Assessment of the Changes of Ecosystem Services As a Result of the Tide Management in the River Elbe

Master Thesis in the Master program, 'European Master in Applied Ecology (EMAE)'

Assessment of the changes of ecosystem services as a result of the tide management in the River Elbe

Presented by B.Sc. Halima Omari Mangi. Kiel, September 2012

1st Supervisor: Dr. Benjamin Burkhard 2nd Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Uwe Latacz-Lohmann

Institut für Natur-und Ressourcenschutz Agrar- und Ernährungswissenschaftlichen Fakultät Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel

Disclaimer: Hamburg Port Authority has supported this Master Thesis by providing information on the study area and the ´Tidal Elbe Concept´. Hamburg Port Authority is not responsible for the content of this thesis, and the conclusions drawn by the author do not necessarily represent the opinion or state of knowledge of Hamburg Port Authority.

Acknowledgements

I have received a lot of support from kind people all the time during writing this Master Thesis, fortunately its only possible to mention few of them here.

First and foremost, I offer my sincerest gratitude to my Principle Supervisor Dr. Burkhard Benjamin, for his patient guidance, encouragement and useful critiques, at the same time as allowing me to work my own way. He was ready to help all the time and happy to receive my ideas for discussion. I have gain a lot of knowledge in the process and I will always honor him for generosity.

I also thank Prof. Uwe Latacs-Lohmann my second supervisor for the useful critiques and valuable advices on my Thesis. His clarifications on several concepts offered me a chance to learn.

I would like to thank the staffs of the Hamburg Port Authority, and the TIDE-Project coordination team for allowing me to visit their offices, and providing me with information, and data for my Master Thesis.

Dr. Kirsten Wolfstein; for her munificent support, she helped me on administration issues, and professional, her devotion leave me without better word to express my sincerest appreciation.

Engineer Manfred Maine, for his tutorial on the hydrology model through verbal conversion..

Frau Johanna Knüppel; for her facilitation in field visits and tutorials; her prompt reply on my requests made it easy for me to write this Master Thesis.

Dr. Sanders Jacobs', for his constructive ideas since the beginning of the Master Thesis.

I would like to thank all the EMAE – Program coordinators; for their constructive directives during my studies.

I also thank my course instructors for such extensive knowledge they provided. Certainly, I have not learnt only the course materials they provided in classes but also the inspirations they have brought.

I would like also to show my deep appreciation to the European Commission for funding my Master program, also for letting me pass through countries borders and meet new people, which I enjoyed the most during the program.

I also thank the International Centre, Student accommodation, and Librarians officials of Kiel University for providing me with services I needed to accomplish my program/ Master Thesis.

I am indebted to Tanzania National Parks officials who granted me a leave to undertake my Master study. Also to my co-workers to whom I left my duties.

I would like to thank my family, my husband Joseph for his fortitude; my mom Mariamu, my sisters and brothers for all the support they provided.

I would like also to thank my colleagues and friend for their kindness, encouragements and support

I remember my Grandpa. Omari Sipe, who passed away during pursuing this Master Thesis. He had given me courage during his life, and he valued my education, may almighty God rest him in peace.

I left behind a big list of people who provided me with their support. I did not forget them or find them less important, but will always owe them for their greatness.

