well. Historically water transportation was animal powered before the internal combustion engine and provided the connection between the costal colonies and the interior wilderness that has become the middle of this nation.

Boat building has always been a part of the human interaction with the Mohawk Basin and continues today. Specifically electric, and solar electric, boat building exists in the basin and in adjacent counties. Significant opportunities for clean, quiet ferries, water-taxis, charter and cruiser boats exist along the basin and other NYS waterways. The Solar Sal Project is unique in that it has been undertaken with corporate support in collaboration with one of the Capital Region’s largest and most influential Chambers of Commerce.

Besides reducing fossil fuel use and pollution in the waterways, electric and solar electric boats are safer, easier to maintain and less expensive to operate. In stark contrast to most fossil fueled pleasure vessels of similar type, a twin-screw solar-electric boat can operate even with a closed cabin in bad weather without fear of CO poisoning. Diesel mechanics, already a rare commodity on our inland waterways, are not needed to service a solar electric vessel, and boats like Solar Sal can carry spare powerplants for redundancy and safety. And electric motors, unlike their gas/diesel counterparts, can operate with full torque at any RPM, in both forward and reverse. Communities from Ontario to Texas are requiring commercial passenger tour boats to be electric powered.

Boat building ties traditional skills with current electrical engineering and computer high-tech skill for specific workforce employment and general population education in green energy applications.

Oral Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 8 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 The Leak, the Rain, and the River: What we learned about CSOs, Run-off, and the Mohawk River’s Water Quality in 2016

Barbara L. Brabetz1, Neil A. Law1, Jason Ratchford1, Jennifer Epstein2, John Lipscomb2, and Dan Shapley2

1 Department of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, SUNY Cobleskill, Cobleskill, NY 2 Riverkeeper, Ossining, NY

A 2015 pilot study established collaboration between SUNY Cobleskill and Riverkeeper that is dedicated to using fecal indicator bacterial counts as a method for reporting on the water quality of the Mohawk River and its watershed. This collaboration’s unique set of single-day efforts dovetails with Riverkeeper’s program to characterize water quality along the full length of the Hudson River estuary and in many of its other tributaries. Samples for the 121 mile length of the Mohawk River from Delta Lake to the confluence with the Hudson River were collected from May to October 2016 at selected sites, concentrating upstream and downstream of potential inputs, at public access points and at the mouths of tributaries. Each sample was analyzed for fecal indicator bacteria (Enterococcus) using IDEXX’s Enterolert method (EPA Standard Method 9230D). Of the 45 locations sampled in 2016, four were in an around Amsterdam, NY – a city with over 18,000 residents with three combined sewer overflows (CSOs).

In July 2016 the City of Amsterdam reported a 50-gallon per minute sewage leak on the North Chuctanunda Creek, a tributary of the Mohawk that bisects the city’s north side. Cobleskill’s team sampled the Mohawk prior to the leak, immediately after the leak was reported, and after a critical repair was made. Although volume estimates of the leak of untreated sewage range from 2 million to 10 million gallons, no detectable impact to the Mohawk’s water quality was documented during times of dry weather. During times of severe weather, the Mohawk’s water quality failed to meet EPA standards for recreational use at sites near Amsterdam, both upstream and downstream of the leak. Taking into account local precipitation, this work will show several single day “snap-shot” data sets for water quality, that compare results before and after the reported leak as well as during dry weather vs. wet weather. Plans for our 2017 campaign will be discussed.

Fig. 1: In Amsterdam, the North Chuctanunda Creek (left) flows into the Mohawk River upstream of Riverlink Park (far right), one sampling site for fecal contamination.

Invited Oral Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 9 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Climate Change and Extreme Events: Impacts on Streamflow and Water Quality

Douglas A. Burns1 and Robin L. Glas2

1New York Water Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Troy, NY 2Dept. of Earth Sciences, Syracuse Univ., Syracuse, NY

Long-term climate change is likely to increase the magnitude and frequency of extreme climate events, which are weather- or climate-related phenomena that occur infrequently during an extended period of observation. These climate events include floods, droughts, heat waves, high winds, and others. This presentation will focus on high flows in streams and rivers. Climate warming, as observed over the past several decades has been associated with increases in the magnitude and frequency of precipitation events in many regions of the globe, and especially in the northeastern U.S. Increased precipitation is theoretically expected with a warmer climate on the basis of the Clausius-Clapeyron (C-C) equation, which describes an increase of about 7% in the saturation vapor pressure (or moisture-holding capacity) of the atmosphere for each 1° C increase in air temperature. However, precipitation amounts and the size of individual storms result from a complexity of factors, and studies have shown varying regional responses to climate warming that include trends that match those expected from the C-C equation as well as rates that are greater and less than predicted from this equation.

Precipitation is not streamflow, which seems an obvious point, but is not always acknowledged in discussions of extreme precipitation events and resulting high flows. Several analyses of the link between large precipitation events and high flows have shown a significant correlation between these two quantities, but often less than half of flow variation can be explained by precipitation magnitude alone. Key secondary explanatory variables that govern the flow response to large precipitation events are antecedent soil moisture content and storage. Other factors such as slope, basin area, floodplain width, and notably, snowpack water content, also affect the high flow response in a basin. These secondary explanatory factors that partially explain high flow response are important considerations in climate change assessments because both soil moisture and snowfall/snowpack are affected by long-term climate change. For example, lower snowpack amounts predicted for mountainous areas such as the Adirondacks, may diminish future high flows resulting from rain-on-snow events that occur in winter and spring.

Trends in high flows over the past three to five decades are highly variable across the U.S. during a period when climate has generally warmed. The northeastern U.S. is particularly noteworthy for showing increases in high flows; however, these increases have been mainly in the frequency of high flows and not in the magnitude of the highest flows that produce flooding. While these trends in the Northeast seem generally consistent with patterns expected under long-term climate warming, other sources of climate variation resulting from multi- year and multi-decadal oscillations may also be affecting these high flow trends. Future climate projections based on downscaled output from climate models generally indicate increases in annual and event-scale precipitation in the Northeast, but also show wide variation in future projections for the late 21st century across the full suite of models (Coupled Model Inter-Comparison Project 5) applied in the last global climate change assessment. These results suggest that ensemble approaches that apply results from multiple climate models are warranted to provide adequate consideration of uncertainty in future climate projections. Examples of historic trends and future projections in streamflow, with an emphasis on high flow will be shown for the Mohawk River basin.

High flows are particularly important for water quality because many constituents such as nitrate and dissolved organic carbon commonly show increases in concentrations with flow. Furthermore, particulate forms of nutrients and solutes tend to show even greater increases in concentrations than dissolved forms at the highest flows. These changes in water quality with high flows can be important considerations for watershed management, particularly in river systems that deliver solute and particulate loads to estuaries. The effects of the highest flows on water chemistry may persist for many years, which present further challenges to those who manage water quality. For example, erosion that results from the largest storms may increase suspended total phosphorus concentrations in rivers for several years after flood recession.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 10 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 In summary, climate change is likely to lead to increases in the frequency and magnitude of large storms, particularly in the northeastern U.S. Evidence to date is generally consistent with expected climate-related effects, but increasing trends in the highest peakflows that result in extensive flooding are not currently broadly evident. Future climate projections for the mid- to late-21st century indicate an expected increase in the magnitude of annual and event-scale precipitation, but wide variation among leading climate models suggests that ensemble approaches are warranted. Future analyses would benefit from consideration of secondary factors such as antecedent soil moisture and snowpack that affect the high flow response. Continued monitoring and analysis of streamflow, water quality, and key climate variables will help the science community, policy makers, and watershed managers gain a better understanding of the effects of climate change, and will inform appropriate risk-based decisions and actions. Finally, further research on the relative roles of short-term and long-term climate variation on the frequency and magnitude of extreme climatic events, so called attribution, will help scientists provide a better understanding of the mechanistic response to long- term climate change.

Invited Oral Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 11 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 The Need for a Geohazard App in Herkimer, NY: Government Entity Preparedness for Future Flooding

Amy Catalano, Morgan Jones, Maiesha Lovejoy, Antonios Marsellos

Dept. of Geology, Sustainability, and Environmental Resources, Hofstra University, Hempstead NY

Introduction Herkimer, New York experienced a major flood in July of 2013 which required the assistance of the Federal Emergency Management Administration and the Army Corp of Engineers (Eisenstadt, 2013). According to some respondents interviewed for this study, although the flood was seen as a “one hundred year event” due to heavy rains, the village is situated in a location that increases the risk of another flood should the West Canada River or Hinkley Reservoir breach the levees in place. (Figure 1.) We conducted an anonymous and non- recorded survey of people working in government entities in the town of Herkimer, NY to ascertain the need for a dynamic mobile application that can provide real-time flood data, including evacuation routes and the ability to monitor flood damage. Previous research has shown that flood simulation and reconstruction of a flood event with capabilities of damage evaluation is possible (Swan et al., 2016). Utilizing this technology in a mobile app would enhance the resilience of the town’s infrastructure and quick recovery from a flood event.

Figure 1: FEMA Surveyed Area of Flood Vulnerability of the study area

Methods We conducted nineteen surveys of government institutions serving Herkimer, NY. Herkimer was selected as a location for this study because the area had experienced a major flood event in 2013. Additionally, we used this location as an example as results from interviews in this region may be applied to other regions susceptible to a flood hazard. The institutions included the town hall, post office, fire department, emergency services, police department, highway department, transit authority, mental health care facility, health care facility, and the zoning office, among others. The questionnaire used for the interviews was comprised of ten questions that asked respondents to report how flooding in the past has affected their operations, and how the impact of future flood might be mitigated by information provided by a geohazard app that can provide real time data. Examples of questions included: “how likely do you think it is that there will be a flood in the future?,” “Would you be interested in a flood app that can show the extent of flood damage?,” “Would you be interested in a flood app that can connect you with emergency responders in the event of a flood?,” and “Do you think a flood app would increase the speed of recovery after a flood?”

A statistical software package (SPSS) was used to analyze the responses of the surveys. In the initial analysis of the first round of results Chi-Square, Phi and Cramer’s V tests were employed to determine whether there

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 12 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 were relationships and how strong is the relationship between the answers to different questions on the survey. After these analyses questions were grouped into those related to respondents’ experiences with flooding in the past (questions 1-4; e.g., amount of damage, probability of future flooding) and the need for the geohazard app (questions 5-8; e.g., interest in a flood app that would connect users to emergency responders, provide real time evacuation routes, speed recovery, and provide daily groundwater levels). Scores were computed for each group and then correlated with Pearson’s product moment to determine whether there was a relationship between respondents’ experiences with previous flooding and the need for the mobile app. Higher scores on each grouping of questions indicated a greater need for the app.

Results Descriptive statistics on the 19 responses has shown the mean, median, minimum, maximum, standard deviation and range values. The means and standard deviations are reported in Table 1. The range of values was from 1 to 5, and the median value was 3.1. Chi-square analyses of the 19 responses did not reveal any significant relationships between any questions on the survey.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics for each question

The next analysis included the recording to different variables (grouping) of scores to represent experiences with flooding and the expressed need for the app. The range of scores for group 1 questions was from 4-18, while group 2 scores ranged from 10-29. The mean score for group 1 questions (experiences with flooding) was 11.15, while the mean score for group 2 questions (need for the app) had a mean of 20.26. The results of the correlation between these two groups of questions was a value of r = 0.37 which was significant at p < 0.05, indicating a moderate positive relationship between experience with flooding and the need for the app. Other analysis showed the relationships between those in the survey that had answered one-three or from four- five to see if there was a direct relationship between the answers, or if there was a wide range. In addition, a second correlation graph was created on the individual responses to see if any questions may have a trend. Ultimately, no strong correlation could be determined due to the small selection pool of twenty. The only trend attained in the data is in government municipals - those that suffered from flooding often were more likely to positively respond to the app questions while those who did not respond positively were not affected more than once. Below is the chart showing the range in responses, and the correlations between high and low values on the scores. (Fig. 2 and 3.)

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 13 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Figure 2: Bar Graph Showing Correlation Between Individual Answers to Survey

Figure 3: Correlation Between Grouped Responses High vs. Low Values

Several respondents noted that the county has measures in place to monitor flooding and would likely provide more collaborative real-time data than a geohazard app, depending upon the data used to construct the application. According to respondents who work for the town, the county is involved in a flood mitigation study. There were differences in the perceived need for an app between government entities. For example, some government officials believed that the precautions put in place in the town would serve as a better alert to residents than an app because the town services such as emergency services and the fire department have more nuanced approaches to communications. However, other respondents did not report any concern for future flooding, but did indicate that residents may find a need for or be interested in this app if there were flooding in the future. Below is the flood map figure provided by FEMA. Despite the vulnerability in the region, government entities did not suffer themselves in the flood - but rather as a collective whole suffered from the damages.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 14 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Discussion The results of the survey used in this study has shown that despite claims that there may be no future flooding, there may be an interest in a geohazard app. Although chi-square analysis did not reveal significant relationships between questions answered by respondents, when grouping the answers to questions by “experiences with flooding” and “perceived need for the app” there was a significant relationship measured by the Cramer’s V value. Comments provided by respondents indicated that while a future flood is unlikely, a geohazard app may be useful for constituents. According to the government employees interviewed it is possible that residents have a different perception of need for the app Additional research on resident responses to this survey is needed to substantiate these views. Furthermore, our survey has shown that a better understanding of a professional geohazard mobile app by the government entities or by the residents would facilitate to understand the differences between the type of information the app can provide and the type of information the town readily possesses. A common note amongst the government municipals was the lack of funding that the town has. Being in close proximity to many others towns also affected by flooding, group collaboration is essential in planning, managing, and mitigating all effects of flooding. With the recent flood event in 2013, the towns and villages worked closely together with the aid of the federal government, but after the immediate cleanup of the flood a major need for infrastructure changes arose. Funding at this time has not come forward from other towns due to financial strains, which leaves the town of Herkimer County vulnerable to future flood events. The different entities all commented to say that it is important for close collaboration between all of the different departments and that future flood event management relies on this heavily. By increasing our pool of responders, we may be able to show a better statistical correlation in the Cramer's v values that would give a more fundamentally sound answer to whether or not the government municipals in Herkimer County would respond to a real-time app.

Conclusion Future research should compare the responses of government entities and those of residents and business as they all have different needs when it comes to flooding in the area. In addition, the amount of subjects should be greater than twenty in order to have more significant results when trying to evaluate the Cramer’s V and Chi-square values. Despite the claims by most respondents that flooding in the future is unlikely, government officials in charge of all of the towns and the entirety of the county were quite positive that flooding will continue to be a problem within the Herkimer County.

Acknowledgement We would like to thank Hofstra University’s Institutional Research Board (IRB), which has approved the use of human subjects for this research.

References Eisenstadt, M. (July 2, 2013). Flooding: Twice-flooded residents in Herkimer are bracing for more rain. Retrieved from http://www.syracuse.com/news/index.ssf/2013/07/flooding_twice-flooded_residen.html

Swan, B., Yankopoulos, A.T., Marsellos, A.E., 2016. Evaluation and Analysis of the Environmental Impact of the June 28, 2013 Flood in Herkimer, New York Using GIS and Other Reconstructive Data. Proceedings from the Mohawk Watershed Symposium 2016, p. 52-54, ISBN: 978-1-939968-07-4.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 15 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Impacts of Urbanization of Stream Biogeochemistry in Schenectady County, NY

Carolyn Connors and Anouk Verheyden

Geology Department, Union College, Schenectady, NY

Monitoring and understanding stream water quality is critically important to maintain ecological diversity and to also mitigate the contamination of human drinking water. This study strives to quantify the differences between rural and urban stream water chemistry by analyzing stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in water samples and filamentous algae. Stable isotopes are indicative of specific pollutant sources and are therefore advantageous to this research. Filamentous algae provide a time average of water quality because they continuously take in water and alter their isotopic composition. Nitrogen isotopes often suggest anthropogenic sources of pollution such as sewage leachate, fertilizer runoff, and nearby wastewater treatment plants. Carbon isotopes are indicative of DIC and are often influenced by stream geomorphology, the structure of the surrounding terrestrial ecosystem and productivity, and watershed geology (Finlay, 2003). 46 streams were sampled in total throughout Schenectady County in Upstate New York. At each site, water samples were taken, and when available, filamentous algae were collected as well. The water samples were analyzed for cations and anions, which also influence the overall quality of stream water and contribute to a stream’s alkalinity. These contaminants differ based on time, the economy, technology, and culture (Peters, 2009). Stream water quality between urban and rural environments is expected to differ between stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes, as well as ion concentrations. Sources of DIC should be different between streams depending on nearby urbanization, or lack thereof. In urban environments, streams are likely to be impacted by wastewater treatment plants and sewage leachate more than rural settings, but the overall concentrations of urban nitrogen is still expected to be less than those of the rural because urban streams are not influenced as heavily by agricultural sources. Lastly, this paper strives to give a better understanding of alkalinity through exploratory research.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 16 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 A series of snap-shots: Data and Observations from the Riverkeeper & SUNY Cobleskill Mohawk River water quality project as it enters Year Three

Thorin Dell’Acqua1, Barbara L. Brabetz1, Neil A. Law1, Jennifer Epstein2, John Lipscomb2, and Dan Shapley2

1 Department of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, SUNY Cobleskill, Cobleskill, NY 12043 2 Riverkeeper, Ossining, New York 10562

Surface water quality is of concern to all citizens, as drinking water sources, places of recreation, and wildlife habitat. A 2015 pilot study established collaboration between SUNY Cobleskill and Riverkeeper that is dedicated to using bacterial counts as a method for reporting on the water quality of the Mohawk River and its watershed. This collaboration’s unique set of single-day efforts dovetails with Riverkeeper’s program to characterize water quality along the full length of the Hudson River and many of its tributaries. Samples for the 121 mile length of the Mohawk River (Delta Lake to the confluence with the Hudson River) were collected at selected sites, typically within a 14-24 h period (48 h as longest window). This has created several single day “snap-shot” data sets for water quality along the full length of the Mohawk River. Thirty-three sites were sampled in 2015, 45 in 2016. Each sample was analyzed for fecal indicator bacteria (Enterococcus) using IDEXX’s Enterolert method (EPA Standard Method 9230D). Enterococcus is present in the guts of warm- blooded animals, and, while not usually harmful itself, indicates the likely presence of more harmful pathogens associated with fecal contamination. Other fecal indicator bacteria, total coliform and E. coli, were also measured in samples from selected sites in 2016 using the IDEXX Colilert system (EPA Standard Method 9223B). These bacteria may enter the waterway through combined sewer overflows, separate sewer system failures, septic system failures, urban surface water run-off (including domestic and wildlife sources), or agricultural run-off. In the 2016 dataset, 25 of 45 sites exceeded the EPA’s recommended geometric mean of 30 CFU/100mL, with particular segments of the Mohawk River regularly exceeding this EPA criterion. Contamination is greatest after precipitation events in both tributaries and the main stem. We will report on our complete data set and present plans for our 2017 campaign.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 17 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Stream and River Restoration in the Mohawk River Watershed in Oneida County

Gian Dodici1, Jo-Anne Humphreys2, David Erway3

1Biologist, USFWS, 2Oneida County SWCD, 3Fisheries Biologist, NYSDEC

Nearly half of Oneida County is occupied by the Mohawk River Watershed, which includes our largest population and commercial interests. Frequent and intense storm events have caused widespread flooding and streambank erosion damages throughout the county. In 2010, Region 6 DEC staff, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, Sauquoit Creek Basin Commission, the NYSDOT and the Oneida County Soil and Water Conservation District began to collaborate on stream restoration projects. The unofficial goal for Oneida County became addressing stream degradation in a more progressive manner, moving away from traditional methods of dredge, rip rap, and repeat. Specifically, we sought to utilize the Rosgen Natural Channel Design methodology to stabilize damaged reaches. The first of these projects was completed in 2010 by the USFWS, DEC, DOT and Canal Corps on the Mohawk River in the Town of Western. The project successfully saved the state bridge by realigning and stabilizing the River and providing a lush riparian buffer. In addition, the project brought several entities together to display the benefit of Natural Channel Design methods. In 2011, Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm Lee brought fresh damages to many streams. Then, the historic storm of June 28, 2013 brought an unprecedented round of damages to already degraded stream reaches, many of which had not recovered from Irene and Lee. As a result, state and local funding was allocated which finally allowed multiple stream restoration projects to employ Natural Channel Design methods in Oneida County. Between November 2015 and October of 2016, 7 stream restoration projects improved 0.7 miles of streams in Oneida County's portion of the Mohawk River Watershed. Restoration methods include Rosgen's toe wood, rock cross vanes, willow placement and buffer protection. An eighth watershed project in Herkimer County successfully realigned a Mohawk tributary and provided bank protection using log steps and rootwads. This presentation is a summary of recent stream restoration work in the Upper Mohawk River Watershed including lessons learned. It is our hope that these projects can serve to demonstrate the value of Natural Channel Design methods to elected officials, landowners and environmental professionals.

Invited Oral Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 18 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Union College Water Initiative

Alexander Dolcimascolo, Holli Frey, Kurt Hollocher, Abadie Ludlam, Joshua Dunn

Geology Department, Union College, Schenectady, NY

In response to a recent New York state legislature mandate requiring only public secondary schools to test their drinking water for lead contamination, students and faculty of the Union College Geology Department have teamed up to test our very own campus community water for heavy metal contaminants: The Union College Water Initiative (UCWI). Heavy metals such as lead, copper, and uranium have major health risks associated with them, especially to children and pregnant women. For example, some health problems associated with lead poisoning are: loss of developmental skills in children, high blood pressure, kidney dysfunction, memory loss, sleep problems, as well as abdominal pain and irritation to name a few. These health risks are very serious over time and if proper corrosion control is not used, community service lines for water and local plumbing can corrode and act as a potential source of these heavy metal contaminants. The source of Schenectady water on campus is from the Great Flats aquifer, which underlies the Mohawk River Channel, and is of very high quality. All water from this source is filtered through treatment plants. As documented in the 2015 City of Schenectady Annual Drinking Water Quality report, Schenectady water is very safe with the 90th percentile from 30 samples yielding a lead value of 2 ppb and copper value of 78 ppb. The EPA limits for lead and copper are 15 and 1,300 ppb, respectively. Hypothetically, the level of these metals in Union College’s water should be equivalent to the Schenectady source water. Levels that are higher may be a result of contamination from local plumbing and campus service lines.

Currently, over 165 water samples have been taken by the UCWI from more than 42 academic, residential, and recreational buildings on campus. These samples have been analyzed for lead, copper, zinc, rubidium, strontium, barium, and uranium by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometetry (ICP-MS). We use Schenectady tap water as a monitoring standard and precision is within 1-2%. Standards NIST-1640 and SLR- 5 are analyzed to assess accuracy. All samples collected were either from standard drinking fountains, Elkay ezH2O carbon-filtered fountains, bathroom faucets, and laboratory faucets. Upon sampling, each water aliquot was categorized as first draw sample, second draw, routine use, or unknown. Our measured values were as follows: lead: 0.00 to 20.4 ppb, copper: 0 to 1387 ppb, zinc 0 to 3416 ppb, rubidium: 0.01 to 3.40 ppb , strontium: 0 to 847 ppb, barium: 0 to 47 ppb, and uranium: 0.01 to 0.46 ppb. The averages levels for lead, copper, zinc, rubidium, strontium, barium, and uranium are 1.3, 440.8, 342.8, 0.2, 371.5, 29.2, and 0.2 ppb, respectively.

Union College is a very old campus, established in 1795, so it is very important to test every building as piping may vary at each location. For example, although more recently renovated, Messa and Wold House along with Green and Sorum house opened in 1814. Despite these buildings’ age of construction, all tested sources of water from these sites were well below EPA limits, which may be due to recent renovations since the beginning of the 21st century. However, the building with one isolated sample over the EPA action limit has not been renovated since (1968).

The sample that was over the EPA action level for both lead and copper was sent to be analyzed by a certified New York State Laboratory, St. Peter’s Hospital Environmental Laboratory, in Albany New York. Their results confirmed the accuracy of our results, also yielding 20 and 1300 ppb for lead and copper. Our findings also show that first draw samples, in which water has been stagnant in the pipes for >6 hours, tend to have higher levels of heavy metals (Figure 1). Additionally, the Elkay ezH2O carbon-filtered fountains yield values less than the Great Flats aquifer filtered water, and are very effective, decreasing levels of contamination by over two orders of magnitude compared to other sources (Figure 2). There is also some variance between some filter fountains, which may be attributed to the filter model or the status of the actual filter. In total, only one isolated fountain exceeded EPA limits for lead and two for copper. The college’s Environmental Health and Safety department and Facilities Services have shut off the fountain and have plans to replace it with a filtered water fountain.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 19 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Figure 1: Samples taken at different times during the day from the same kitchen sink in 313 Seward Place showing levels of copper and lead ppb. First Draw samples are the highest and values generally get lower over the course of the day.

Figure 2: Plot showing samples taken from Elkay ezH2O carbon-filtered fountains compared to non-filtered stations. Orange data points are from the non-filtered samples, while blue data are from the filtered samples. The filtered samples yield values well below non-filtered samples.

The topic of drinking water safety has been nationally ignited by crises in Flint, Michigan and Hoosick Falls, New York. This conversation has since become a very pressing topic within our community as well. Following the well-known lead contamination problems with the water system in Flint, Michigan (e.g., Campbell et al., 2016) the federal Water Infrastructure Improvements for the Nation Act was passed. Part of the bill was

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 20 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 sponsored by our local NY Congressman Paul Tonko (AQUA Act) which authorized a new $300 million grant program to remove lead from community water sources, with facilities that serve children given priority.

In the fall of 2016, the NY Senate and Assembly Health and Environmental Conservation Committees convened public hearings in response to water quality issues in the state. Following the hearings, it was recommended that NY establish a Drinking Water Quality Institute, composed of public health experts, scientists, water purveyors, and the Commissioners of the DEC and the DOH (NYS Senate Report, Jan. 3, 2017). Of particular interest to us was the charge of: conducting scientific studies or scientific based research as well as conducting public outreach, and ensuring state officials are educated and aware of the most up-to- date scientific research regarding water quality and contamination - NYS Senate Report, Jan 3, 2017.

Given our collective experience with water analysis and the clear need, the department decided to devote time and resources to create an additional phase of the Union College Water Initiative (UCWI).

Although New York State is very committed to the safety and quality of drinking water, currently, all colleges, daycares, recreational centers, and the community at large are not covered by the New York state legislation. In this next phase of this project, the Geology Department would like to offer their testing services to the community, as a preliminary informational tool and refer them to an official testing laboratory if needed. Our goal is to educate people about drinking water quality and how to mediate a problem if contamination is found.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 21 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Assessing Mobile Application Importance for Future Flooding Using Statistical Analysis and GIS: A study in Fort Plain, New York

Lauren D’Orsa, Keshanti Nandlall, Jakob Sacket, Antonios Marsellos

Department of Geology, Environment, and Sustainability, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY

Introduction On June 28, 2013, there was an occurrence of heavy rainfall across the Mohawk River Valley, where it fell at nearly one inch per hour (Weather.gov); at times the rain varied between three to five inches. The result was heavy flooding across the Mohawk Valley and the Adirondacks. As a result, parts of the New York State Thruway between exits 29A and 29 were closed. In addition to this, many of the roads were washed out. The entire village of Fort Plain went under water (Weather.gov). As a result of the flooding, 87 businesses were washed out, and were not expected to reopen, and over a hundred homes suffered major damage (Allen, 2013; Weather.com, 2013). Fort Plain is a village within Montgomery County, New York and is located near the Mohawk River. When living near flood hazards, evacuation routes are crucial for emergency preparedness. The purpose of this study is to assess the importance of evacuation routes, given a mobile application. This mobile application will be also based on a simulation and reconstruction of flood damage in a local area, which is a similar technique previously used in this area (D’Orsa et al., 2016). In addition to this, the mobile application will guide Fort Plain workers to highly elevated evacuation shelters through accessible roads at the time of a flood hazard. A statistical analysis of a survey has shown the importance of this application. Methodology This study area was chosen because of its proximity to the Mohawk River, an area that is prone to frequent floods. The population of Fort Plain was estimated to be 2,248 in 2015 (Census.gov). The target of this study is aimed at businesses and municipal buildings within Fort Plain, NY. The study examines the impact of flooding on businesses and municipal buildings, and if the targeted area would be interested in an application that will enhance the better town’s operation and safety upon future flooding. The study was completed via non recorded phone calls using a list of ten questions to approximately forty businesses and municipal buildings. No names or voice was recorded during the surveys. Fifteen successful anonymous phone calls took place using a questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed to focus on whether business and municipal buildings were affected by a previous flood and how useful could a mobile app be during a flood hazard. In order to maintain the anonymity of the interview locations, buffers were created on ArcMap (Fig. 1). Additionally, a digital surface model (DSM) was constructed using the available Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) Figure 1: An aerial view of the study area (from ArcGIS) showing the locations of the interviews with blue buffers.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 22 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 data for the study area. (Fig. 2). The DSM was constructed in Global Mapper. The points within this flood map were exported as KMZ files from Google Earth. This map illustrates the interview locations within the floodplain.

Figure 2: Illustrates a flood map of the interview locations through a digital terrain model (DTM), using Global Mapper and KMZ files. All points are located within the flood plain, as indicated by the blue surface.

The questions asked within the survey are as follows: 1. How many times has your property been affected by a flood event at the past? 2. Do you think that your area could be affected by a future flood event? 3. Did flood warning information reach you in advanced time? 4. How much money were spent at the past 5 years for flood prevention or/and mitigation in your property? 5. During a flood how dependent are you on major roads in your town? 6. There is a need for an application that would automatically notify emergency responders during a flood hazard? 7. I am interested in an app that provides a real time evacuation route during a flood. 8. There is a need for an easily accessible application that says how much and how far the flooding will affect the area? 9. Would you be interested in knowing the exact level of the groundwater on a daily basis around your area using this mobile app? 10. Do you think a mobile application will speed the recovery process after a flood?

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 23 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 The answers ranged from a response of 1-5 categorical answers, where 1 means not interested/low frequency/or /minimal spending, and 5 means strongly interested/high frequency/or/ higher spending (Fig. 3). An extra “Other” category was dismissed as a part of our study to ensure that we only had numerical answers, which would be imported into a workable format of the SPSS software. The calls varied anywhere between 30 seconds to 5 minutes depending on the responders’ willingness to respond. The responses were then imported into a google form and exported to an Excel spreadsheet file. From there they were imported into the SPSS software, where the statistical analysis was completed. Due to the small sample size of 15 responses, the data was re-coded in the statistical software in the following format: all responses that were answered in the first- second-third choice in each individual question (ex. Q1, Q2 ...etc.) were grouped, and in another variable, all the responses that were fourth-fifth choice of the same question were grouped. This was done to ensure that a more accurate comparative analysis could be drawn from the data.

Figure 3: A screenshot from the questionnaire designed in a Google form to input answers in a database.

Results After the interviews were conducted, the results were analyzed. It was founded that most properties have been affected twice by a flood (Fig. 4) and the interviewees believed that a flood may occur once every five to ten years. In addition, majority of the interviewees were notified a few hours before the flood hazard, they had to pay around $5,000 to $10,000 within the last five years for flood prevention/mitigation, and are very dependent on major roads during a flood. These respondents also strongly agreed that there is a need for an application that would notify emergency responders, they were interested in a mobile application that provides evacuation routes, and that there is a need for an application that says how much and how far the flooding will affect the area. Lastly, many people were not interested in knowing the exact level of groundwater on a daily basis and they strongly disagree that a mobile application will speed the recovery process after a flood. The results from the interview are illustrated below (Fig. 4).

The mode, median, range, and average were also calculated to find the measures of central tendency and variation (Fig. 5). The range is the only measure of variation and illustrated by the grey bar. The mode is the variable that occurs most often and it represented by the blue bar. The median is depicted by the orange bar and is the central variable. Lastly, the average is the sum of the values divided by the number of values, and is represented as the yellow bar. These descriptive statistics are critical to this study because they explain the degree to which all the data values group around or the amount of diffusion.

Subsequently, the data were uploaded into SPSS and a Chi-Square Test was obtained to test the dependency of any of the categorical variable pairs (between questions), and how strongly dependent or independent are two variables (questions) from the utilized questionnaire. In most instances p-values were greater than 0.05 showing the independency between questions, while few questions were dependent with p-values nearby or less than 0.05. Moreover, the questions were tested for their relationship strength using Cramer’s V and Phi number. Cramer’s V is 0 when there is a very weak relationship and have a strong relationship when Cramer’s V is 1. The Chi-Square Test revealed perfect results between questions one and five; the p-value was 0.005 and Cramer’s V was 1.000 (Fig. 6).

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 24 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Figure 4: Illustrates the number of responses (frequency) (1-5) to each question.

Figure 5: Mode, median, range, and average for each of the interview question results.

Figure 6: Chi-Square Test results, obtained from SPSS, which demonstrate Cramer’s V and P-value.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 25 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Discussion The correlation between questions one and five illustrates that the higher occurrence of floods results in a high dependency on major roads. The greater the incidence of flooding hazards, the interviewees expressed how important major roads are for escape routes. Many respondents expressed that the major roads were the only method of travel. Throughout the interviews, various respondents reiterated that the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) aided business owners in repairs and preparations for future storm events. Most of the business owners (interviewees) received money from this agency. It was also founded that many of the respondents were confused by the term groundwater and its relevance to this study. This implied a lack of fundamental knowledge around the groundwater flood formation. Fort Plain workers also seemed hesitant toward the notion of a mobile application speeding the recovery process. One respondent stated that the government would be more beneficial toward recovery than a mobile application. The low interest in having a mobile application to facilitate a recovery after a flood hazard illustrates the lack of understanding of how dependent we are on roads and the local infrastructure. This includes the operation of the police and fire departments, mail carriers, hospital operations, and ambulances upon a flood hazard. Conclusion Many businesses lie within the floodplain and are at risk for future flooding hazards. The last major flooding hazard within this area was in June 2013 but remediation is still underway. Although this area is frequently affected by floods, many municipal workers and business owners were not interested in participating for the interviews or knowing important features such as the groundwater level. The successful interviews, however, demonstrate that there is a need for a mobile application that would notify emergency responders, provide evacuation routes, and alert workers how much and how far the flooding will affect or affects Fort Plain during a flood hazard. This mobile application will be pertinent to this area, and will create emergency preparedness and mitigation. Additionally, the application will inform the workers where evacuation shelters are or how to approach them through safe and non-flooded routes. Understanding the flood extent in an area during or after a flood hazard such as in Fort Plain will enhance community resilience against future floods. Acknowledgement We thank the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Hofstra University’s approval for the use of humans as research objects and for assisting us in ensuring that our survey met the criteria.

References Allen, Pam. "Fort Plain Loses 87 Businesses in Flooding; National Grid Wants to Help." Bizjournals.com.Albany Business Review, 9 July 2013. Web. 22 Feb. 2017. http://www.bizjournals.com/- albany/blog/2013/07/ft-plain-loses-87-businesses-in.html

Census.gov. Fort Plain village, New York 2015 Population Estimate. Publication Date: n.a. Web Accessed: 16 February 2017. URL: http://www.census.gov/search-esults.html?q=fort+plain+ny+ population& page=1 &state Geo=none&searchtype=web&cssp=SERP

D’Orsa et al. “Determining Vulnerable Sites to Flood Risk Using LiDAR, GIS, and Data Mining: An Example of Fort Plain Flood of June 28th, 2013. March 2016. Web. 23 Feb. 2017. http://pbisotopes.ess.sunysb.edu/lig/- Conferences/abstracts16/hofstra/Orsa.pdf

Weather.gov. Web Accessed: 16 February, 2017. URL: http://www.weather.gov/aly/MajorFloods

Weather.com. State of Emergency in New York After Floods. Associated Press. Publication Date: 3 July 2013. Web Accessed: 18 February 2017. URL: https://weather.com/news/news/upstate-new-york-flooding-20130702

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 26 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Water Quality and Hydrodynamic Characterizations of Sturgeon Spawning Habitat in the St. Lawrence River and Tributaries

C. Fuller, J. Bonner, S. Islam, W. Kirkey, P. O’Brien, P. Kirkey

Rivers and Estuaries Observatory Network Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY

Introduction The International Joint Commission has identified the Massena/Akwesasne as an Area of Concern (AOC) due water quality impairment resulting from the discharge of hazardous byproducts to the St. Lawrence River, adjacent tributaries and land. The American Fisheries society has designated lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) as threatened in all water bodies in the USA including the AOC. Other anthropogenic contributions to habitat degradation may include the presence of dams and hydroelectric facilities and dredging/channelization of water bodies. The objective of this project was to characterize the water quality and hydrodynamics of known and/or probable spawning habitats to facilitate priority site selection for spawning bed placements or enhancement activities. These characterizations involved the temporary installation and operation of Clarkson University’s River and Estuary Observatory Network (REON) nodes on the Raquette and Grasse Rivers, both tributaries of the St. Lawrence River, to provide high-frequency environmental observations spanning a continuous 7-month period and hydrodynamic characterizations during nominally high and low flows. In the St. Lawrence River study area, water quality and hydrodynamics of were characterized during two research vessel cruises using a towed-undulating instrument array and Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler Characterization. Methods The tributary characterization employed a two-tier approach to measure key hydrologic, hydrodynamic, and water quality parameters. Tier 1 involved continuous monitoring of water surface elevation, weather, and water quality parameters using Clarkson University’s REON network and Real Time Hydrologic System [1]. Real Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS survey techniques were employed to provide a detailed streambed elevation survey, establish velocity profile transect lines (20 each at each study location), and establish elevation benchmarks for both RTHS stream gauges. Tier 2 involved collection of 3-dimensional (i.e. horizontal and vertical) water velocity profiles at 20 cross channel transect lines during nominally high and low flows using either a Teledyne RD Instruments Stream Pro ADCP or HACH HF 950 velocimeter with a wading rod. Selection of water velocity measurement method was dependent on variable water level where the HACH HF 950 was employed when water level were too low ADCP operations. Water quality of the St. Lawrence River study area was conducted with in-situ sensors (Conductivity, Temperature, Depth (SeaBird CTD); dissolved oxygen (Aanderaa); Particle size and concentration (Sequoia Scientific, LISST-100); chlorophyll and dissolved organic matter fluorescence (WETLabs)) integrated on a towed underwater instrument array (SeaScience, Acrobat). The Acrobat was controlled with a dedicated computer through a tension/data/power cable to enable two-dimensional surveys (i.e. horizontal and vertical) along the ~15.4 km along channel transect distance. An independently operated Workhorse ADCP was used to measure water velocity profiles along the transect route and stream discharge (i.e. flow rates at major stream diversions and tributary confluences. Results Results from the tributary characterization showed the seasonal and daily variability of water quality in the both the Raquette and Grasse River study areas. Diurnal pH and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) variability was consistent with a photosynthetic mechanism and suggest the importance of phytoplankton productivity on water quality (Fig. 1). The influence of stream flow (i.e. hydrologic factors) on water quality water demonstrated by an obvious attenuation of pH and DO variability during and following high flow events (Fig. 1). The measured water quality parameters were generally acceptable for viable sturgeon spawning. However, high water temperatures and low dissolved oxygen concentrations observed during low summer flows may adversely affect egg/larval development, hatching rates, and survival. The hydrodynamic characteristics of the two study areas varied considerably. The flow of the Raquette River supports many hydroelectric facilities along its course with flows varying as a function of active management practices and regulations, although

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 27 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 high flows did occur in times of abundant precipitation and subsequent runoff. In contrast, the Grasse River has no actively controlled dams along its course, thus flows were subject to natural precipitation patterns and thus prone to extreme minimum and maximum flows. Despite these differences, velocities observed in both study areas were between 0.1 – 2.0 m/s and comparable to velocities cited as suitable for spawning.