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements...... i

Table of Contents ...... iv

Chapter I Introduction ...... viii

1.1 Background of the study ...... I

1.2 Statement of the problem...... 5

1.3 Justification of the study ...... 7

1.4 Objectives of the study ...... 10

Chapter 2 Literature Review ...... 12

2.1 Ecosystem services assessment framework ...... 12

2.2 Ecosystem services assessment matrix ...... 14

2.3 Mapping ecosystem services ...... 15

2.4 Estimation of economic value of the ecosystem services...... 15

2.5 Benefit transfer...... 18

Chapter 3 Materials and Method ...... 20

3.1 Study Area ...... 20

3.2 Methods ...... 23

3.2.1 Testing of the applicability of the Elbe Estuary prioritized ecosystem services ..... 23

3.2.2 Identification of potential indicators for assessment of ecosystem services...... 26

3.2.3 Assessment ecological integrity and the ecosystem services provisioning...... 27

3.2.4 Mapping of habitats, ecological integrity and ecosystem service ...... 28

3.2.5 Cost – Benefit Analysis (CBA)...... 25

Chapter 4 Results and Discussions ...... 40

4.1 Results ...... 40

4.1.3 Indicators for assessment of ecological integrity and ecosystem services...... 54

4.1.4 Habitats ecological integrity assessment ...... 58

Using habitat quality ranking method and Assessment matrix method...... 58

4.1.5 Habitats ecosystem services provisioning capacity assessment ...... 60

4.1.6 Cost – Benefit Analysis (CBA) ...... 70

4.2 Discussion ...... 73

4.2.1 Applicability of the ecosystem services at the study area...... 73

4.2.2 Indicators for assessment of the ecological integrity and ecosystem services...... 73

4.2.3 Changes in the ecological integrity of Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area...... 74

4.2.5 Cost – Benefit analysis (CBA) ...... 86

Chapter 5 Conclusion ...... 87

Appendix ...... 104

List of figures

Figure 1: 3D model of the area after project implementation...... 4 Figure 2: Amount of dredge material at the Port area...... 6 Figure 3. Ecosystem services assessment conceptual framework...... 13 Figure 4: Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area...... 22 Figure 5: Two dimensional assessment matrix ...... 27 Figure 6: (a) and (b) Tidal Riparian Forest; photo by Freund et. al., 2010 ...... 41 Figure 7: Willow thickets (Photo; by Mangi, April 2012) ...... 42 Figure 8: (a) individual Poplars trees, (b) modified river section ...... 43 Figure 9: (a) and (b) River mud flats ...... 44 Figure 10: (a) tidal reeds; (b) tidal ditch ...... 45 Figure 11: (a) Paved areas, (b) Nutrient-rich ditch with standing water character ...... 46 Figure 12: the fallow area habitats ...... 47 Figure13: Ripraps on the old dyke habitat...... 48 Figure 14: Map of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand...... 49 Figure 15: Map of the SpadeLander Bush/Kreetsand's ...... 53 Figure 16: Map of SpadeLander Bush/Kreetsand ...... 65 Figure 17: Map of SpadeLander Bush/Kreetsand: Ecological integrity ...... 66 Figure 18: Map of Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand: provisioning services ...... 67 Figure 19: Map of Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand: regulating services; ...... 68 Figure 20: Map of Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand: shallow water area culture...... 69 Figure 21: Primary production at the Elbe river channel...... 79 Figure 22: Total organic matter-measured at Zollenspieker, Elbe River ...... 79 Figure 23; CORINE map for the SpadeLander Bush/Kreetsands area ...... 107

List of Tables

Table 1: Flood mitigation strategies for determination of mitigation strategies...... 33 Table 2: Annual flood risk avoidance for each flood risk mitigation strategy...... 36 Table 3: Ecological integrity, ecosystem services and potential indicators ...... 55 Table 4; Assessment matrix result for ecological integrity and ecosystem services ..... 62 Table 5: Economic values of ecosystem services...... 72 Table 6; HEC-RAS Model results, (Source, HPA, 2012)...... 105 Table 7; Biodiversity of the SpadeLander Bush/Kreetsands area ...... 108

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Abstract

In the tidal Elbe river, more sediments are transported to the upper estuary with flood currents (tidal pumping) related to tidal asymmetry. This process contributes amongst others, to dredging in order to obtain the water depth required for navigation safety. In cognizant with the above problems, the pilot project " Spadenlander Busch/ Kreetsand " a construction of shallow water area is planned as one of the measures in order to reduce tidal asymmetry while improving ecological integrity at the tidal Elbe areas. This study was conducted to assess ecological integrity and ecosystem services before and after the project implementation. Systematic assessment steps were followed to carry out the assessment. Habitat identification and quality ranking, were conducted for the present state, while model habitats representing future state (after the implementation of the project), were designed using HEC-RAS model simulation. The ecosystem services assessment matrix was used to assess ecological integrity and ecosystem services provisioning of the study area's habitats before, and after the project implementation, using potential indicators derived for each ecological integrity and ecosystem service. Assessment of the habitats ecological integrity over these two periods have indicated that there will be an increase in the ecological integrity after the project implementation. The assessment of the habitats relevant capacity to provide the ecosystem services over the two periods, on the other hand have shown the increase in the regulation and the cultural services after the project implementation. The Cost- Benefit Analysis was carried out for the measure implementation option against the option of not implementing the measure, and it was found out that the measure implementation is the beneficial option compared with the option of not implementing the measure. Therefore, this study concludes that the measure will increase the flow of ecosystem services after its implementation.