Figure 1 RTHS time series observation of pH, dissolved oxygen, and stage height at Grasse River

Results from the St. Lawrence River characterization showed water velocities (0.5-3.0 m/s) and water quality with respect to water temperature and dissolved oxygen that was well suited for viable sturgeon spawning. Observations collected at tributary confluences provided insight regarding bi-directional influence of tributaries and the St. Lawrence River (Figure 2). Field measurement showed that the tributaries, although representing a minor fraction of the total St. Lawrence flow, influence water quality in the receiving water (Figure 3). Stratification occurred where and when less dense tributary flows override higher density St. Lawrence River water. This mechanism may have important implications with respect to lake sturgeon spawning behavior in the tributaries. Conclusions The collected hydrodynamic and water quality data provide a comprehensive illustration of dynamic environmental conditions in two St. Lawrence River tributaries. Further analysis is required to assess observed habitat conditions against known characteristics conducive to sturgeon spawning, hatching, and maturation. A significant quantity of hydrodynamic data is available for further analysis in appropriate hydrodynamic models (e.g. HEC-RAS) to evaluate bottom shear stress as function of flow and thus provide tangible design criteria for comparison to other sturgeon habitats. Additional studies may be appropriate to assess the impact and determine the mechanisms responsible for the observed variability in water quality (i.e. pH and dissolved oxygen).

Results from the two St. Lawrence River surveys indicated that conditions within the study area generally agreed with conditions noted for viable sturgeon spawning habitat (Kerr, Davison, & Funnel, 2010). Currents within the study area were generally strong with velocities ranging from ~0.5 to 2.0 m/s throughout the study area. Depths for the most part ranged between 2-13m, with deeper holes reaching 25 m. Surveys conducted near the confluence of the Grasse, Raquette, and St. Regis River with the St. Lawrence River indicate the influence of tributary flows on the St. Lawrence water quality.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 28 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Figure 2 Stick ship plot of water velocity magnitude and direction at the confluence of the Raquette and St. Lawrence River indicates bi-directional flow (i.e. upstream and downstream).

Figure 3: St. Lawrence River (high flow) contour plots shows elevated particle concentration near tributary confluences. Ovals from left to right indicate proximity to the Grasse, Raquette, and St. Regis Rivers. References M. Islam, J. Bonner, J. Paley and C. Fuller, “Low-cost stand-alone system for Real-time Hydrological Monitoring”, Environmental Engineering Science, pp. 1-13, 2016.

S. Kerr, M. Davison and E. Funnel, “A review of lake sturgeon habitat requirements and strategies to protect and enhance sturgeon habitat”, Fisheries Policy Section, Biodiversity Branch. Ontario, Ministry of Natural Resources, Peterborough, Ontario., 2010.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 29 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Efficacy of Environmental DNA and Traditional Fish Sampling Methods to Monitor the Expansion of Invasive Round Goby in the Mohawk River-Barge Canal System

Scott D. George1, Christopher Rees2, and Barry P. Baldigo1

1 U.S. Geological Survey, New York Water Science Center, Troy, NY 2 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Northeast Fishery Center, Lamar, PA

The Round Goby (Neogobius melanostomus) is an invasive benthic fish indigenous to the Ponto-Caspian region of Eurasia, which recently colonized all five Great Lakes and is presently invading eastward into the Mohawk River Basin through the New York State (Barge) Canal System. During 2016, the U.S. Geological Survey, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Mohawk River Basin Program, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service began a collaborative study to (a) document the distribution, relative abundance, and rate of expansion of Round Goby through the Mohawk River-Barge Canal system and (b) compare the efficacy of environmental DNA (eDNA) and traditional fish sampling methods for monitoring the distribution of this species. These objectives are being achieved by analyzing water samples for eDNA, and sampling fish by benthic trawling, bag seining, and minnow trapping twice annually at 12 sites during June and August in 2016 and 2017. Preliminary results from the 2016 surveys suggest that Round Goby populations have invaded waters at least as far east as Utica, NY and that eDNA appears to have greater sensitivity than traditional fish sampling methods for detecting the presence of Round Goby. Surveys in 2017 will yield more comprehensive information on the current distribution of Round Goby and the utility of each method to monitor the invasion front of this species.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 30 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Dams: Miraculous or Disastrous?

A.M. Ghaly

Department of Engineering, Union College, Schenectady, NY

Dams are large structures constructed across rivers and waterways. The main function a dam serves is to control the flow of water and regulate it. There could be other purposes for dam construction such as, for example, hydropower generation using the difference in water levels between the upstream and downstream sides of the dam. Dams are very costly to build and the return on the investment may take decades to materialize. A decision to build a dam requires in-depth studies of its effect on the environment, people in the area of the construction site, ecosystem including wildlife, animal, birds, fish, and the long term impact on the region in general. Dams also change the nature of the land in their immediate vicinity where swaths of land on the upstream side get submerged by the formed reservoir, and the drop of water level on the downstream side could alter agriculture and navigation activities.

On the positive side, dams allow humans to exert control over nature to achieve certain goals that a naturally running river cannot achieve efficiently or at all. In that sense, dams may be considered miraculous. On the negative side, mother nature is extremely hard to control, and if forced to conform to an unnatural mold, there could be negative side effects that could be disastrous. Striking a balance between the miraculous and the disastrous is no easy task. In the last century, building Hoover Dam, for example, on the Colorado River was viewed as a project of national importance to pick America out of the Great Depression and to initiate economic recovery in seven western states. Also, the TVA (Tennessee Valley Authority) project was implemented to provide navigation, flood control, electricity generation, fertilizer manufacturing, and economic development to a region covered by portions of seven southern states affected by the Great Depression. These projects were favorably viewed at that time and were executed expeditiously. Today, many years after the completion of such mega projects, questions are being raised about their environmental toll. Time, public concern, shifting attitudes, and priorities could also affect how a project is viewed. This presentation will detail the factors that should be taken into account when a dam project is under consideration and how to ameliorate the design to address concerns that may arise over the useful life of dams. It will be shown that perfect answers to all concerning questions do not exist, and that it will take thoughtful and meticulous understanding of all aspects related to the raised issues to arrive at mutually acceptable and beneficial outcomes.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 31 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Developing a Formula for Fair Distribution of Water for Rivers with Multi Riparian States

A.M. Ghaly

Department of Engineering, Union College, Schenectady, NY

There exist over 260 river basins shared by two or more riparian states. Faced with population growth and increased competition for water, distribution of water resources amongst countries that rely on the same source of water is often problematic. This is most likely because the available volume of water is insufficient to meet demand. Unfair distribution of water resources, whether true or perceived, can lead to disputes that could escalate to serious conflicts. In many situations, an elevated intensity of conflict can lead to violent confrontation. It takes negotiations in good faith to reach an agreement acceptable to all countries of the river basin. Absent of a rational basis for water distribution, claims and counterclaims could exacerbate an already challenging situation.

Water distribution in a fair way is significantly tricky. To develop a formula for fair distribution of the total discharge of a river, many factors should be considered. These factors are, but not limited to, total population and its density in each of the riparian countries, amount of rain fall, other available water sources, percent of the country area within the river basin, type of economy (agriculture, industrial, etc.), availability of underground water and whether it is renewable, cost of harvesting water from other sources, upstream versus downstream geographical location, losses of water and their causes, and ability to develop other non- conventional water sources. Omission of one or more of the above factors could skew the fairness of the desired formula. Furthermore, the above factors may not have equal weight, which should be introduced as a parameter into the developed formula. Another stumbling block in the way of developing such a formula is that, as equitable and fair as it could be, some countries in the river basin may view any developed formula as unfavorable to their needs and refuse to accept any volume of water that is less than what they deem fair from their point of view. The task of developing such a formula is much more complicated than being a simple mathematical exercise. This paper will illustrate the role each of the above identified factors would play in the attempt to develop a fair formula. No matter how balanced the developed formula is, there will always be room for improvement as factors may change over time. Developing a perfect formula that receives the blessings of all riparian countries of a river basin is almost an impossibility.

Oral Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 32 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Early detection and range expansion of the Mohawk watershed’s newest aquatic invader, the bloody red shrimp: A citizen science and survey-based approach

Anne M. Gundeck, Julia Q.G. Roellke, Mia J. Foucek, Mattison W. Warren, Elinor T.K. Stapylton, Erik Hedlund, and Brent T. Boscarino

Poughkeepsie Day School, 260 Boardman Road, Poughkeepsie, NY

Invasion History and Call for Citizen Science In 2006, a small aquatic invertebrate with an ominous-sounding name, the bloody-red shrimp (BRS), invaded Great Lakes waters. The species most likely hitchhiked in the ballast of western bound ships from Europe where they had become most recently established. Since that time, BRS have been reported in several inland New York Lakes and canals including Seneca, Oneida and Cayuga Lakes as well as the Seneca-Cayuga and Erie Canal (Brown et al., 2014). Most of these reports have resulted from incidental encounters or targeted research studies by colleges and universities. However, these studies and casual public reportings can be erratic both spatially and temporally due to the realistic budget constraints of the grants funding the research or the limited number of experts or public observers involved in the reporting. If we want to better understand the rate of spread of BRS and other aquatic invaders, a citizen-based survey approach offers many advantages over classical research studies in both early detection and prevention work. For one, citizen science volunteers may be able to access sampling sites on private and protected lands that most scientists are not permitted access to. Secondly, citizen education and outreach initiatives help to empower those members of the public that are interested in preserving the integrity of their local ecosystems by actively contributing to a larger research project and helping to protect local waterways. With robust public participation, research experts are then able to consolidate the data received to develop more detailed and thorough invasion history maps and predictive models of range expansion potential. Through ongoing communication and cooperation between researchers and the public, we are able to see the bigger picture of how an invasion is impacting/likely to impact our native aquatic ecosystems’ structure and function and how institutions and the general public can work together in management and awareness efforts.

In this study, we evaluate the efficacy of low-budget, “self-assembled” plankton nets and experimental light traps (when distributed to local volunteers and regional partners, in addition to university-led sampling efforts), to help (1) with the early detection and control of the spread of BRS in NYS and (2) establish the invasion front as the species expands throughout the Hudson-Mohawk River basin.

Early detection and monitoring of the bloody red shrimp (BRS) In June-July of 2016, our team fully completed an expansive plankton net survey of all Finger Lakes and canals within the Finger Lakes that built upon our previously published work (Brown et al., 2014). No significant changes were observed in terms of further spread in the Finger Lakes region. However, we found BRS as far east as Lock 2 on the Erie Canal in Waterford, NY, less than 1 mile from the Hudson River. We consistently found BRS at every major lock site and marina along the Waterford stretch of the Erie Canal, in high numbers and with individuals of multiple age classes. In 2013, no BRS were observed at any sites east of Herkimer, NY. This is a noteworthy finding as it suggests that BRS is capable of moving through canals very quickly and is rapidly moving eastward towards the Hudson River.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 33 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Figure 1. Results of our 2016 BRS survey, including all research scientist and citizen science sampling efforts. Darker placemarks indicate presence of the species and lighter placemarks represent absence. In 2013, there were no reported instances of BRS east of Herkimer, NY. Our current study reveals their presence on the doorstep of the Hudson River.

Citizen Science Surveys Experimental Light Traps Our team also deployed BRS-specific light traps as possible rapid response and control mechanisms in areas of known and suspected BRS infestation. Through the help of the Finger Lakes Watercraft Stewards Program, we focused on developing a robust and accurate method of reporting BRS through citizen volunteers that have deployed these traps. Sampling and reporting combined both capturing video of BRS behavior and preserving samples obtained from the traps. The distinctive swimming pattern of BRS makes video footage an ideal method for identifying the presence and abundance of the species. The species has two very large, distinctive eyes and a darkened stomach just behind the eyes that is relatively simple to identify through video capture. In cases in which video capture is inconclusive, we also developed a low-budget method of capturing the contents of the trap by sieving the contents through a coffee filter and preserving the remains in rubbing alcohol. This technique will hopefully be used in future citizen science surveys to further track the spread and detect BRS in the Mohawk-Hudson River basin.

Figure 2. A BRS-specific light trap deployed by Poughkeepsie Day School SCUBA diver, Erik Hedlund. The device emits a preferred light level for BRS that draws the invasive species into the funnel trap where they cannot escape. These trap sampling devices can be deployed from most marinas and piers and are weighed down with a brick and are a highly effective early detection tool for BRS.

Cost-Effective Plankton Nets One of the more effective methods of identifying BRS presence/absence is sampling the water column with a plankton net during twilight/nighttime when the species inhabits the open waters. Given that BRS are a species that do not arise from the bottom depths until twilight, it is impingent upon citizen volunteers to help sample for the species at these times in areas of suspected invasion. Towards this goal, we assembled and distributed

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 34 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 50 low budget (< $10 apiece) student plankton nets and created educational brochures and collection instructions, and distributed these materials to citizen volunteers. Through the help of these volunteers, we sampled several private piers and marinas throughout the Finger Lakes that currently-funded research projects are not/have not been able to sample. The results of these deployments can be seen in Figure 1. This technique will hopefully be used in future citizen science surveys to further track the spread and detect BRS in the Mohawk-Hudson River basin.

Figure 3. Leigh Williams Grinnell of Poughkeepsie, NY sewing together homemade plankton nets for distribution to citizen science volunteers. Volunteers sampled various marinas, boat launches and piers across NYS to look for the presence/absence of the aquatic invasive species, the bloody-red shrimp (BRS). Photo credit: Richard Grinnell

Figure 4. Plankton nets developed by student researchers from the Poughkeepsie Day School were distributed to citizen science volunteers to help with monitoring the spread and population dynamics of BRS. The nets were constructed with lightweight materials that could commonly be purchased at local stores for less than $10. Photo credit: Julia Roellke

References Brown M, Boscarino B, Roellke J, Stapylton E, & Driller-Colangelo A. 2014. Fifteen miles on the Erie Canal: the spread of Hemimysis anomala G.O. Sars, 1907 (bloody red shrimp) in the New York State canal system BioInvasion Records 3: 261-267.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 35 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Our River… Our Home: The Amsterdam Pedestrian Bridge, Sense of Place and Environmental Concern for the Mohawk River

Scott Hadam1, John McKeeby1, Ellen E. McHale2, Bhawin Suchak3, John Naple4, Lillian English5, Frank Stately5, Katherine Helmsley5, Jordon Schmidtmann5

1Schoharie River Center, Inc. 2025 Burtonville Road, Esperance NY 2 New York Folklore Society, 129 Jay Street, Schenectady NY 3Director, Youth FX, Albany NY- http//www.youthfx.org 4President, Board of Directors - Amsterdam Free Library 5Amsterdam Environmental Study Team

The Schoharie River Center’s Environmental Study Team – Youth Development Program (EST) has provided youth (age 13 – 18yrs.) with an opportunity to engage with trained adults in ongoing local, community based water quality monitoring, Community Archaeology, and Cultural Documentation activities throughout the Schoharie Valley and Mohawk River Basin since 2003 (McKeeby & McKinley, 2009).

In 2016, the SRC with the generous support of the Community Foundation for the Capital Region - Impact Grant program, and in partnership with the Amsterdam Free Library and the New York Folklore Society, has worked to successfully establish an ongoing, weekly EST program that meets on Thursday’s from 4 – 6 p.m. at the Amsterdam Free Library. The Amsterdam Free Library is centrally located and serves the city’s most needy citizens. Locating the EST program at the Library introduces new programing at the Library as well as showcasing the tremendous resources the library has to offer to urban teens, who may not be aware of the programs at the AFL.

Over the past year, EST youth from Amsterdam have worked to expand water quality monitoring in the Mohawk watershed, focusing on urban streams, and un-assessed bodies of water that can offer urban youth (and their families) access to nature in the city and the surrounding areas. The program continues to train local high school age youth (ages 13 – 18) in the science and skills of water quality monitoring and provide them with a sense of place and connection to their local community and watershed.

Of particular interest to the EST youth and important to the community of Amsterdam has been two major events that have occurred in the city during 2016. The opening of the new Pedestrian Bridge (September 2016) linking the City of Amsterdam with South Amsterdam across the Mohawk River, joins two distinct communities through connecting them via the Riverlink Waterfront Park. The Bridge is an extension of the park over the Mohawk, complete with benches, artwork, history displays, and growing gardens over the Mohawk River. The other event has been the on-going sewer system malfunction that has led to a nearly continuous discharge of un-treated City of Amsterdam sewage into the North Chuctanunda Creek leading into the Mohawk River, causing an extreme health hazard to people in the city and those using the river or living in communities downstream. The youth in the EST program have become interested in the community’s perceptions and attitudes about the Mohawk River and how these two events may influence and shape people’s attitudes and reactions toward the Mohawk at Amsterdam. Through a grant from the New York State Council on the Arts obtained by the New York Folklore Society (NYFS), the EST youth have been working with the SRC and NYFS to conduct cultural documentation and oral history interviews; including how these events influence various community members perceptions about the Mohawk River, their “sense of place” and values toward the river; and how they would like to see the river treated in the future. Connected with this work as part of SRC’s youth development skills programming, EST youth have been working with filmmakers from Youth FX (Albany) in Amsterdam to create a documentary film that explores these ideas and the relationship between how ones “Sense of Place” is created, and how that influences their attitudes, understandings and behaviors toward Nature and Environmental Stewardship. (McHale, 2016)

While the film is a “first step” in the EST teams study into the influence of the new pedestrian “Bridge” on local residents attitudes and “sense of place” when it comes to the Mohawk River, the subject has opened up a new area of research interests for the SRC – EST programs, that we believe can have a long term impact, both

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 36 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 in expanding the youth development skills learned in the EST programs, and in learning how to better promote pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors in the communities where EST youth work and live.

The concept of Sense of Place Since the term was first used by geographer Kevin Lynch in 1960 (Lynch, 1960), researchers studying “Sense of Place” have come to use the term to mean a psychological construct relating to ones sense of belonging to, connected or rooted emotionally to a place. Within this construct, Sense of Place is composed of two principal and related concepts: Place Attachment and Place Meaning. (Figure 1; Kudryavtsev, Stedman, & Krasny, 2012)

Place Attachment refers to the bond between people and places, or the degree to which a place is important to people (Jorgensen, 2001).

Place Meaning is described as the symbolic meaning someone ascribes to a place, such as cultural values, memories or emotions. The meaning of a place is rooted in the human experience of the place, and is a multi- dimensional, reflecting an individual’s environment, social interactions, culture, aesthetic perspectives and etc. (Kong, L; Yeoh, B.S.A., 1995; Rotenberg, R., 1993; Ryden, K.C., 2008).

Figure 1 – Components of Sense of Place (Kudryavtsev, Stedman, & Krasny, 2012)

Much research has been conducted looking at ways to measure or assess sense of place, utilizing various survey techniques to assess place attachment and place meaning. Likert scale surveys, as well open ended questioning and more in-depth oral history interviews have all been utilized and reported upon in the environmental education research literature as effective ways to assess both place attachment and place meaning. (Kudryavtsev, Stedman, & Krasny, 2012). In addition, sense of place, including place meaning and place attachment can be expressed, and have been the subject of empirical research; and measured for a range of place types, including rivers (Bricker, 2000); city or neighborhoods (Hidalgo, 2001) wildlife refuge (Payton, 2003), and urban forests (Arnberger, 2008) to name a few.

The relationship between sense of place and pro-environmental behavior Several researchers have suggested that there is a relationship between one’s sense of place and pro- environmental behavior. Fostering pro-environmental behaviors is a major goal of environmental education (Kudryavtsev, Stedman, & Krasny, 2012). While many have written about the importance of ones sense of place, or rootedness (Orr, 1994) as a driver in one’s desire to act in environmentally responsible ways, there are very few environmental education models that incorporate into their curriculum strategies intended to integrate or promote Sense of Place as a way to increase pro-environmental attitudes and the values of stewardship. While it is clear that place attachment and place meaning are key aspects of one’s sense of place,

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 37 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 little research has been done on how to foster and promote strong place attachment and emphasize ecological place meaning to foster pro-environmental behavior at the individual and community level.

Development of Place Attachment and Place Meaning Based on their review of the literature of sense of place in environmental education, Kudryavtsev et al, (2011) argue: “place attachment can be developed through both (1) direct experiences with places, especially long term, frequent, and positive experiences, and (2) learning about places from indirect sources rather than direct contact”.

Specifically noted is the importance of experiential learning and direct engagement with a place over time, which can lead to the development of strong place attachment. The SRC’s environmental study team program (EST) provides youth with just this type of ongoing interaction with their local environmental and fresh water ecosystems. We have seen first-hand the development of a strong sense of place, (place attachment and ecologically based place meaning) in many of these youth over the 15 years the program has been in operation within the Mohawk / Schoharie Watershed.

In Amsterdam, the EST youth’s efforts to document their work using video, however, has led to a new research opportunity for the program. Specifically, with the video created by the youth with Youth FX, we can begin to assess how a viewer, who has had little or no direct experience with the Mohawk River or the Pedestrian Bridge, may be informed about the Mohawk and the Bridge in a way that fosters in them a sense of place, possibly leading to greater pro-environmental attitudes toward the Mohawk River.

Using their video, “Our River...Our Home”, the EST team intends to study the impact the pedestrian bridge can have with members of Amsterdam’s community through assessing sense of place attitudes toward the Mohawk through the use of before and after Likert surveys, as well as more in-depth interviews of community members willing to participate in the project.

The research will also include measuring of any difference in how sense of place is experienced and can be measured based on whether individuals primarily learn about the Mohawk and the Bridge through viewing the video vs. through taking a “tour” or “urban hike” of the Mohawk from the library over the bridge and back.

Additionally, we are interested in how, if at all, will Amsterdam residents demonstrate greater pro- environmental attitudes or activities (including activism) as a result of their evolving sense of place due to their experience with the pedestrian bridge enabling them to more directly experience the Mohawk River in a personal interaction with the natural environment.

This project is in its beginning stages. We look forward to the attendees at the symposium viewing our video and offering their ideas, feedback and comments as we move forward on this exciting project. We plan to report back next year at the 2018 Mohawk Symposium.

Works Cited Arnberger, A. A. (2008). Place attachment of local residents with an urban forest and protected area in Vienna. Forest Recreation and Tourism Serving Urbanized Societies. Hameenlinna, Finland.

Bricker, K. K. (2000). Level of Specialization and place attachment: An exploratory study of white water recreationists. Leisure Science, 22 (no. 4), 233-57.

Hidalgo, M. H. (2001). Place attachment: Conceptual and empirical questions. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21 (3), 273-81.

Jorgensen, B. S. (2001). Sense of place as an attitude: Lakeshore owners’ attitudes toward their properties. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21 (No. 3), 233-48.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 38 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Kong, L; Yeoh, B.S.A. (1995). The meanings and making of place: Exploring history, community, and identity. In B. Y. Kong, Portraits of Places: History, community and identity in Singapore (pp. 12-23). Singapore: Times Editions.

Kudryavtsev, A., Stedman, R. C., & Krasny, M. E. (2012). Sense of place in environmental education. Environmental Education Research, Vol. 18 (No. 2), 229-250.

Lynch, K. (1960). The Image of the City. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.

McHale, E. E. (2016). What's Your Watershed?: Folklore and the Intersection of Place, Culture, and the Environment. VOICES: The Journal of New York Folklore, 42 (3-4), 12 - 17.

McKeeby, J. M., & McKinley, C. &.-R. (2009). The Environmental Study Team: Youth Development Through Local Environmental Field Research . Mohawk Watershed Symposium (p. 55). Schenectady, New York: In: Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings from the 2009 Mohawk Watershed Symposium . Orr, D. W. (1994). Earth in Mind: On education, environment, and the human prospect. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Payton, M. (2003). Influence of place attachment and social capital on cici action: A study at Sherbune National Wildlife Refuge. St. Paul: University of Minnesota.

Rotenberg, R. (1993). Introduction. In R. R. McDonogh, The cultural meaning of urban space (pp. xi-xix). Westpoint, CT: Bergin & Garvey.

Ryden, K.C. (2008). Beneath the surface: Natural landscapes, cultural meanings, and teaching about place. In L. C. Crimmel, Teaching about place: Learning from the land (pp. 126-36). Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 39 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Temporal and spatial variability of PFOA in Hoosick Falls, NY

Alice Hayden, Laura MacManus-Spencer, and Anouk Verheyden

Union College, Schenectady, NY

Perfluorooctanoic acid, or PFOA, is an industrial chemical that is used to make everyday products including surfactants and surface protectors in carpets, leather, paper, food containers, fabric, upholstery, fire-fighting foam, floor polishes and shampoos. With a half-life of about 4 years in humans and a very high thermal and chemical stability, PFOA is very persistent in the environment. In addition, PFOA’s have been reported to cause diverse toxic effects in laboratory animal and primates, as well as increase the risk of prostate cancer mortality.

My hometown, Hoosick Falls, New York, recently discovered very high concentrations of PFOA in their local water source. The EPA reported values over 400 parts per trillion in Hoosick Falls, which is well over the established health advisory level of 70 parts per trillion. While residents have been protected from further contamination through the installation of filtration systems, little is known about how PFOA’s are moving in the aquifer. DEC data show a large spatial variation in the PFOA concentrations in Hoosick Falls wells, with neighboring houses showing some large differences. However, this spatial variation is at this moment only based on single point measurements.

The purpose of this project is to study the temporal variation of PFOA in the water of three different private wells, as well as to study the spatial variation of PFOA in streams throughout the Hoosick area. In addition, δ18O values will allow us to investigate how connected the aquifer is to the surface water, which will give us insight into the residence time of the aquifer. This will add another source of information to explain the variation (or the lack of) in PFOA over time.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 40 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Monitoring the Hudson and Beyond with HRECOS: The Hudson River Environmental Conditions Observing System

Gavin M. Lemley1 and Alexander J. Smith2

1HRECOS Coordinator, NY State Dept. of Environmental Conservation, Hudson River Estuary Program/NEIWPCC, Albany, NY 2Mohawk River Basin Program Manager, NY State Dept. of Environmental Conservation, Albany, NY

The Hudson River Environmental Conditions Observing System (HRECOS) is a network of environmental monitoring stations located along the mainstem rivers of the Hudson River Watershed; the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers. Stations are equipped with sensors that continuously record several water quality and weather parameters every 15 minutes, year-round. Remote telemetry at each station transmits data in near-real-time for users to view and download via www.hrecos.org. The mission of HRECOS is structured around five major user group focus areas: Environmental Regulation and Resource Management, Research, Education, Emergency Management, and Commercial Use and Recreation. The program works to improve the capacity of stakeholders to understand the ecosystem and manage water resources, provide baseline monitoring data necessary for applied research and modeling, support the use of real-time data in educational settings, provide policy makers and emergency managers with data products to guide decision making, and provide information for safe and efficient navigation by commercial mariners and recreational boaters.

HRECOS expanded into the Mohawk River in 2011 with the aid of funding provided by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation’s (NYSDEC) Mohawk River Basin Program. There are currently three Mohawk HRECOS stations—one in Ilion, NY (downriver of Utica), a second one at Lock 8 in Rotterdam, and a third at the Rexford Bridge in Schenectady. These stations are used to help satisfy the water quality goals of the Mohawk River Basin Program Action Agenda. The data are used in conjunction with existing water quality data in the development of a Total Maximum Daily Load for the Mohawk River to limit the discharge of pollutants and restore the impaired waters, while also monitoring improvements resulting from Combined Sewer Overflow Long-Term Control Plans. Mohawk HRECOS Stations are also used to assist the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the National Weather Service in their flood prediction and warning systems.

HRECOS is operated and funded by a consortium of government, research, and non-profit institutions. The system builds upon existing regional monitoring activities, including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Estuarine Research Reserve System, NYSDEC’s Rotating Integrated Basin Studies (RIBS), USGS monitoring, Stevens Institute of Technology’s New York Harbor Observing and Prediction System (NYHOPS), and monitoring efforts of several other partner organizations. All data and products of HRECOS are freely available to the public at www.hrecos.org.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 41 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Blue-green Algae in the Mohawk Watershed

Erin Lennon1, Keleigh Reynolds1, Aissa Feldmann1, Karen Terbush1, Gabriella Cebada Mora1 and Joe Morisette2

1Environmental Management Bureau, New York State Office of Parks, Recreation & Historic Preservation [email protected] 2Delta Lake State Park, Rome, NY

Toxic cyanobacteria (a.k.a. Blue-Green Algae or BGA) in lakes and streams can negatively impact public health & recreation. With warmer climates and higher nutrient inputs from certain watersheds, BGA blooms are becoming a growing concern throughout New York State. We provide a case study of a blue-green algae bloom at Delta Lake State Park in 2016, including how it was identified and responded to by staff in the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation & Historic Preservation. We then discuss environmental conditions conducive to BGA growth, impacts to recreation & health, and how to recognize and report a potential BGA bloom.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 42 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA): A Local Water Contamination Crisis

Laura A. MacManus-Spencer

Department of Chemistry, Union College, Schenectady, NY

Beginning in late 2014, residents in the towns of Hoosick Falls, Newburgh and Petersburgh, NY, and Bennington and Pownell, VT, learned that their sources of drinking water were contaminated with an industrial chemical called perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), which is part of the broader family of compounds known as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). These local water contamination crises are not the first of this kind. PFOA and related chemicals have recently been detected at unsafe levels in the drinking water of residents in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Arizona, and these chemicals were detected in residential drinking water in several communities in Minnesota as early as 2005. These events and others have led to a surge of research into the environmental and biological fates and toxicities of PFASs.

The two most widely studied PFASs are PFOA and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), which belong to the subgroup of PFASs known as perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) (Figure 1). Perfluoroalkyl acids are used in the manufacturing of many consumer products, such as non-stick cookware; liquid repellants for paper, packaging, textile, leather, and carpet goods; industrial surfactants, additives and coatings; and in fire fighting foams (Schultz 2003). These synthetic compounds are derivatives of alkyl carboxylates and sulfonates in which the hydrogen atoms are replaced with fluorine. PFAAs are ubiquitous in the environment, found globally in freshwater (Muller 2011, Murakami 2008), the oceans (Benskin 2012, Cai 2012), sediments (Falandysz 2012, Lasier 2011), drinking water (Llorca 2012, Boiteux 2012), precipitation (Liu 2009, Young 2011), and humans (Olsen 2012, Calafat 2003, Guruge 2005) and other organisms (Lam 2016).

O O F C CF C O F C CF S O 3 2 m 3 2 n O m = 5, 7, 9 n = 5, 7 Figure 1. The general structures of perfluoroalkyl acids (shown in the anionic form due to their extremely low pKas), including perfluorocarboxylates (PFCAs, left) and perfluorosulfonates (PFSAs, right). The values of m and n can vary, depending on the chain length.

However, PFOA and PFOS are not the only PFASs of environmental and biological concern. Other PFASs, including perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) have been released to the environment for decades. In addition, in the last 10 years, the major U.S. manufacturers of PFASs have phased out the production of the longer-chain PFASs and have replaced them with shorter-chain PFASs, such as those based on perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) and perfluorobutane sulfonic acid (PFBS) (Ritter 2010). In addition, PFASs are extremely persistent in the environment, bioaccumulative and toxic; therefore, there is a need to understand the environmental and biological fates of all of the perfluorochemicals used in industry, both historically and presently.

Due to the extensive fluorination, these molecules are both oil and water repellent and do not preferentially accumulate in fatty tissue like most organic contaminants; rather, they accumulate preferentially in the blood, liver and kidneys of organisms (Vanden Heuvel, 1991, Martin 2003), body compartments with high protein content. These tissue distribution patterns have implications for their modes of toxic action, as well as bioaccumulation patterns.

In this presentation, the author will give an overview of the chemical properties of PFASs, briefly discuss the local water contamination crises related to these chemicals, and offer some insight into the potential for bioaccumulation of the range of PFASs being released to the environment.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 43 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 References Benskin, J. P.; Muir, D. C. G.; Scott, B. F.; Spencer, C.; De, S., Amila O.; Kylin, H.; Martin, J. W.; Morris, A.; Lohmann, R.; Tomy, G.; Rosenberg, B.; Taniyasu, S.; Yamashita, N. Perfluoroalkyl acids in the Atlantic and Canadian Arctic Oceans. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 5815-5823.

Boiteux, V.; Dauchy, X.; Rosin, C.; Munoz, J. National screening study on 10 perfluorinated compounds in raw and treated tap water in France. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2012, 63, 1-12.

Cai, M.; Zhao, Z.; Yin, Z.; Ahrens, L.; Huang, P.; Cai, M.; Yang, H.; He, J.; Sturm, R.; Ebinghaus, R.; Xie, Z. Occurrence of perfluoroalkyl compounds in surface waters from the North Pacific to the Arctic Ocean. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 661- 668.

Calafat, A. M.; Kuklenyik, Z.; Caudill, S. P.; Reidy, J. A.; Needham, L. L. Perfluorochemicals in pooled serum samples from United States residents in 2001 and 2002. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40, 2128-2134.

Falandysz, J.; Rostkowski, P.; Jarzynska, G.; Falandysz, J. J.; Taniyasu, S.; Yamashita, N. Determination of perfluorinated alkylated substances in sediments and sediment core from the Gulf of Gdansk, Baltic Sea. J. Environ. Sci. Health, Part A: Toxic/Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng. 2012, 47, 428-434.

Guruge, K. S.; Taniyasu, S.; Yamashita, N.; Wijeratna, S.; Mohotti, K. M.; Seneviratne, H. R.; Kannan, K.; Yamanaka, N.; Miyazaki, S. Perfluorinated organic compounds in human blood serum and seminal plasma: a study of urban and rural tea worker populations in Sri Lanka. J. Environ. Monitor. 2005, 7, 371-377.

Lam, J. C. W.; Lyu, J.; Kwok, K. Y.; Lam, P. K. S. Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in marine mammals from the South China Sea and their temporal changes 2002-2014: Concern for alternatives of PFOS? Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 6728-6736.

Lasier, P. J.; Washington, J. W.; Hassan, S. M.; Jenkins, T. M. Perfluorinated chemicals in surface waters and sediments from northwest Georgia, USA, and their bioaccumulation in Lumbriculus variegatus. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2011, 30, 2194-2201.

Llorca, M.; Farre, M.; Pico, Y.; Mueller, J.; Knepper, T. P.; Barcelo, D. Analysis of perfluoroalkyl substances in waters from Germany and Spain. Sci. Total Environ. 2012, 431, 139-150.

Liu, W.; Jin, Y.; Quan, X.; Sasaki, K.; Saito, N.; Nakayama, S. F.; Sato, I.; Tsuda, S. Perfluorosulfonates and perfluorocarboxylates in snow and rain in Dalian, China. Environ. Int. 2009, 35, 737-742.

Martin, J. W.; Mabury, S. A.; Solomon, K. R.; Muir, D. C. G. Dietary accumulation of perfluorinated acids in juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 2003, 22, 189-195.

Muller, C. E.; Gerecke, A. C.; Alder, A. C.; Scheringer, M.; Hungerbuhler, K. Identification of perfluoroalkyl acid sources in Swiss surface waters with the help of the artificial sweetener acesulfame. Environ. Pollut. 2011, 159, 1419-1426.

Murakami, M.; Imamura, E.; Shinohara, H.; Kiri, K.; Muramatsu, Y.; Harada, A.; Takada, H. Occurrence and sources of perfluorinated surfactants in rivers in Japan. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 6566-6572.

Olsen, G. W.; Lange, C. C.; Ellefson, M. E.; Mair, D. C.; Church, T. R.; Goldberg, C. L.; Herron, R. M.; Medhdizadehkashi, Z.; Nobiletti, J. B.; Rios, J. A.; Reagen, W. K.; Zobel, L. R. Temporal trends of perfluoroalkyl concentrations in American Red Cross adult blood donors, 2000-2010. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 6330-6338.

Ritter, S. K. Fluorochemicals go short. Chem. Eng. News 2010, 88, 12-17. Schultz, M. M.; Barofsky, D. F.; Field, J. A. Fluorinated alkyl surfactants. Environ. Eng. Sci. 2003, 20, 487-501. Vanden Heuvel, J. P.; Kuslikis, B. I.; Van Rafelghem, M. J.; Peterson, R. E. Tissue distribution, metabolism, and elimination of perfluorooctanoic acid in male and female rats. J. Biochem. Toxicol. 1991, 6, 83-92.

Young, C. J.; Furdui, V. I.; Franklin, J.; Koerner, R. M.; Muir, D. C. G.; Mabury, S. A. Perfluorinated acids in Arctic snow: New evidence for atmospheric formation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 3455-3461.

Oral Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 44 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 PCBs: How the Mohawk River fits into the Hudson’s Legacy of Contamination

S.S. Madden

Division of Fish and Wildlife, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Albany, NY

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a persistent global contaminant and remain a pollution concern in many local aquatic systems, in spite of being banned from industrial production in the U.S. for more than 30 years (Wania and Su 2004, Rosner and Markowitz 2013). PCBs are actually a suite of 209 different chemicals, called congeners, which can have different chemical and toxicological characteristics (NRC 2001). In addition, PCBs can be described based upon their industrial name (Aroclor), the number of chlorine atoms (homologs), or their toxicity related to dioxins (TEQs) (ATSDR 2000, Van den Berg et al. 2005), all of which can add to confusion when trying to interpret and compare different data sets.

In the Hudson River, the major source of PCBs came from two former General Electric (GE) plants in Hudson Falls and Ft. Edward, NY. Due to the discharge from these plants, the Hudson River down to the Battery in New York City is a federal Superfund site (USEPA 2002), and the river’s natural resources including fish, wildlife, sediment, and water are contaminated with PCBs (HRNRT 2013). Recently, GE, under the supervision of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, performed dredging of selected PCB contaminated sediments as part of a remedy in the Hudson River between Hudson Falls and the Federal Dam at Troy (USEPA 2002). The dredging removed a large amount of PCB mass, but also left behind more PCBs than originally envisioned in the Record of Decision for the remedy (Field et al. 2016). How this clean-up will influence the entire basin is a critical question in understanding the recovery of the Hudson River.

As the largest tributary to the Hudson River, the Mohawk River has an important role to play in the post- dredging recovery of the tidal Hudson River. For example, over a four-year period (2002-2006), the Mohawk River contributed approximately twice the sediment discharge to the head-of-tide Hudson River when compared to the upper Hudson River drainage (Wall et al. 2008). Large storm events, such as Tropical Storms Irene and Lee, have the capacity to move large amounts of sediment out of the Mohawk in relatively short period of time (Ralston et al. 2013). However, the Mohawk is not a “pristine” river, and shares an agricultural and industrial history in some ways similar to the upper Hudson River. Understanding the Mohawk River’s own contamination can provide important context to interpreting PCB concentrations in the lower Hudson River. Based upon estimates of PCB loading over the Federal Dam at Troy used in the evaluation of USEPA’s Record of Decision (USEPA 2002), as well as estimates from the Contamination Assessment and Reduction Project (CARP) looking at contaminant sources to New York Harbor (Farley 1999), the Mohawk’s contribution of PCBs into the head-of-tide Hudson River in the late 1990s and early 2000s was between 4-5 % of the total annual PCB loads.