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Chapter I Introduction

1.1 Background of the study

Ecosystem goods and services are vital for human well-being (MA, 2005). By definitions, ecosystem services are the benefits that humans obtain from the ecosystem (Burkhard et. al., 2011, M.A, 2005). They provide humans with necessities as food and fresh water and also less obvious services such as flood protection, spiritual and recreational services (Hearne et. al., 2008; Grossmann, 2012; Carvalho et. al., 2004).

These services of ecosystems have supported growth and progress of the human population (Hearne et. al., 2008). There is a strong link between the flow of ecosystem services and the level of human well-being from local to the global level however, for many years ecosystem services and human development have been treated as two separate ends with no closer or important connection (Foale et. al., 2005). Recent findings by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment show that around 60% (15 out of 24) of the ecosystem services are being degraded or unsustainably used (Burkhard, 2010; M.A, 2005). Although degradation has resulted in the overall gain of human well- being at the present, but the damages made as results may bring costs to the future generation (M.A, 2005). These findings have not only showed the trends in ecosystem services, but also the dependence between these services and human developments.

The rate of decrease of ecosystem services and its impact on development strategies has brought up the need to integrate ecosystem services management into economic development strategies. Therefore, a better way to make decisions about developments, that explicitly consider ecosystem services and reduce trade-offs across services is required. Decision makers need to reconcile development goals and ecosystem services through building on existing experience with multiple-use of ecosystem (Hearne et. al., 2008). However, a lot of information is required to support these decisions, from ecological functioning and structure, spatial and temporal distribution to economical values of ecosystem services, all these information are equally weighty (Burkhard et. al., 2009

The Ecosystem services approach has recently emerged as a new scientific approach, which seems to promise prevention of the ecological problems caused by human land- uses (Burkhard et. al., 2010). It is a practical approach which allows assessment of the connections between ecosystem services and economic development on a project basis (Grossmann, 2012). While suggesting indicators and metrics that could increase chances of no-group suffers a welfare loss and at-least one group experiences a gain (Atkinson et.al., 2006; Haines-Young et. al.,2009, Chang et. al., 2008). It emphasizes the role of healthy ecosystems in the sustainable provisioning of human welfare, economic development and poverty alleviation (Haines-Yaung et. al.,2009). In the past, decision making approaches concerning ecosystems were tied to evaluation of environ mental impact without considering the ecosystem services and their economic valuation (Boumans et. al., 2012). Therefore, it has been difficult for managers to integrate these views in land use plans/management (Gianluca, 2012, Chang, 2008).

The ecosystem services approach presents a new way to interpret human’s relationship with the ecosystem. It provides a means from which decisions processes that integrates and balance the protection of ecosystem with land use goals can be made (Burkhard et. al., 2009, Kahan 2007). This approach also encourages conservation of the ecosystem on the basis that it provides services that humans need to sustain their livelihood (Kahan, 2007).

The ecosystem services approach has recently been adopted by European Union policies and carried down to organizations and companies. Hamburg Port Authority (HPA) is employing the concept as an approach to manage estuaries as one of its natural infrastructures for the port activities. Boumans et. al. (2012) pointed out that, the concept of ecosystem services is useful for estuary management for three fundamental reasons, the ability to help researchers and managers to synthesize important ecological, and economic concepts; the ability to use latest available economic methods for economic valuation, and the ability to allow scientists and policy makers to use the concept to assess social and political tradeoffs between development uses of the estuary and conservation.

Despite its usefulness, the concept of ecosystem services still faces many limitations for its application, and it depends on inputs from other disciplines. Although the approach seems easy to apply, and direct to the problem identification and solution

presenting, in reality it still inherits human environmental complexity like other approach es, which have been applied before (Burkhard et. al., 2010 and Morri et. al., 2011). Therefore, there are still considerable challenges to applications of the approach (Burkhard et. al., 2010).

This study is utilizing the concept of ecosystem services to assess changes in ecosystem services as the result of management measure at the Tidal section of the River Elbe (Elbe Estuary).

Project implementation of the tidal shallow water development

The development of shallow water area is planned to be implemented at the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area as a pilot project to demonstrate results which can be applied in other areas (TIDEELBE, 2012; Annual report HPA, 2008).

The project target is to reduce tidal energy and sediment transportation to the upper estuary as well as to improve ecosystem functions and structures through reduction of tidal energy, tidal ranges and tidal asymmetry. The project also is intended to improve morphological conditions of the estuary, to develop and protect habitats, to create natural gradients for processes, and transitions and to enhance connectivity between habitats. However, an fundamental objective is to increase ecosystem services provisioning in the area.

The ecological engineering technique, will be applied in order to transform a fallow terrestrial land at its succession stage into a tidal shallow water area/tidal floodplain by connecting it to the tidal river section, hence making it influenced by diurnal tides. (Figure 1).

These techniques will involve model simulation for habitat design before the mechanical excavation of the land.

Simulation of the hydraulic model (HEC-RAS), was carried out to determine the hydrology and sediment characteristics in the tidal shallow water, and the river stream. The model results were used to design habitats within the area in a way that improves ecosystem services provisioning while reducing tidal energy.

b Table 1: (a) aerial photo showing Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area before project implementation. (b) the 3D model of the area after project implementation.

The project will be implemented by the Hamburg Port Authority. However, its set up is analyzed and compared with other realignment measures of three other estuaries in the frame of the EU Interreg IVb project "TIDE" (http://www.tide-project.eu/).

The TIDE-project is analyzing and comparing different aspects of the four estuaries namely Elbe and Weser in Germany, Scheldt in Belgium and Humber in United Kingdom. They all are important shipping channels under a strong tidal influence and at the same time designated NATURA 2000 sites protected by EU legislation. At these given conditions, it is a great challenge for the responsible authorities to set up appropriate management in order to ensure the sustainable use and development of the estuaries. Therefore, eleven partners of environment agencies, port authorities, universities and waterways administrations under the lead of the Hamburg Port Authority (HPA) cooperate within the project in order to learn from each other and provide recommendations for sustainable estuarine management. The ecosystem service approach is used to relate ecological functioning to socio-economic benefits for various actors within these areas.

1.2 Statement of the problem.

The tidal Elbe River (estuary) is facing high tidal energy and tidal asymmetry. Flood currents are stronger than ebb currents. High tidal energy erodes sediments from the sea/coast and transports them to the upper estuary; whereas weak ebb tidal currents takes less sediment back to the sea/coast (Jacobus, 2012). This phenomenon creates a tidal pumping effect (TIDE, 2012). Hence cause more sediment transport to river upstream, amongst which is the Port basin. Among the causes of the high tidal energy reported are the widened, funnel shaped Elbe river mouth, river channel deepening, river banks straightening and loss of the flood plains (http://tide-project.eu, 2012; Hochfeld, 2011).

Sediments in the upper estuary come from two sources; from the upstream river discharge and the coast. (Jacobus, 2012; Hochfeld, 2011; Heise, 2005). Therefore, sedimentation in the Port basin is the net sediment transport from the North Sea (Heise, 2005; Verney et. al., 2009). The tidal pumping effect increases during periods

of low river discharge, hence less sediment flushed from the upper stream and more sediments transported from coast to the upper stream.

Table 2: Amount of dredge material at the Port area each year; Data from (Source; HPA, 2012)

Sediment processes are ecologically and economically significant issues in the tidal area of the Elbe River because they need to be removed to maintain navigational depth (Figure 2) (Heise 2005; Hochfeld, 2011). Sediment dredging activities and the relocation of dredged materials associated with several limitations including timing. Timing of suitable seasons for dredging activities is usually challenging to avoid interruption of ecological processes taking place at the dredging and relocation sites (Heise, 2005). Spring and summer season for instance is to be avoided because of the low oxygen concentration associated with temperature raise, and also breeding activities of fish during this period.