PCBs accumulate in living organisms and magnify up food webs. Therefore monitoring PCB concentrations in fish can provide important information on changes in PCBs over temporal and spatial gradients. New York State maintains a database of contamination in fish across the state, including the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers. PCB concentrations in fish along the Mohawk River, in general, are lower than the upper Hudson River (Figure 1), and fish in the Mohawk are more influenced by smaller, more localized sources of PCBs, such as in the area around Utica Harbor. This is in contrast to the Hudson River, which is dominated by a single source (GE), such that even in New York Harbor, more than 300 km from the source, 35-50% of the PCBs in sediments are attributed to GE (Rodenberg and Ralston 2017). These difference are also reflected in New York State Department of Health fish consumption advisories for the two rivers, where large stretches of the Mohawk fall under the general statewide fish advisory while the Hudson has PCB specific consumption advisories (including many “don’t eat” advisories) from Hudson Falls down to the Battery (NYSDOH 2016).

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 45 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Figure 1. A comparison between total PCB concentrations in yellow perch collected from the Mohawk River and the upper Hudson River (between Ft. Edward and Troy, NY) in 2005.

Long-term monitoring programs are essential to understanding changes over time for legacy contaminants, like PCBs, as well as being poised to detect contaminants of emerging concern. Existing long-term monitoring, coupled with well-designed post-remedy monitoring, is critical to understanding how the Hudson River basin in responding after the clean-up and recovering into the future. In 2014, NYSDEC in collaboration with USGS collected fish from the Mohawk River for contaminant analysis. When those fish are analyzed, the data will provide an updated picture of contaminants in the Mohawk Basin. References Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 2000. Toxicological profile for Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. Farley, K. J., R. V. Thomann, T. F. I. Cooney, D. R. Damiani and J. R. Wands. 1999. An Integrated Model of Organic Chemical Fate and Bioaccumulation in the Hudson River Estuary. Riverdale, NY, Report to The Hudson River Foundation: 170. Field, L.J., J.W. Kern, L.B. Rosman. 2016. Re-visiting projections of PCBs in Lower Hudson River fish using model emulation. Science of the Total Environment 557-558:489-501. HRNRT (Hudson River Natural Resource Trustees). 2013. PCB Contamination of the Hudson River Ecosystem: Compilation of Contamination Data Through 2008. U.S. Department of Commerce, Silver Spring, MD, USA. Available at: . National Research Council (NRC). 2001. A Risk-Managmenent Strategy for PCB-Contaminated Sediments. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 428 pp. New York State Department of Health (NYSDOH). 2016. Health Advice on Eating Sportfish and Game. New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, USA. Ralston, D.K., Warner, J.C., Geyer, W.R., Wall, G.R., 2013. Sediment transport due to extreme events: the Hudson River estuary after tropical storms Irene and Lee. Geophys. Res. Lett. 40:5451-5455. Rodenburg, L. A. and D. K. Ralston. 2017. Historical sources of polychlorinated biphenyls to the sediment of the New York/New Jersey Harbor. Chemosphere 169:450-459. Rosner, D., and G. Markowitz. 2013. Persistent pollutants: A brief history of the discovery of chlorinated hydrocarbons. Environmental Research 120:126-133. TAMS Consultants (TAMS), Inc., The Cadmus Group, Inc., Gradient Corporation. 1997. Phase 2 Report – Review Copy, Further Site Characterization and Analysis Report, Volume 2C-Data Evaluation and Interpretation Report: Hudson River PCBs Reassessment RI/FS, February 1997. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region II and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Kansas City District. Available at: . United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2002. Hudson River PCBs Site Record of Decision. USEPA, Washington, D.C., USA. Van den Berg M, Birnbaum LS, Denison M, De Vito M, Farland W, Feeley M, Fiedler H, Hakansson H, Hanberg A, Haws L, Rose M, Safe S, Schrenk D, Tohyama C, Tritscher A, Tuomisto J, Tysklind M, Walker N, Peterson RE. 2006. The 2005 World Health Organization reevaluation of human and mammalian toxic equivalency factors for dioxins and dioxinlike compounds. Toxicological Sciences 93:223– 241. Wall, G.R., E.A. Nystrom, and S. Litten. 2008. Suspended Sediment Transport in the Freshwater Reach of the Hudson River Estuary inEastern New York. Estuaries and Coasts 31:542-553. Wania, F., and Y. Su. 2004. Quantifying the global fractionation of polychlorinated biphenyls. Ambio 33:161-168.

Invited Oral Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 46 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Evaluating the Efficacy of Environmental DNA (eDNA) as an Early Detection Tool for the Mohawk Watershed’s Newest Aquatic Invader, the Bloody-red Shrimp, Hemimysis anomala.

Sonomi Oyagi1, Brent T. Boscarino1, Meghan E. Brown2, Michael Tibbetts3

1Poughkeepsie Day School, Poughkeepsie, NY 2Hobart and William Smith Colleges, Geneva, NY 3Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson, NY

Invasion history The bloody-red shrimp Hemimysis anomala (hereafter BRS) is a recent Ponto-Caspian aquatic invasive species that was first reported in 2006 in Lakes Ontario and Michigan (Pothoven et al, 2007; Walsh et al, 2012) and has now become firmly established in the Great Lakes, St. Lawrence River and other inland lakes of New York, including Oneida, Cayuga and Seneca Lakes (Brown et al., 2014). Our research team most recently discovered multiple reproducing populations of BRS in the Erie Canal and Mohawk River as far east as Waterford, NY (Brown et al., 2014; Boscarino, unpubl.), These results strongly indicate that the Erie Canal and Mohawk River are serving as major vectors of spread for this species towards the Hudson River. Importance of early detection in the case of BRS This project seeks to develop an effective early detection method for BRS as they continue their expansion throughout the Hudson-Mohawk River watershed. Early detection is critical for management success and to limit the cost of control measures (Anderson, 2005; Vander Zanden, 2010). Efforts to detect non-native species in the early stages of an invasion are often hindered by inadequate sampling methods that are often cost-ineffective or simply ineffective at low densities. These constraints lead to most species being detected well after they have become established and control options at that point are limited or nonviable (Crooks and Soulé, 1999). At present, we lack a reliable method for detecting BRS at low densities or sampling for organisms like BRS that inhabit tight, rocky interstitial spaces on the benthic floor during the day. BRS are difficult to detect by routine sampling, as the species typically does not enter the water column until twilight, initial densities can be low and most lake-users lack the net systems used by researchers to sample zooplankton populations. Importantly, BRS migrate from rocky crevices and man-made structures after dark, with ontogenetic differences in the timing and extent of their movement, which make detection, accurate density estimates and demographic analyses a further challenge (Boscarino et al, 2012). Evaluating the effectiveness of environmental DNA (eDNA) to detect the presence of BRS in invaded systems Background on eDNA as a research tool We hypothesize that the application of molecular tools (environmental DNA) can detect the presence of BRS more reliably and with less effort than using traditional surveying techniques. Environmental DNA is a new technique with high potential for invasive-species detection work. Species-specific DNA fragments are cast into the environment through feces, urine, and the shedding of cells, and can be detectable for days to weeks following an organism’s presence (Thomsen et al, 2012). This technique has been successfully used to delimit non-native species range expansion (Ficetola et al, 2008; Jerde et al, 2011; Thomsen et al, 2012; Goldberg et al, 2013). Although initial work concentrated on fish and amphibians in aquatic systems, application to invertebrates has also been fruitful (Thomsen et al, 2012; Goldberg et al, 2013). BRS-specific eDNA methodology and protocol In this study, we performed a series of controlled laboratory studies to determine the sensitivity of eDNA detection to variations in BRS density and length of time in water samples. We aimed to develop a relationship between density and eDNA concentration, using literature-established sequencing detection methods to help guide our initial explorations (Goldberg et al., 2013). Individual BRS for use in our experiments were sampled from Seneca Lake and Cayuga Lake, New York and live BRS were then stored in three 15 gallon aquaria. We compared several different mitochondrial-DNA (mt-DNA), ribosomal-RNA (rRNA), and nuclear DNA sequences of different haplotypes of BRS and a variety of other mysids, including the native Mysis diluviana, through further literature searches. This allowed us to identify several potential sequences unique to BRS that could be used as eDNA primers in PCR amplification. Several organisms from our stock tanks were used in a

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 47 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 DNA extraction protocol to establish a store of pure BRS DNA. We created a number of quantitative PCR plates that tested the effectiveness of various primers and ran them each for 40 thermal cycles. Quantitative PCR was chosen over other methods because it can be considered, observed and interpreted in real-time, allowing the researcher to see when signals reach a threshold that to be considered a positive (i.e, positive detection) result. This allows us to determine primer sensitivity, and determine overall efficacy of each primer as suitable for detecting BRS and at which densities it requires. Ultimately, while the rRNA primers were the most sensitive (i.e., samples tested with the rRNA primers were amplified to a detectable level most quickly in the thermal cycles), we found that the mt-DNA primers were the most consistently reliable options. We used mt-DNA primers in all future qPCR tests, specifically primers located on subunit 1 of a BRS cytochrome oxidase (COI) gene. Initially, we ran the various primers at a temperature gradient in order to determine the most effective annealing temperature for the DNA. It was determined that the range of temperatures between 54ºC and 55ºC were the ideal annealing temperature for the COI primer we selected. Once the proper primers had been determined, we tested several different dilutions (1-8 parts per hundred) of the collected BRS DNA to determine at what concentration eDNA results became unreliable as a detection method. Additionally, we performed DNA extraction on vacuum filtered water samples of various volumes from the aquaria holding the sample BRS populations (quantities of 100mL, 250mL, 500mL, and 750mL were drawn through filters that we then performed DNA extraction protocol on). The vacuum experiments were performed to determine whether and at what quantities water samples could be used to detect presence or absence of BRS. Discussion In performing the dilution experiments, our goal was to determine the smallest concentration of DNA that could effectively be used in PCR amplification to detect the presence of BRS. We found that a concentration as little as one “micromolar DNA” could be detected reliably in a PCR well. This established a baseline for future experimentation. In our filtered water experiments, we found that volumes of water as low as 250 mL could be vacuumed through a filter and reliably be used to detect presence of BRS. However, it should be noted that the samples were taken from relatively small tanks, all with moderate to high densities of BRS, and that samples taken from the field would likely only yield reliable results with a higher volume of water being filtered. Future experimentation would require several field validation experiments and further exploration for ideal primer pairs.

Our results indicate that eDNA has strong potential as a method of detection for BRS in invaded systems. While we have not as of yet obtained a substantial body of field validation results, we believe that the use of these primers on the COI gene are most conducive to reliable results. Future field validation experiments will help tease apart whether this technique could be used as an early detection tool (i.e., detect presence of BRS at low densities) or simply as a tool to monitor established spread without the need for more costly and labor intensive plankton net sampling. Given the relative ease of collecting a water sample versus having the proper net equipment and pier access to engage in plankton sampling, we feel strongly that at the very minimum, eDNA will be a great citizen science tool for BRS after field validation studies are completed and the PCR protocol fully developed. References Anderson LWJ. 2005. California’s reaction to Caulerpa taxifolia: a model for invasive species rapid response. Biological Invasions 7: 1003–1016.

Boscarino BT, Halpin K, Rudstam LG, Walsh MG, & Lantry BF. 2012. Age specific light preferences and vertical distribution patterns of a Great Lakes invasive invertebrate, Hemimysis anomala. Journal of Great Lakes Research 38: 37-44.

Brown M, Boscarino B, Roellke J, Stapylton E, & Driller-Colangelo A. 2014. Fifteen miles on the Erie Canal: the spread of Hemimysis anomala G.O. Sars, 1907 (bloody red shrimp) in the New York State canal system BioInvasion Records 3: 261-267. Crooks JA & Soulé ME. 1999. Lag times in population explosions of invasive species: causes and implications. Pages 103–125 in O. T. Sandlund, P. J. Schei, and A. Viken (editors). Invasive species and biodiversity management. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

Ficetola G, Miaud C, Pompanon F, & Taberlet P. 2008. Species detection using environmental DNA from water samples. Biology Letters 4: 423–425.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 48 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Goldberg C, Sepulveda A, Ray A, Baumgardt J, & Waits L. 2013. Environmental DNA as a new method for early detection of New Zealand mudsnails (Potamopyrgus antipodarum). Freshwater Science 32:792-800. Jerde CL, Mahon AR, Chadderton WL, & Lodge DM. 2011. ‘‘Sight-unseen’’ detection of rare aquatic species using environmental DNA. Conservation Letters 00: 1–8.

Pothoven S, Grigorovich I, Fahnenstiel G, & Balcer M. 2007. Introduction of the Ponto-Caspian bloody-red mysid Hemimysis anomala into the Lake Michigan basin. Jounral of Great Lakes Research 33(1):285-292.

Thomsen PF, Kielgast J, Iversen LL, Wiuf C, Rasmussen M, Gilbert MTP, Orlando L, & Willerslev E. 2012. Monitoring endangered freshwater biodiversity using environmental DNA. Molecular Ecology 21:2565–2573.

Walsh MG, Boscarino BT, Marty J, & Johannsson OE. 2012. Mysis diluviana and Hemimysis anomala : Reviewing the roles of a native and invasive mysid in the Laurentian Great Lakes region. Journal of Great Lakes Research 38: 1-6.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 49 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Statistical Analysis of Damage to Local Businesses Due to Flooding Events Along the Mohawk River Valley in Amsterdam, New York

Tom R. Pascucci, Daniella K. Chernoff, Scott R. Lakeram, and Antonios E. Marsellos

Dept. of Geology, Environment and Sustainability, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY

Introduction Amsterdam, New York is located along the banks of the Mohawk River in Upstate New York, between Utica and Albany. The city encompasses numerous business and residential areas which are prone to flash floods during heavy rain events. In late August 2011 Hurricane Irene caused a flash flood giving rise to catastrophic damage to the local area, destroying a museum, numerous business and homes (Leyden 2011). Considering the relative frequency of flooding along the waterway and relative increase in waterflow in the recent past (Cockburn & Garver, 2014), it is necessary to gauge interest that townships have in their surrounding river systems of advanced prognosis for future high water events. In the past, LiDAR data taken from the Mohawk River has been used in conjunction with GIS software to reconstruct past flood events through 3D-simulation (Sisti et.al., 2016). These results both facilitate the reconstruction of previous flooding and eliminate the obligation for first hand site analysis (Sisti et.al., 2016). However, in order to circumvent future damage and possible loss of life, it is necessary to not only reproduce, but predict subsequent areas of high risk prone to flood events and alert residents. A statistical analysis of surveys collected from businesses located near the Mohawk River in Amsterdam, NY is the ultimate goal of this study while simultaneously assessing the preparedness and interest of the local community for online warning systems. Methodology A questionnaire was created and refined composed of ten questions, each designed to evaluate different aspects pertaining to the preparation, response and recovery from a flood event in the targeted area. The questions themselves were constructed with a breadth of possible responses to allow the most flexibility of answers while simultaneously providing a firm guideline on a scale of 1 to 5. In the majority of questions a response of 1 signified a “Not Interested” or “Strongly Disagree” and a response of 5 signified a “Very Interested” or “Strongly Agree”.

Once the questionnaire was vetted for optimal relevance and clarity, an area along the Mohawk River was chosen as the proposed study area. Amsterdam was chosen as an average representation of development on both sides of the waterway. Using publically listed addresses a call list was created encompassing businesses within the greater Amsterdam city area along the Mohawk River. The numbers were called using a university phone and every responder was presented with the same scenario describing the project, university affiliation, desire for flood data and security of anonymity. Twenty responses were collated into a data sheet and further statistically analyzed through the use of a Chi-square test and Phi & Cramer’s V measures of association. Discussion Of those businesses that have experienced at least one flood event, 40% received the bare minimum of warning prior to a rise in water level, if at all. Additionally, 15% of those businesses that experienced flooding incurred damages of $5,000.00 or more from the event (Fig. 4, Q4). The vast majority of businesses received little to no damage from flooding (Fig 2, Q1), however there was a relatively large standard deviation (1.35) from the mean response value (1.85). The difference from the mean suggests that the variability of flood damage may be due to business location along the river rather than flood frequency. For those businesses that responded positively to experiencing a flood occurrence at their place of work, it was slightly significant that 38% of them worried of the possibility of an annual flood event (Chi-square test shows p-value=0.076). It appears logical, therefore, that most of the responders encouraged the implementation and utilization of a mobile application concerning the analysis of flood data (Fig.1, Q6-Q8).

A small percentage (25%) of businesses thought that a mobile application that provides some degree of prognosis for the extent of flood water levels would be helpful to their business, but the majority agreed with the necessity of an evacuation route to be provided in advanced or during a flood event (Fig. 4, Q7). This is most likely due to the public dependence of major roadways for both day to day circumstance and as a means

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 50 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 of escape in the event of a natural disaster. Furthermore, some businesses (45%,) agreed that some form of mobile application would speed the recovery process after incurring flood damage (Fig. 4, Q10). Conclusion The development of a mobile application is necessary for businesses in the surrounding area of Amsterdam, NY as long as it provides live and relevant flood data that is essential to the continuing vitality of the region. The ability to reference localized flood data enables the municipality to deal with an emergency, such as a flood hazard, in a more efficient and beneficial manner. The survey has shown that a real time flood application would warn local businesses prior to impending floods, provide safe alternate routes for both evacuation and rescue services and allowing business owners with an opportunity for preparedness.

Figure 1. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of Amsterdam, NY derived from Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) with the locations of the surveyed businesses (yellow pins). The DEM of the study area depicts the location of the businesses surveyed near the Mohawk River. A cross section labeled A to A’ depicts the topographic profile of the study in this section of the Mohawk River.

Figure 2. Side-by-side bars chart showing the number of responses from 20 responders for each question. Questions one through five (Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5) are representative of questions that dealt with flooding events that have occurred in the past and potential flood threats. Questions six through ten (Q6, Q7, Q8, Q9, Q10) discuss the need for a mobile application that could potentially increase flood warning time for business owners and present them with live flood data. Tall bars represent a higher frequency response than lower bars. A full description of the legend can be seen in the text.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 51 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Figure 3. Business Response Distribution. The majority of responses from business in the study area for questions Q1-Q4 display low ranking distribution implying the smaller impact of flooding and damage upon those surveyed. The higher distribution displayed from responses for questions Q5-Q8 implies the need for the application to enhance the resiliency of the business infrastructure and facilitate the speed of recovery following a flood event for a town such as Amsterdam.

Figure 4. Public Response to Questions of Flood Hazard Impact. Data compiled from responses in a continuous range from 1-5. Question 4 (Q4) examined responses of damages incurred from 1-no damage, to 5- more than $10,000 in damage. Questions 7 and 10 were scaled 1-5 on responder interest from 1, strongly disagree, to 5 strongly agree; Q7 examined the need for a dynamic evacuation route during a flood hazard event, Q10 explored the impact of an application on flood recovery (N=20, mean=1.85(Q4), 3.05(Q7), 3.05(Q10)).

Cited References Cockburn, J., Garver, J.I. 2015. Abrupt change in runoff on the north slope of the Catskill Mountains, NY, USA: Above average discharge in the last two decades. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies: 3, 199-210. Leyden, Liz, 01 Sept. 2011. Manor That Has Stood for Centuries Teeters in Storm’s Wake." The New York Times. The New York Times

Sisti, A., Combs, E., Marsellos, A.E. 2016. Flooding of the Mohawk River at Lock 12 in Fort Hunter, NY, during Hurricane Irene (August 28-29th, 2011). Proceedings from the Mohawk Watershed Symposium 2016, p. 45-47, ISBN: 978-1-939968-07-4.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 52 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Making Connections: A Win-Win Proposition

Amanda K. Post and Thomas M. Johnson

Sterling Environmental Engineering, P.C., Latham, NY, www.sterlingenvironmental.com

A review of the state of erosion, sediment control, and stormwater management practices over the years reveals that much has changed due to improved connections and communications among stakeholders. Connections between industry, government, non-governmental organizations, and environmental groups have resulted in benefits to each of these groups in the form of improved infrastructure, regulations, and environmental ecosystems.

Many erosion/sediment control/stormwater projects are associated with industrial or commercial development and have the potential to cause adverse environmental impacts. In the past, the objectives of developers and businesses conflicted with those of regulatory agencies and environmental groups. However, improved connections and communications has resulted in an appreciation by each stakeholder for the difference and importance of the perspective of the other. Dialogue and understanding has led to solutions and practices that create sustainable projects.

The improved connections foster a system where multiple funding opportunities may be available. The Northeast has experienced costly infrastructure damage due to extreme weather events in the past decade. “Resiliency”, “Connectivity”, and “Urban Forests” are the outgrowth of cooperative and collaborative efforts for those involved in erosion, sediment control, and stormwater management. A variety of funding sources are available by understanding how a project connects with the environment.

For example, grants for aquatic connectivity improvements are now available in New York State. Aquatic connectivity is the practice of avoiding or correcting disruption of river and stream ecosystems by man-made infrastructure. Improving aquatic connectivity by implementing culvert improvements/upgrades and similar methods should not be viewed as a stand-alone objective. These improvements/upgrades often mitigate recurring flooding issues and associated infrastructure damage, while simultaneously restoring natural habitat and ecosystems.

Private funds typically are available through conventional financing mechanisms for infrastructure improvements associated with project development. Securing funding for ecological improvements is more challenging; however, one need not exclude the other. Communication and dialogue often results in innovative and creative solutions that satisfy the objectives of all stakeholders. Creative planning and designs that consider ecological improvements have the potential to open funding pathways that otherwise might be overlooked.

Oral Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 53 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Mohawk river water quality: Spatial and temporal trends in bacterial indicators of fecal contamination during the Summer of 2016

C. Rodak1, X. Wei1, J. Schneider2, S. Nguyen2, and R. Christoferson3

1Civil Engineering, SUNY Polytechnic Institute, Utica, NY 2 OCM BOCES, Seven Valleys New Tech Academy, Cortland NY 3 Biology, SUNY Polytechnic Institute, Utica, NY

Introduction The Mohawk River watershed, located in upstate New York, includes 170 municipalities and is called home by over 600,000 residents1. The Mohawk River supplies drinking water to several communities and recreational activities throughout the region. Beyond the direct impact on those populations along the river, the Mohawk River is also a major contributor to the Hudson River. Biological and chemical contaminants from combined sewer overflow (CSO) events and urban and agricultural runoff are an issue in the Mohawk River watershed. Nitrates, dissolved oxygen, and pH are a few of the important chemical parameters which are of concern in the Mohawk River2. Bacterial contamination is commonly found along the Mohawk as indicated by the presence of E.coli or enterococci, both indicators of fecal contamination. Over the past 5 years, several water quality measurements along the Mohawk River have exceeded acceptable levels as defined by the EPA resulting in drinking water quality concerns and recreational limitations and closures.

Methods Six geographical locations along the Mohawk River in Utica, NY and three locations along the Delta Reservoir tailwater in Rome, NY were selected to serve as sampling points during the summer of 2016. The six locations in Utica were chosen upstream and downstream of 3 known CSOs and the three locations in Rome were chosen to show the progression of water quality through the city, with no known CSOs, starting from the Delta Reservoir north of Rome (Figure 1).

Over a two-month period during the summer of 2016, approximately 25 samples were collected at each location, at varying collection intervals spanning 2 weeks to 1 day. At each sample location, we collected data on pH, DO, Temperature, Conductivity, Nitrates, TOC, E.coli and enterococci. The pH, DO, Temperature, and Conductivity Figure 1: Map of sampling locations in Utica and Rome NY. were measured in the field using the HACH Sension+ MM156 Multimeter. At each location, a 250mL grab sample was collected and brought back to the lab for analysis of Nitrates, TOC, E.coli and Enterococci via HACH HR Cadmium reduction, UV245 adsorption, IDEXX Colilert and IDEXX Enterolert methods respectively. Initial sampling indicated high values for E.coli and enterococci following rain events and therefore undiluted and diluted samples were used to quantify bacterial counts. Diluted values are only used when the undiluted samples reached the MPN limits of our tests. Blanks were brought into the field to text for cross contamination during the collection process and samples of a known range were used to verify laboratory procedures.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 54 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Results and Discussion Recreational Water Quality Criteria The primary focus of the work was to determine the frequency at which violations of the EPA recommended 2012 recreational water quality criteria3 (RWQC) occurred at various points along the Mohawk river, and determine if these violations could be correlated to the magnitude of rainfall in the region. Due in part to intentional sampling after storms and an unforeseen broken sewage pipe along the sample path (discussed below), all six of the Utica sites exceeded the 30-day geometric mean (GM) and the 90th percentile statistical threshold value (STV) for E.coli and enterococci (Table 1). Along the Delta reservoir tailwater in Rome, all samples passed the GM and STV for E.coli but failed to pass the enterococci GM and STV resulting in different conclusions about the water quality based solely on the bacterial indicator chosen. We also compared single samples to the beach action values (BAV) and discovered that while the samples from Rome violated the BAV threshold less frequently than the Utica samples, there is also a discrepancy between the occurrence of enterococci and E.coli BAV violations.

Temporal trends with location, rainfall, and CSO release E.coli and enterococci counts in the Delta reservoir tailwater in Rome, NY generally increased as the water moved through the city and do not have a strong correlation to rainfall events; Rome, NY has no know CSOs along the tailwater. However, bacterial counts from the Mohawk River samples in Utica were not clearly correlated to location and the bacterial counts at some several locations increased dramatically following rainfall events, as seen in Figure 2, but returned to baseline within 24-48hrs. Three rainfall events during the time were connected with CSO releases, as reported by the municipality. While all sample locations in Utica, NY were chosen to target potential CSO locations, the WW1 and WW2 sampling locations were intentionally placed upstream and downstream of an identified and monitored CSO near the local wastewater treatment plant. These two sampling locations provided the most compelling evidence between bacterial counts, CSO events, and rainfall. Broken Sewer Pipe On July 29th 2016, the Observer Dispatch reported a broken sewer pipe in the Mohawk river between the 1-90 toll road and Mohawk Ave had been discovered by a kayaker; this location was less than 2,000ft upstream of one of our sampling locations, WS14. Unsurprisingly with hindsight, but unexplained at the time, very high readings for both bacteria types were recorded at locations up to 3.5 miles downstream of this broken sewer pipe. As expected, the concentration of E.coli and enterococci decreased with increasing distance from the source (Figure 3). Importantly, the abnormally high bacterial readings decreased to approximate background levels following repair of the pipe on July 29th 2016. After July 29th, small increases in bacterial counts for the previously impacted sample locations WS1, WU1, and WU2 were also observed on days following the three storm events identified above.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 55 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Figure 2: E.coli concentration from July 19th -August 18th for sample locations WW1 WW2 and SQ2 in Utica, and TW1, TW2 and TW3 in Rome. The boxes indicate the duration of rainfall and are labeled with the total depth of rain for the event.

Figure 3: E.coli concentrations at WS1, WU1, and WU2 downstream from a leaking sewer pipe. Bacterial counts dropped following the repair of the pipe on July 29th 2016. The sample location furthest from the pipe, WW2, is included on the graph for reference.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 56 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Conclusions Bacterial counts within the Mohawk river were consistently higher than expected regardless of rainfall events. This resulted in frequent violations of the 2012 RWQC particularly at the sample locations concentrated in Utica, NY. While violations in the Delta Reservoir tailwater were less common, the occurrence of violations was dependent on the bacterial indicator used. At one sampling location in Utica, NY, extremely high microbial counts were ultimately attributed to a broken sewer pipe, which also appears to have impacted the water quality of two other sample locations approximately 3.5 miles downstream until the pipe was repaired on July 29th 2016. Without more rigorous gene-level laboratory analysis, it is not possible to confirm the origin of the E.coli and enterococci in the Mohawk River. However, given the number of CSOs in Utica, observed correlation between bacterial counts and rain events, and the age of the infrastructure, it is not unreasonable to believe some of the bacterial contamination is indeed of human origin.

References Mohawk River Watershed Management Plan. Mohawk River Watershed Coalition and New York State Department of State, March 2015. URL: http://mohawkriver.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/MohawkWater- shedMgmtPlan_Mar2015_Final_r.pdf

Upper Mohawk River Coliform Bacteria Monitoring Project: Portions 12 and 13 in Utica-Rome Area. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. November 2013 Revised January 2014. URL: http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/water_pdf/mopath1714.pdf

Recreational Water Quality Criteria. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Water, 2012. 820-F-12-058. URL: https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-10/documents/rwqc2012.pdf

What’s Leaking into the Mohawk River. Utica Observer-Dispatch, July 29th 2016. URL: http://www.uticaod.com/news/20160729/whats-leaking-into-mohawk-river

Pipe that spurted sewage into Mohawk River fixed. Utica Observer-Dispatch, July 29th 2016. URL: http://www.uticaod.com/news/20160729/pipe-that-spurted-sewage-into-mohawk-river-fixed

Oral Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 57 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Lessons for the Mohawk River Watershed: Youth Engagement and Environmental Stewardship in a School Setting

Amy Samuels and Stephanie Johnson

Onondaga Environmental Institute, Syracuse, NY

The Onondaga Environmental Institute (OEI) is a non-profit organization whose mission is to advance environmental research, education, planning and restoration. OEI is midway through a project to develop and pilot a series of place-based, hands-on science lessons for schools in the Mohawk River Watershed. The goals of this project are (1) to engage youth in the Mohawk River Watershed in the process of scientific inquiry and critical thinking by providing them with the opportunity to study environmental issues affecting water and biotic quality in the basin, (2) to promote environmental awareness and stewardship within the Mohawk River Watershed through the distribution of basin specific educational materials and (3) to support stream restoration and flood resiliency projects and community stewardship by providing opportunities for students to do hands- on restoration. In order to achieve the goals of this project, the major objectives are to: (1) develop a curriculum for middle school youth (grades 5-8) that incorporates hands-on classroom lessons focusing on watershed ecology principles (e.g., land use, stream ecosystem components, etc.), environmental pollution issues (e.g., stormwater management, agriculture, etc.), foodweb dynamics, and the role of water monitoring as it pertains to the Mohawk River basin, (2) collaborate with science teachers from the New York Mills, Oriskany, Utica and/or Waterville School Districts (Oneida County) to implement lessons, (3) coordinate field trips to local streams that engage youth through hands-on data collection of fish and aquatic insect populations. (4) Work with the Oneida County SWCD to involve students in hands-on stream restoration activities, and (5) support teachers’ efforts to extend lessons in ways that deepen learning experiences for their students and expand the audience reached.

To date, we have piloted the curriculum with 3 classes from the Oriskany Jr/Sr High School. Students participated in a series of five lessons and two field trips over a five-week period in October and November. Students filled out evaluations of the unit. By far, the students’ favorite activity included sampling for macroinvertebrates in Oriskany Creek. Almost all the students said they would recommend the unit to other students, while about 75% said they would like to participate in a stream restoration project. An unplanned but not surprising result of the unit was that many students who hadn’t been engaging well in the classroom did so during this unit. We surmise that many of these students are avid fishermen and appreciated the opportunity to participate in hands-on lessons in which they already had an interest and some expertise. We are in the process of updating the lessons based upon the pilot and more formally compiling them as we get ready to share the lessons with classes in additional school districts this fall.

Invited Oral Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 58 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Drinking Source Water Protection: A Case Study and Call for Comprehensive Action

D. Shapley

Riverkeeper Ossining, NY

Source Water Protection is watershed protection for waters used as public drinking water supplies. Riverkeeper was instrumental in the agreement in 1997 to protect New York City’s watershed, and the unfiltered drinking water it produces. New York State has not uniformly applied the lessons learned in that landmark agreement – heralded worldwide for protecting high water quality with cost-effective and environmentally protective measures. As a result, communities are facing drinking water contamination crises with alarming frequency, as their source waters – the streams, wetlands and open lands that naturally supply and filter drinking water supplies – are degraded.

In May of 2016, the City of Newburgh declared an emergency as a toxic chemical; Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) was detected in the city’s primary drinking water reservoir, Washington Lake. Newburgh is a city of 29,000 people located in Orange County, NY, on the Hudson River, and its reservoirs are located in the adjacent towns of New Windsor and Newburgh. A systematic review of laws and regulations that should be in place to protect drinking water supplies, documented in Riverkeeper’s white paper, A Case Study and Call for Comprehensive Source Water Protection, shows that the acute drinking water crisis was preceded by a slow- moving crisis that unfolded over decades.

Congress intended to avert just the kind of crisis now facing Newburgh with the 1996 amendment to the Safe Drinking Water Act. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency required states to produce source water assessments for public drinking water supplies. NYS Department of Health developed these assessments in the 2000s, based on a framework that included mapping of source watersheds; identification of possible sources of contamination, such as permitted pollution discharge points, landfills and chemical bulk storage facilities; and land use analysis.

In 2016, Riverkeeper began a Source Water Protection project to advocate for better protections statewide, applying our work on the drinking water crisis in the City of Newburgh, and the lessons learned from the failure to protect that drinking water supply. Based on these findings, we have created a Source Water Protection Scorecard to help communities statewide understand the degree to which their own water supplies are protected, and to argue for sufficient state and federal resources to increase protections. The Scorecard is designed both to help communities determine if Source Water Assessments conducted by the Department of Health are up-to-date, and to determine the degree to which other important aspects of watershed protection are being utilized effectively, such as state and federal laws for stream and wetland protection, open space conservation, and intermunicipal watershed protection agreements.

Gov. Andrew Cuomo embraced this call with a bold proposal to spend $2 billion over five years on water infrastructure, source water protection and other initiatives, starting with the FY2017-2018 budget that will be finalized by April 1. The NYS Legislature has proposed its own bold clean water Bond Acts of $5 billion. While the details of these proposals are being negotiated, it is likely that significant new resources will be made available to communities to both create new Source Water Assessments that define threats to their drinking water supplies, and to implement projects that reduce and eliminate those threats.

Protecting source waters for New York City has resulted in valuable environmental protections for vast areas, safeguarding water, lands and the array of life within them for future generations. Advancing source water protection in communities of the Mohawk Basin and statewide can have similarly transformative outcomes.

Oral Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 59 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Revealing Local History and Inspiring Change through the Art of Future Canallers

AutumnEve Slawienski and Linda Biggers

Harry Hoag Elementary School, Fort Plain, NY

This project is in the second year of a three-year cycle and was designed to accompany the NYS 4th grade local history unit. As with anything in this world- there is an interconnection between everything that exists, especially in education. With this in mind, we set on an adventure to bring local history to life through art. Last year, we dipped our toe into the water and studied the architecture of the students’ local village of Fort Plain, NY. The students then designed a mosaic mural with the help of our artist, Linda Biggers. Saratoga Arts made the mural possible with an Arts Education Grant funded by the New York State Council on the Arts with the support of Governor Andrew Cuomo and the New York State Legislature.

Involving the future generations in art that pertains to their local history is a key method to create a better awareness of their roots. It has also inspired the students to dig deeper and go further into studying the specifics of the canal system and a desire to look ahead to the future of that area in their local economies.

Throughout this project we looked to recognize and celebrate the history of our Erie Canal and Mohawk Valley Riverway, along with forging a new path to the future of those systems with our most amazing natural resource, our children. This project has given our students not only a better understanding of the local history of their town, but they have also acquired an interest in seeing more. They want to find the places that the canal covered. They are interested in forecasting what a re-development of that area could be. They will be looking to other local waterway renewal projects, like the Mohawk Valley Overlook Bridge and Riverfront complex in Amsterdam and the Lock E-13 Living History Park on the NYS Thruway westbound between Fultonville and Canajoharie. Once a booming village, like many along the Erie Canalway and Mohawk River Valley, Fort Plain is looking to transform their area. If we are able to harness the positive energy of the local children and use their fresh eyes and enthusiastic spirits, we may be able to accomplish just that.

We are looking to present our triptych mosaic mural, our three phase project thus far and our plans for the future along with a video production of the students involved in the project and their reflection of their piece and their ideas for the future of this project. Our desire in doing so is to make attendees aware of the ability to see how transformation can occur with using art and local history to inspire and energize our next generation. Encouraging them to find new ways to utilize their local geography for pleasure, income and ultimately revealing history to other future generations.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 60 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Enhanced Water Quality Monitoring in Support of Modeling Efforts in the Mohawk River Watershed

Alexander J. Smith1 and Elizabeth Nystrom2

1NYS-DEC, Division of Water, Mohawk River Basin Program, Albany, NY 2US Geological Survey, New York Water Science Center, Troy, NY

The quality of surface water has important effects on human and ecological health. In the Mohawk River watershed, surface water is an important drinking water source and is used for swimming, fishing, and recreation. The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) is tasked by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to monitor ambient water quality of the State. The NYSDEC is also tasked to develop Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for state waters that fail to meet their intended uses. Water-quality impacts on designated uses in the Mohawk River watershed are well documented by the NYSDEC. These impacts include eutrophication from phosphorus, which degrades the quality of water supplies, and the presence of bacteriological pathogens, which limits contact recreational opportunities. In 2015 the NYSDEC conducted a “TMDL - Lite” analysis to better understand the sources and loads of pollutants in the Mohawk River watershed. The results of this analysis indicated approximately 60% of the phosphorus in the Mohawk River watershed is the result of point source discharges, such as sewage treatment facilities. A lesser, but still significant portion (21%) of phosphorus in the watershed is from non-point source agricultural practices. The remaining (19%) phosphorus load in the Mohawk River watershed was estimated to be from developed land, septic fields, and natural sources collectively. As a result of this analysis demonstrating the high proportion of phosphorus load originating from point source discharges and the current assessments of water quality conditions, the NYSDEC began to set in motion the process for developing a phosphorus TMDL for the Mohawk River. This process includes the development of enhanced water quality monitoring data from throughout the watershed and the development of a detailed water-quality model.

During 2016 the NYSDEC and United States Geological Survey’s NY Water Science Center (USGS) partnered in the collection of a comprehensive water-quality dataset suitable for calibrating future water- quality models in support of a TMDL for the Mohawk River. Beginning in April 2016, surface‐water quality samples were collected from 30 different sites throughout the Mohawk River watershed from upstream of Rome to Cohoes, including both main-stem (n=10) and tributary (n=20) locations. Samples were collected six times (Spring-Fall) from each location with an additional six collections for bacterial analysis. Sampling parameters included river and stream discharge, nutrients, suspended sediment, minerals, trace elements, organic carbon, chlorophyll-a, oxygen demand, and pathogens (coliforms).

Preliminary results indicate water quality in several areas in the Mohawk River watershed exceed NYSDEC’s water quality guidance values for phosphorus, chlorophyll-a, and New York State’s (NYS) water-quality standards for bacteria. Although NYS does not have official water-quality standards for phosphorus and chlorophyll-a, guidance values that are protective of both drinking water supplies (25 µg/L TP, 6 µg /L Chl-a) and aquatic life (30µg/L TP, 6µg/L Chl-a) have been established and are available in the literature (Callinan 2010, Smith et al. 2015, Smith et al. 2013, Smith and Tran 2010). Using these guidance values in review of water-quality data at the 30 sites sampled in 2016, 12 tributary and 7 main-stem sites exceeded the phosphorus guidance. For chlorophyll-a, 7 tributary and 6 main-stem sites exceeded guidance values. NYS does have water quality standards for both total (2,400 colonies/100mL) and fecal (200 colonies/100mL) coliforms for surface waters for the protection of human health. These standards are based on average conditions calculated from a minimum of 5 water-quality samples in a 30-day period. Results of our investigation, which followed these sample collection criteria, indicate 5 tributaries and 1 main-stem site exceeded the standard for total coliform and 7 tributaries and 2 main-stem sites exceeded the standard for fecal coliform. However, one-time exceedances from the 30-day period of sampling were more than double the number of average exceedances and were widespread. Phosphorus concentrations and the levels of coliform standard exceedances in several tributaries including Nail, Reall, and Ballou Creeks near Utica suggest these smaller watersheds may be significant sources of pollutants. However, chlorophyll-a exceedance of guidance values does not appear to become an issue until further downstream on the main-stem Mohawk River in the area of Amsterdam – Cohoes. These results may suggest a complex interaction between nutrient concentrations, altered flow regime

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 61 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 due to the canal system, and the build-up of suspended algae in downstream impoundments. Instantaneous load calculations provide a slightly different perspective on targeting specific tributaries for nutrient controls when compared with concentration only. For example, some larger tributaries, although lower in phosphorus concentration, contribute greater overall loads of phosphorus to the Mohawk River simply due to their size and average discharge.

Next steps in the process of developing a TMDL for the Mohawk River include developing a sophisticated water-quality model that builds off of the New York State Canal Corporation’s (Canal Corp.) newly completed hydraulic and hydrologic models for the Mohawk River watershed. The Canal Corp. built these advanced models for the watershed to support their flood warning system for the Mohawk River. Prior to the development of Canal Corp.’s flood warning system, developing a water-quality model would have required significantly more effort. Building off of their advances in this area will dramatically improve efficiencies in NYSDEC’s water quality model. A modeling team from the NYSDEC, USGS, and Canal Corp. are presently working to begin development of the Mohawk River water-quality model. The water-quality data collected during 2016 from the Mohawk River watershed will be used to calibrate this model. Once completed, the model will allow water-quality managers to estimate improvements in water quality through various scenarios of pollutant limitations within the watershed, further protecting drinking water supplies, recreational opportunities, and aquatic life.

Literature Cited Callinan, C.W. (2010) River Disinfection By-Product/Algal Toxin Study. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Water. Albany, NY. pp. 75

Smith, A.J., Duffy, B.T. and Novak, M.A. (2015) Observer rating of recreational use in wadeable streams of New York State, USA: Implications for nutrient criteria development. Water Research 69, 195-209.

Smith, A.J., Thomas, R.L., Nolan, J.K., Velinsky, D.J., Klein, S. and Duffy, B.T. (2013) Regional nutrient thresholds in wadeable streams of New York State protective of aquatic life. Ecological Indicators 29, 455- 467.

Smith, A.J. and Tran, C.P. (2010) A weight-of-evidence approach to define nutrient criteria protective of aquatic life in large rivers. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 29(3), 875-891.

Invited Oral Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 62 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Fly Ash and Coal Ash in the Mohawk River

J.A. Smith1, J.I. Garver1, J.L. Hodge2, and B.H. Kurtz2

1Geology Department, Union College, Schenectady, NY 2Physical and Biological Sciences, College of Saint Rose, Albany, NY

Introduction Fly ash and coal ash are silicate byproducts of coal-burning furnaces. Both have elemental chemistry dominated by (Si+Al+O±Fe), with or without additional elements (e.g., Zn, Ti). Fly ash is distinguished by a relatively smooth, glassy surface and typical droplet or sub-spherical shape, whereas coal ash has a rough and porous, typically dark, surface (Guedes et al., 2008). Both are essentially glass bubbles (cenospheres) and thus are buoyant in water. Our research indicates that fly ash and coal ash make up part of the particle load in the Mohawk River. Methodology We are working on a project aimed at quantifying the microplastic load in the Mohawk River (see Smith et al., this volume). In total, 63 trawl samples were collected between Rome (west) and the Crescent Dam in Cohoes (east) during summer and fall of 2016 (Figure 1). Sampling was conducted from a 4-m (13’5”) Zodiac Futura Mark II rigid inflatable boat, and samples of surface and near-surface particulates were captured by a manta trawl with a 333-µm net (Eriksen et al., 2013) that was towed approximately 12 m behind the boat. Trawls were conducted upstream for an average trawl length of 1.71 km (1.06 mi), with actual trawl lengths ranging from 1.17 km to 2.34 km. Samples were processed using a modified version of NOAA laboratory protocol (Masura et al., 2015), which removed much of the organic material.

Visual examination of non-organic particles remaining after processing allowed us to distinguish most of the anthropogenic particles on the basis of shape, plasticity, presence of dye, and/or overall appearance. Definitive identification of particles as plastic polymers was accomplished primarily by Raman spectroscopy, with additional analyses by scanning electron microscope (SEM) with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). For further analysis, ten fly ash and two coal ash or coal residue (inertite) particles from MT1 (Amsterdam) were prepared as a thin-section.

Raman measurements were made with a Bruker Optics Senterra® Spectrometer coupled to an Olympus BX51 reflected light microscope. Raman spectroscopy was performed at 500x using a 633 nm external He-Ne laser at 20 mW, and an aperture of 25 x 1000 um. An integration time of 5 to 60 s was used during acquisition of the Raman shift, and automated collection was done for background and monochromatic wavelength. Raman spectra from trawl particles were compared to spectra from in-house plastic standards acquired using the same instrument. Raman spectra for unbroken fly ash and coal ash particles are distinctive, but not definitive.

We used the Zeiss® EVO-MA15 SEM with a back-scattered electron (BSE) detector and a Bruker EDX system with a Peltier-cooled XFlash 6/30 silicon drift detector to acquire images and elemental analyses of particles. The SEM was operated at high vacuum and an accelerating voltage (EHT) of 15 keV; for EDX, a target square measuring approximately 100 µm on each side was outlined on the side of the particle most directly illuminated by the beam. We concentrated our efforts on particles suspected of being fly ash and coal ash, but also included some plastic particles for comparison. Findings Fly ash particles, and to a lesser extent coal ash particles, were found in 89% (56/63) of the trawl samples (Figure 2). The greatest abundance of fly/coal ash particles overall was found in samples collected between Amsterdam (MT1) and Glenville (MT24), with the highest total particle count (123 fly ash, 19 coal ash) in MT25, which was collected downstream of Lock 9 in Rotterdam Junction. In a few of the samples, such as MT1 (Amsterdam), fly ash and coal ash particles (total = 33) were more numerous than plastic particles (total = 25). SEM back-scatter electron imaging and EDX elemental analysis readily distinguish fly ash from plastic particles (Figure 3). Fly ash contains aluminum and silicon whereas plastic consists primarily of carbon and oxygen.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 63 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Raman spectroscopy shows that glassy material (fly ash) is distinct, but complex, and that carbon fragments (inertinite) are clear and distinctive the structure (Figure 4). The carbon fragments have diagnostic Raman active modes and these are distinguished by the presence of several primary modes, the position of primary modes, and the intensity ratio of those modes. In our preliminary work, the two samples from Amsterdam (MT1) have the distinctive D1 and G bands, but the S1, S2 and D3 bands are not present. Bands used to characterize ordering of unburned carbon are the D1 (disordered structure), the G (ordered structure of graphite), and the integrated density ratio, which is a function of the intensity of D1 and G (given by ID1/IG - see Guedes et al., 2008). The relative intensity of the D1 and G peaks is a function of structural order related to degree of combustion, and for sample A1 and B1 the ID1/IG ratio is 1.2. Thus these preliminary results are similar to samples from coal-burning low-sulfur power plants (see Guedes et al., 2008; Rodella et al., 2016). Conclusions Our investigation indicates that fly ash and coal ash are nearly ubiquitous in the surface waters of the Mohawk River and Erie Canal. The presence of fly ash and coal ash in many of the samples indicates that the legacy of coal-burning in the Mohawk River Watershed remains with us, likely both as spoils piles exploited as a resource and as particulates incorporated into soil over time and released to the river through bank erosion and surface runoff.

The relatively high concentration of fly ash and coal ash in samples bracketing the former power station located upstream of Lock 10 (now owned by Cranesville Block, which has a beneficial use determination to use fly/coal ash as filler in concrete; NYSDEC, 2016) suggests that byproducts of coal-burning were initially deposited close to the source, but are being remobilized in the course of both typical river flow and flood events. It is possible that erosion associated with Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm Lee in 2011 exposed sources of fly ash and coal ash particles that are being progressively introduced into the river, especially between Amsterdam and Rotterdam Junction where Lock 10 and Lock 9, respectively, experienced significant structural damage and catastrophic channel-widening.

The potential environmental impacts related to leaching of heavy metals from fly ash and coal ash have been studied elsewhere (e.g., Pandey and Bhattacharya, 2016). Further investigation of the chemical stability of fly ash and coal ash in the Mohawk River may be warranted.

Figure 1. Google Earth image of the lower Mohawk River showing 63 manta trawl tracks color-coded to indicate abundance of microplastic particles found in each sample (MT1-MT63), which is the primary focus of the project. Numbers 1-63 adjacent to trawl tracks are sequential from west to east and correspond to numbers in gray on Figure 2. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are indicated by markers. Samples were collected in summer/fall 2016. The highest fly ash/coal ash particle count (142) was found in the sample from track 51 (MT25) downstream of Lock 9 in Rotterdam Junction (Figure 3).

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 64 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Figure 2. Total fly ash and coal ash particle counts in 63 trawl samples, broken down by type of particle. Sample IDs for each manta trawl sample (MT1-MT63) are ordered from west to east; numbers 1-63 in below the sample IDs correspond to track numbers on Figure 1. Approximate centers of urban areas and Lock 9 in Rotterdam Junction are indicated by dashed vertical lines. Sampling indicates that fly ash and/or coal ash particles are nearly pervasive in the lower Mohawk River, although the abundance varies between Rome (west) and the Crescent Dam in Cohoes (east). The highest fly/coal ash particle count was found in the sample collected immediately downstream of Lock 9 in Rotterdam Junction (MT25, total = 142), with generally higher abundance in the other samples collected between Amsterdam and Schenectady, a stretch of the Mohawk River that includes the former power plant located between Lock 10 and Amsterdam. Sample MT29, which had the second-highest fly/coal ash particle count (96), was collected adjacent to the former power plant. Sampling results suggest that fly ash and coal ash particles are present in soils and river banks, where they can be eroded by normal flow conditions and by extreme events such as the channel migration and sediment remobilization that occurred during Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm Lee in 2011.

Figure 3. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) backscatter electron (BSE) image (upper right), energy-dispersive x-ray (EDX) elemental spectrum (bottom), and reflected-light photograph (inset) of a fly ash particle (left) and plastic microbead (right) from the trawl sample collected immediately downstream from Lock 9 in Rotterdam Junction (MT25). This sample had the highest abundance of fly ash/coal ash particles among the 63 trawl samples. The fly ash particle has the characteristic glassy sheen and droplet shape of fly ash cenospheres (vitreous bubbles); the elemental composition is dominated by O-Al-Si-C, which is typical of fly ash. The elemental chemistry of the plastic particle is dominated by C-O, which is typical of polymers.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 65 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Figure 4. Raman spectra (C) of targets marked by X’s in fly ash particles MT1-A1 (A) and MT1-B1 (B) from trawl sample MT1 (Amsterdam). Bands used to characterize ordering of unburned carbon are the D1, the G, and the integrated density ratio, which is a function of the intensity of D1 and G (given by ID1/IG - see Guedes et al., 2008). The two samples have the distinctive D1 and G bands, but the S1, S2 and D3 bands are not present. These preliminary results are similar to samples from coal-burning low-sulfur power plants (see Guedes et al., 2008).

Acknowledgements Funding was provided by a grant from the Mohawk River Watershed Grants – Round 3 from NYS DEC, with in-kind contributions from The College of Saint Rose and Union College. References Eriksen, M., Mason, S., Wilson, S., Box, C., Zellers, A., Edwards, W., Farley, H., Amato, S., 2013, Microplastic pollution in the surface waters of the Laurentian Great Lakes: Marine Pollution Bulletin, v. 77, p 177–182, doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.10.007. Guedes, A., Valentim, B., Prieto, A.C., Sanz, A., Flores, D., and Noronha, F., 2008, Characterization of fly ash from a power plant and surroundings by micro-Raman spectroscopy: International Journal of Coal Geology, v. 73, p. 359–370. doi:10.1016/j.coal.2007.09.001 Masura, J., Baker, J., Foster, G., and Arthur, C., 2015. Laboratory methods for the analysis of microplastics in the marine environment: recommendations for quantifying synthetic particles in waters and sediments. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS-OR&R-48. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Materials Management, Bureau of Waste Reduction & Recycling, Granted Beneficial Use Determinations (dated 1/21/16): http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/materials_minerals_pdf/budnum.pdf Pandey, S.K., Bhattacharya, T., 2016, Mobility, Ecological risk and change in surface morphology during sequential chemical extraction of heavy metals in fly ash: A case study: Environmental Technology and Innovation, available online 11/25/16, http: dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2016.10.004. Rodella, N., Pasquali, M., Zacco, A., Bilo, F., Borgese, L., Bontempi, N., Tomasoni, G., Depero, L.E. and Bontempi, E., 2016. Beyond waste: new sustainable fillers from fly ashes stabilization, obtained by low cost raw materials. Heliyon, 2(9), p.e00163.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 66 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 The Distribution of Microplastic Pollution in the Mohawk River

J.A. Smith1, J.L. Hodge2, B.H. Kurtz2, and J.I. Garver1

1Geology Department, Union College, Schenectady, NY 2Physical and Biological Sciences, College of Saint Rose, Albany, NY

Introduction The Mohawk River is the second largest channelized waterbody in New York State and the largest tributary to the Hudson River. The Mohawk has a long history of human use, and with humans have come various contaminants that have affected water quality (NYSDEC, 2010). Among the emerging contaminants threatening the Mohawk River are microplastics, typically defined as “… plastic smaller than 5 millimeters, whether intentionally manufactured to be that size or as a result of the fragmentation and breakdown of larger plastic products.” (Office of the NYS Attorney General, 2014). Microplastic particles represent a threat to the health and well-being of organisms living within the river and those that feed on them, including humans (Baldwin et al., 2016, and references therein). The majority of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in New York State are not equipped to filter out small plastic particles (Office of the NYS Attorney General, 2015), and combined sewer systems (CSSs), such as those in Utica, Little Falls, and Amsterdam, provide a direct means for plastic waste to enter waterways during heavy precipitation events. Microplastic particles can also be introduced directly to the river in runoff.

The main goal of this project is to quantify the microplastic load in the Mohawk River as a starting point for assessing the level of environmental risk represented by microplastic pollution. Field work was completed during the summer and fall of 2016 and laboratory analyses followed.

Methodology In total, 63 trawl samples were collected between Rome (west) and the Crescent Dam in Cohoes (east). Sampling was conducted from a 4-m (13’5”) Zodiac Futura Mark II rigid inflatable boat that towed manta trawl with a 333-µm net (Eriksen et al., 2013) approximately 12 m behind the boat. Trawls were conducted upstream for an average trawl length of 1.71 km (1.06 mi), with actual trawl lengths ranging from 1.17 km to 2.34 km. Material captured in the net was transferred to a Zip-loc sample bag and labeled with the trawl number and the location information (typically navigation marker IDs from start and finish of the trawl). GPS recorded the starting point, the path, and the endpoint of each trawl.

In addition, 64 grab samples of channel sediment were collected between Rome and Cohoes. An Ekman 6- inch grab sampler was used for sediment sampling. Grab samples were collected where bottom sediment was sufficiently fine for the jaws of the sampler to close. Some sampling attempts were unsuccessful because rocks propped the jaws open and sediment was lost. Sediment was scooped from the sampler into a zip-loc bag and labeled with sample ID, GPS waypoint, and location indicators such as nearby navigation markers.

Samples were processed using a modified version of NOAA laboratory protocol (Masura et al., 2015). Wet peroxide oxidation (WPO) removed much of the organic material. Sediment samples undergo a density separation with salt water before WPO. Visual examination of non-organic particles remaining after processing allowed us to distinguish some of the anthropogenic particles by the presence of dyes. Shape, plasticity, and overall appearance formed the basis for preliminary identification of particles as plastic. Definitive identification of particles as plastic polymers was accomplished primarily by Raman spectroscopy, with additional analyses by scanning electron microscope (SEM) with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS).

Raman spectroscopy was conducted using a Bruker Senterra µ-Raman spectrometer with a 633-µm He-Ne laser. Raman spectra from trawl particles were compared to spectra from in-house plastic standards acquired using the same instrument. Polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene (Styrofoam) were the most common polymers encountered. We used the Zeiss® EVO-MA15 SEM with a back-scattered electron (BSE) detector and a Bruker EDX system with a Peltier-cooled XFlash 6/30 silicon drift detector to acquire images and elemental analyses of particles. The SEM was operated at high vacuum and an accelerating voltage (EHT) of

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 67 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 15 keV; for EDX, a target square measuring approximately 100 µm on each side was outlined on the side of the particle most directly illuminated by the beam. We concentrated on particles suspected of being fly ash and coal ash, but also included some plastic particles for comparison.

Findings Abundance of particles (particles per trawl) Microplastic particles were found in all of the 63 trawl samples (Table 1, Figures 1 and 2). Abundance ranged from 3 particles to 521 particles, with 30 samples having 3-18 particles, 11 samples having 20-28 particles, 14 samples having 37-86 particles, and the remaining eight samples having 110-521 particles. The two highest abundances (521 and 512 particles) were found in samples taken from the natural channel of the Mohawk River downstream from the Utica WWTP and CSS outfalls (MT32 and MT31, respectively). The Utica samples were collected during a heavy rainstorm and contained the highest number of foam (polystyrene) particles among the 63 trawl samples by an order of magnitude.

The third highest abundance (439 particles) was found in a sample (MT58) collected between 5.0 and 6.7 km downstream from the Schenectady WWTP. The adjacent upstream sample (MT59), which was collected 1.8- 3.9 km downstream from the Schenectady WWTP, contained 202 particles (fifth highest), while the adjacent downstream sample (MT57) contained 110 particles (eighth highest). The Schenectady samples are notable for containing the highest number of spherical beads (16 in MT-57, 20 in MT-58, and 11 in MT-59) among the 63 trawl samples.

Some of the samples with high particle counts are not near WWTPs or CSS outfalls, so their microplastic loads are more enigmatic. Sample MT62 (2.5-4.5 km upstream of Amsterdam, between Lock 11 and Lock12) had a microplastic particle count of 268 (fourth highest), of which 265 particles were fibers. No other trawl sample had a similar abundance of fibers; the next highest fiber count was 88 in MT32 (Utica). Sample MT25, which was collected 0.200-1.65 km downstream from Lock 9 in Rotterdam Junction, had a microplastic particle count of 135 (sixth highest), whereas the adjacent samples from upstream (MT26) and downstream (MT24) had lower particle abundances (37 and 40 particles, respectively). The particle count in MT25 was even slightly higher than that of upstream sample MT29, which was collected between the Amsterdam WWTP and Lock 10 and had a microplastic particle count of 122 (seventh highest). Adjusted abundance of microplastic particles (particles/m2) To compare particle abundance between samples collected over different trawl lengths, abundance of microplastic particles per square meter (adjusted abundance) was calculated by dividing particle count by trawl area [width of trawl opening (0.6 m) multiplied by length of trawled section of river (in m)]. The resulting adjusted abundance assumes that microplastics were collected from the surface of the river at a constant net water velocity of 9.66 kph (8.05 kph boat plus 1.61 kph river).

Adjusted abundances range from a minimum of 0.003 particles/m2 (MT5, collected 2.0-3.7 km downstream from Fonda-Fultonville WWTP) to a maximum of 0.743 particles/m2 (MT32, collected in the natural channel of the Mohawk River on a trawl that ended at the boat launch across the street from the Utica WWTP). The ranking of the nine highest particle counts and nine highest adjusted abundances are the same. As for particle count, the sample with the second highest adjusted abundance is MT31 (0.594 particles/m2), which was collected downstream from MT32 in Utica, and the third highest adjusted abundance is for MT58 (downstream from Schenectady WWTP) with 0.460 particles/m2. In seven cases among the remaining 54 samples (those with <86 particles), samples move up or down in ranking (generally by one spot) between particle count and adjusted abundance. Other microparticles in the Mohawk River Fly ash particles, and to a lesser extent coal ash particles, were found in 89% (56/63) of the trawl samples (see Smith et al., this volume). We previously identified some green particles collected from the Mohawk River as paint that is spectrographically similar to paint from Lock 9 in Rotterdam, NY (Hodge et al., 2016). Preliminary findings: Sediment Samples Analytical work on the sediment samples is underway. Microplastic content in the 25 completed sediment samples is generally low to zero.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 68 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Discussion Microplastic particles are present along the entire sampled length of the Mohawk River and the Erie Canal. Both the abundance and the proportions of plastic types vary along the river, but not systematically. The lack of monotonic increase in abundance of microplastic particles downstream suggests that one or more processes is at work to sequester and/or dilute the concentration of particles. Similarly, high abundance correlates with the location of WWTPs or CSSs in some cases, such as MT31 and MT32 in Utica, MT29 in Amsterdam (122 particles), and MT43 in Rome (74 particles), but not in others. For example, MT37 in the Erie Canal near Deerfield (86 particles) is not near a WWTP or identified CSS outfall, although the trawl ended at a tributary stream that may contribute runoff from urbanized areas on the north bank.

The variability in proportions of plastic types within the channel suggests the effects of distinct local inputs. For example, the abundance of spherical beads (so-called microbeads, including blue ones) and colorless fragments in samples taken downstream from the Schenectady WWTP could be interpreted as a signal for discharge of microplastics originally sourced from personal care products in the treated wastewater stream. Blue microbeads, which are used in personal care products such as facial scrubs, are perhaps the most distinctive and easily recognizable form of microplastic particle found in the river. Similarly, the abundance of styrofoam particles and plastic fragments in the samples collected downstream from the Utica WWTP and CSS outfalls may represent a substantial contribution from stormwater runoff. Some areas with relatively high particle counts have more obscure potential sources, however, including the Rotterdam Junction/Lock 9 sample (MT25).

Conclusions Microplastic particles are pervasive in surface waters of the lower Mohawk River. Both abundance (particles/sample and particles/m2) and proportions of particle type in each sample vary non-systematically, however, along the sampled length of the river. Notwithstanding the inherent potential for variability associated with any sampling campaign that occurs over multiple days, the variations in abundance suggest that microplastics are being sequestered within the river, perhaps in wetland areas, and diluted to some extent at the pooled eastern end of the river. Variations in proportions of plastic types likely reflect the influence of local inputs, such as surface runoff, combined sewer overflows, and WWTP effluent, which deliver pulses or streams of particles with characteristic features (e.g., Styrofoam particles in Utica, blue microbeads in Schenectady). In some cases, high abundance of microplastic particles corresponds closely to proximity to WWTP outflow, but not in all cases. Teasing apart the variables that combine to produce the microplastic load at any given location in the lower Mohawk River is the primary goal of using microplastic pollution to better understand the pollution load in the river.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 69 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Figure 1. Google Earth image of the lower Mohawk River showing 63 manta trawl tracks color-coded to indicate abundance of microplastic particles found in each sample (MT1-MT63; Figure 2). Numbers 1-63 adjacent to trawl tracks are sequential from west to east and correspond to numbers in gray on Figure 2. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are indicated by markers. Samples were collected in summer/fall 2016. The three highest microplastic particle counts (521, 512, and 439) were found in samples from tracks 9 and 10 (MT32 and MT31) downstream of the Utica WWTP and combined sewer system (CSS) outfalls, and track 57 (MT58) downstream of the Schenectady WWTP, respectively.

Figure 2. Upper plot: Total microplastic particle counts in 63 trawl samples, broken down by type of particle (fragments, foams, pellets/beads, films, fibers/lines). Sample IDs for each manta trawl sample (MT1-MT63) are ordered from west to east; numbers 1-63 in gray below the sample IDs correspond to track numbers on Figure 1. Approximate centers of three urban areas and Lock 9 in Rotterdam Junction are indicated by dashed vertical lines. Sampling indicates that microplastic particles are pervasive in the lower Mohawk River, although the abundance varies non-systematically between Rome (west) and the Crescent Dam in Cohoes (east). The highest particle counts are found in MT32 (521) and MT31 (512) in the natural channel of the Mohawk River in Utica, and in MT58 (439) in Schenectady. Lower plot: Percentage of each of the five microplastic particle types in the trawl samples. The order of the samples is the same as in the upper plot. The variation in proportions of plastic types from sample to sample suggests the influence of local inputs. For example, the abundance of foam particles in the Utica samples (MT31 and MT32) may indicate a substantial contribution from stormwater and surface runoff, whereas the notable abundance of microbeads and colorless fragments in the sample collected downstream from the Schenectady WWTP (MT58) suggests that one source may be plastic abrasive particles in personal care products that were discharged with treated wastewater.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 70 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Acknowledgements Funding was provided by a grant from the Mohawk River Watershed Grants – Round 3 from NYS DEC, with in-kind contributions from The College of Saint Rose and Union College.

References Baldwin, A.K., Corsi, S.R., and Mason, S.A., 2016, Plastic debris in 29 Great Lakes tributaries: relations to watershed attributes and hydrology: Environmental Science and Technology, v. 50 (19), p. 10377–10385, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02917. Eriksen, M., Mason, S., Wilson, S., Box, C., Zellers, A., Edwards, W., Farley, H., Amato, S., 2013, Microplastic pollution in the surface waters of the Laurentian Great Lakes: Marine Pollution Bulletin, v. 77, p 177–182, doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.10.007. Hodge, J. L., Smith, J. A., Garver, J. I., Ervolina, E., and Barry, B.T., 2016, Identification of microplastic particles from the Mohawk and Hudson Rivers using Raman spectroscopy: 2016 Hudson River Symposium, Hudson River Environmental Society, New Paltz, NY (4 May 2016). Masura, J., Baker, J., Foster, G., and Arthur, C., 2015. Laboratory methods for the analysis of microplastics in the marine environment: recommendations for quantifying synthetic particles in waters and sediments. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS-OR&R-48. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Bureau of Watershed Assessment and Management, 2010, The Mohawk River Basin Waterbody Inventory and Priority Waterbodies List, http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/water_pdf/pwlmhwkasmt10.pdf. New York State Office of the Attorney General, 2014, Unseen threat: how microbeads harm New York waters, wildlife, health and environment: https://ag.ny.gov/pdfs/Microbeads_Report_5_14_14.pdf New York State Office of the Attorney General, 2015, Discharging microbeads to our waters: an examination of wastewater treatment plants in New York: https://ag.ny.gov/pdfs/2015_Microbeads_Report_FINAL.pdf

Invited Oral Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 71 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Systematic Investigation of the Effects of Perfluoroalkyl Acid Chain Length and Ionic Head Group on Human Serum Albumin Binding

Jake Ulrich and Laura A. MacManus-Spencer

Department of Chemistry, Union College, Schenectady, NY

Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs, general structure Figure 1) are a family of industrial chemicals that are fluorinated analogs of carboxylic acids and sulfonic acids. PFAAs are used in a wide variety of consumer products because of their unique properties of being both hydrophobic and lipophobic, which helps certain products to repel both water and oils. These chemicals have been produced since the 1940s, but in recent years PFAAs have been classified as Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) because they bioaccumulate in organisms and do not degrade in the environment (Lau 2007, Prevedouros 2006, Renner 2001). These chemicals accumulate in aquatic environments, as well as in organisms; PFAAs have been detected in trout, rats and the Great Lakes, to name a few (Falk 2015, Lam 2016, Martin 2004, Martin 2004). The bioaccumulation of PFAAs is unlike other hydrophobic contaminants, which accumulate predominantly in fatty tissues; PFAAs bioaccumulate mainly in tissues that have high protein content, like the kidneys, liver and blood of organisms (Vande Heuvel 1991). Studies pertaining to PFAAs binding to proteins are vital to fully understand the mechanism of binding, bioaccumulation of PFAAs and their toxic effects to humans. Additionally, these chemicals have been detected in drinking water in the local area. The water crisis in Hoosick Falls, NY, and other local small towns, has garnered local, state and national attention. Residents in these areas have abnormally high concentrations of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in their blood and have an above average incidence rate for kidney and liver cancer (McKinley 2016,). This local issue is another reason why researching and understanding these chemicals is vital to the general public.

F O F F F m O F F O- S n F O- F F F O Figure 1. General structures of perfluroalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs, n = 2-10, left) and sulfonates (PFSAs, m = 3, 5, 7, 9, right).

Since PFAAs accumulate in tissues such as the kidneys, liver and blood of organisms, the model protein in this study is Human Serum Albumin (HSA). HSA is the most abundant protein in blood, and one of its main functions is to transport endogenous ligands around the body. Many of these ligands are fatty acids, which have a similar structure to PFAAs (Curry 1998, Sugio 1999, Carter 1994). Due to this similarity, several studies have been conducted to investigate the binding of PFAAs to HSA, with most studies focusing on PFOA. In these studies the protein-ligand association constant (Ka) was determined, which is is a measure of the strength of protein binding. The Ka values for PFOA-HSA and BSA, Bovine Serum Albumin) binding reported in the literature range from 103 to 106 M-1, which shows that there is disagreement across the studies (Table 1). One reason for the range of values is the variety of methods used in the studies to assess binding to HSA/BSA. These discrepancies, as well as the primary focus on PFOA, demonstrate that there is still a gap in knowledge about the binding of PFOA to HSA specifically and also about the relationship between PFAA binding and chain length/ionic head group. The reason for studying the relationship between chain length and ionic head group is because manufacturers have replaced the longer 8-carbon chemicals with the shorter 4- carbon PFAAs (Prevedouros, 2006).

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 72 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017

Table 1. Magnitudes of literature Ka values for perfluorooctanoic acid binding to HSA. -1 Protein-PFAA System Ka (M ) Source HSA-PFOA 103 Han et al (2003) HSA-PFOA 104 Wu et al (2009) HSA-PFOA 104 Hebert et al (2010) HSA-PFOA 105 Chen et al (20() HSA-PFOA 105 Messina et al (2005) BSA-PFOA 105 MacManus-Spencer et al (2010) BSA-PFOA 106 Bischel et al (2010)

The main goal of this study is to develop a systematic method to determine a relationship between PFAA-HSA binding and chain length/ionic head group. In this study binding affinities for short-, medium- and long-chain perfluorocarboxylates and perfluorosulfonates (ranging from 4 to 12 carbons) were determined in order to understand the relationship between PFAA chain length and ionic head group. These results were obtained using a systematic equilibrium dialysis method coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to sensitively and selectively determine PFAA-HSA binding affinities. The results show that all PFAAs studied bind to HSA according to a two-class binding model regardless of chain length or ionic head group; a two-class binding model means that PFAAs bind at two types of sites (n1 and n2) on the protein with different affinities. Additionally, the results show short-chain PFAAs bind with a similar strength or only moderately weaker than the medium- and long-chain PFAAs (Table 2), which raises concern over whether or not the short-chain PFAA replacements are any safer than their predecessors.

Table 2. Summary of Ka1, Ka2, n1 and n2 values determined for various PFAAs. -1 -1 PFAA Ka1 (M ) n1 Ka2(M ) n2

PFOA 1.1 (± 0.9) x 105 1.5 (± 0.9) 5.5 (± 0.9) x 103 14.7 (± 0.6) 6 4 PFOS 5.0 (± 4.0) x 10 1.4 (± 0.4) 9.6 (± 2.0) x 10 9.6 (± 0.5) PFBA 6.0 (± 1.0) x 104 1.4 (± 0.3) 9.0 (± 1.0) x 102 11.2 (± 0.5) PFBS 4.0 (± 1.0) x 104 2.7 (± 0.3) 1.8 (± 0.8) x 102 24.0 (± 7.0) 6 3 PFDoA 1.3 (± 0.8) x 10 3.0 (± 0.96) 2.9 (± 0.97) x 10 13.8 (± 0.9)

References Bischel, H. N.; MacManus-Spencer, L. A.; Luthy, R. G. Noncovalent interactions of long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids with serum albumin. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 5263-5269.

Carter, D. C. and Ho, J. X. Structure of Serum Albumin. Adv. Protein Chem. 1994, 45, 153-203.

Chen, Y.; Gao, L. Fluorescence study on site-specific binding of perfluoroalkyl acids to human serum albumin. Arch. Toxicol. 2009, 83, 255-261.

Curry, S.; Madelkow, H.; Brick, P; Franks, N. Crystal structure of human serum albumin complexed with fatty acid reveals an asymmetric distribution of binding sites. Nat. Struct. Biol, 1998, 5, 827-835.

Falk, S.; Failing, K.; Georgi, S; Brunn, H.; Stahl, T. Tissue uptake and elimination of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in adult rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus myskiss) after dietary exposure. Chemosphere. 2015, 129, 150- 156.

Han, X.; Snow, T. A.; Kemper, R. A.; Jepson, G. W. Binding of perfluorooctanoic acid to rat and human plasma proteins. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2003, 16, 775-781.

Hebert, P. C.; MacManus-Spencer, L. A. Development of a fluorescence model for the binding of medium- to long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids to human serum albumin through a mechanistic evaluation of spectroscopic evidence. Anal. Chem. 2010, 82, 6463-6471.

Lam, J. C. W.; Lyu J.; Kwok, K. Y.; Lam P. K. S. Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in marine mammals from the South China Sea and their temporal changes 2002-2014: Concern for alternatives of PFOS? Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 6728–6736.

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 73 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 Lau, C.; Anitole, K.; Hodes, C.; Lai, D.; Pfahles-Hutchens, A.; Seed, J. Perfluoroalkylacids: A review of monitoring and toxicological findings. Toxicol. Sci. 2007, 99, 366-394.

MacManus-Spencer, L.A.; Tse, M.L.; Herbert, P. C.; Bischel, H. N.; Luthy, R.G. Binding of perfluorocarboxylates to serum albumin: a comparison of analytical methods. Anal. Chem. 2010, 82, 974-981.

Martin, J. W.; Smithwick, M. M.; Braune, B. M.; Hoekstra P. F.; Muir, D. C.; Mabury, S. A. Identification of long-chain perfluorinated acids in biota from the Canadian arctic. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004, 38, 373-380.

Martin, J.W.; Whittle, D. M.; Muir, D. C.; Mabury, S. A. Perfluoroalkyl contaminants in a food web from Lake Ontario. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004, 38, 5379-5385. McKinley, J. After months of anger in Hoosick Falls, hearings on tainted water begin. New York Times, 08/30/16.

Messina, P.; Prieto, G.; Dodero, V.; Ruso, J. M.; Schulz, P.; Sarmiento, F. Ultraviolet-Circular dichroism spectroscopy and potentiometric study of the interaction between human serum albumin and sodium perfluorooctanoate. Biopolymers 2005, 79, 300-309.

Prevedouros, K.; Cousins, I.; Buck, R.; Korzeniowski, S. Sources, fate and transport of perfluorocarboxylates. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40, 32-34.

Renner, R. Growing concern over perfluorinated chemicals: Evidence of toxic effects and environmental impacts has sent researchers scrambling to obtain more data. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2001, 35, 154A-160A.

Sugio, S.; Kashima, A.; Mochizuki, S.; Noda, M.; Kobayashi, K. Crystal structure of human serum albumin at 2.5 Å resolution. Protein Eng. 1999, 12, 439-446.

Vanden Heuvel, J. P.; Kuslikis, B. I.; Van Rafelghem, M. J.; Peterson, R. E. Tissue distribution, metabolism, and elimination of perfluorooctanoic acid in male and female rats. J. Biochem. Toxicol. 1991, 6, 83-92.

Wu, L.; Gao, H.; Gao, N.; Chen, L. Interaction of perfluorooctanoic acid with human serum albumin. BMC Sturct. Biol. 2009, 9, 1-7.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 74 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017 The new IAEA Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation and Rivers (GNIP and GNIR) stations at Union College

Anouk Verheyden, Sarah Katz and David P. Gillikin

Geology Department, Union College, Schenectady, NY

Measurements of stable isotopes in water from the various fluxes and reservoirs in the hydrologic cycle allow the identification of different water masses as well as their interrelationships. These data provide important information to study atmospheric circulation, hydrological processes and regional and global climate. In addition, isotope proxies of the water cycle, such as cave deposits, tree-rings, ice cores, bivalve shells, and sediment cores have proven useful for paleoclimate reconstructions. Oxygen (δ18O) and deuterium (δD) isotopes in water are strongly related to one another, but do behave slightly different during evaporation and precipitation, which provides clues to the water’s history.

As part of new IAEA Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation (GNIP) and Global Network of Isotopes in Rivers (GNIR) stations, we have been analyzing δ18O and δD values in Schenectady precipitation (sampling station on the roof of Olin building at Union College) and Mohawk River water (at Freeman’s Bridge) for more than one year. The GNIP and GNIR are global databases of isotopes in precipitation and rivers that provide valuable information to several scientific disciplines (oceanography, climatology, meteorology, hydrology, paleoclimate, etc.).

Oxygen isotopes in water samples are measured using a Gasbench II connected to a Thermo Delta Advantage Isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS). Deuterium isotopes are measured using liquid injections in a High Temperature Conversion Elemental Analyzer (TCEA) connected to the IRMS via a CONFLO IV. Precipitation ranged from -19.2 to -1.8‰ for O and -66.5 to -3.3‰ for D and river water ranged from -11.3 to -7.5‰ for O and -65.0 to -48.3‰ for D. River water integrates a larger area and also is subject to evaporation and groundwater inputs. Both precipitation and river water plotted just slightly above the Global Meteoric Water Line, indicating a slightly arid water source for the region. There was little correlation between precipitation amount and isotope values, but one year of data is not enough to fully understand these relationships.

Union College’s Stable Isotope Laboratory participated in the IAEA Water Isotope Inter-comparison (WICO) proficiency test and was ranked ‘Excellent’ for O and ‘Acceptable’ for D. On average, we matched values for δ18O, but were biased +0.98‰ for δD (n=8, bias range: -0.06 to +0.08‰ for O and -0.7 to +2.6‰ for D; samples ranged from -41.4 to +5.6‰ for O and -323.7 to +55.7‰ for D).

The data collected from precipitation and the Mohawk River will help local paleoclimate researchers understand the variation in their proxy records. In addition to measuring isotopes in water, the Stable Isotope Laboratory of the Geology Department at Union College is involved in analyzing oxygen isotopes in carbonates (Gasbench II) and organics (TCEA) with the aim of reconstructing past climatic changes.

The Stable Isotope Lab will continue to sample and measure oxygen and deuterium isotopes in Schenectady precipitation and Mohawk River water. The data are submitted to GNIP and GNIR and are publically available. The lab also measures samples for third parties (professionals, students, schools) interested in any aspect of isotope research.

Poster Presentation

Cockburn, J.M.H. and Garver, J.I., Proceedings of the 2017 Mohawk Watershed Symposium, 75 Union College, Schenectady, NY, March 17, 2017