The quality of the dredged material also requires checking for toxicity levels before relocation to comply with Water Framework Directives. The sediments brought from the River upstream, although smaller in quantity compare to sea transported by flood tides from the sea, yet contaminated by heavy metals, which has historical origin (Heise, 2005). Therefore, When they mix with sediments from the North Sea the whole volume of sediment becomes contaminated with heavy metals.

Some measures employed in the past, to control sedimentation in the Port basin includes sediment trap, which was located at the area close to the city of Wedel to collect relatively large sediment particles closer to the coast, so that reduce sediments load transported upstream. This measure was reported to be relative cost saving and had low ecological disturbance (http://tide-project.eu, 2012). Change of relocation site to stop sedimentation cycle also was tried. However, the magnitude of the problem is still significant to the navigation activities.

In light of the above discussion, the purpose of the study was based on the ecosystem management oriented goal of the TIDE project, which is also implementing the Hamburg Port Authority's' goal. The goal of HPA is "to balance environmental challenges with economic demands" (HPA, 2008; http://tide-project.eu, 2012; and www.greenport.com). The TIDE-Project environmental management goal is appropriately manage the waterways while improving ecosystem capacity to provide ecosystem service (http://tide-project.eu, 2012)

1.3 Justification of the study

Estuaries are most productive areas on Earth, providing many development opportunitie s (Allen et. al., 2006). They are defined as the semi-enclosed coastal water bodies with a river flowing and connecting them to the sea or ocean. Estuaries are influenced by marine, and freshwater conditions, which makes them biologically critical areas providing high biological niches to biodiversity (water.epa.gov., 2012;Turpie et. al., 2002). Estuaries also provide valuable resources and benefits to people, including the ones which are quantifiable and those which are not quantifiable in monetary terms (water.epa.gov2012). Since historical time estuaries have been attractive for settlements to people, today they are reported to be most populated areas with most biggest cities (O’Higgins et. al., 2010). They have used to port building since industrial periods to

allow communications between human settlements for trading purposes including transport of raw materials and finished goods (Boumans et. al., 2005).

Specifically the Elbe estuary is a fundamental economical area today as it has been since the beginning of the industrial revolution. It carries one of the biggest ports in Germany, the Port of Hamburg which is the economic base of the Hamburg Metropolitan region. The port of Hamburg is linking production areas to the market areas at different places in the world (HPA, 2008).

Today this estuary and the Port are facing several ecological problems including tidal pumping and accelerated sedimentation that interferes with the shipping safety (http://tide-project.eu, 2012). These problems are partly due to the biogeophysical modification of the River/Estuary (M. A 2005). These modifications occurred at different stages during which at the early days convention of estuaries wetlands to agricultural farms through filling took place (Tanner et. al., 2002; Grossmann, 2012). Later river deepening and widening was necessary in order to accommodate ever increasing oversea going ships (Boumans et. al., 2005).

Nevertheless, these modifications seem to be necessary today, and in the future following the importance of the Estuary for economy development and shipping requirements, their use is more like to increase in the future (Boumans et. al., 2005). These issues present enormous challenges to the port management and the society, because consequences of all these modifications, especially when they are purely engineering are changes in ecological structures and functions of the estuary/river

hence lead to changes in the ecosystem services provisioning capacity. For that reason, mechanisms to ensure the delivery of both ecological and economic benefits are necessary.

This management measure is in line with some European Commission policies and laws for instance a new strategy towards sustainable flood control (Kundzewicz, 1999; Grossmann, 2012). A flood control policy which consider floodplains management as one of the new strategy for flood protection, have developed (Grossmann, 2012; Hesse et. al, 2009). Floodplain management is preferable strategy for sustainable flood protection because it provides other ecosystem services like water purification, habitat provisioning, climate regulation and cultural services. Peat bogs formed in the floodplains for instance stores carbon hence mitigates climate change (Friesecke, 2004; Edward et. al., 2012; Grossmann, 2012). Floodplains also regarded to be beneficial for the river capacity necessary for navigation (Grossmann, 2012). They can also be established as ecological reserves for protection of plant species and animals (1999; Friesecke, 2004; Edward et. al., 2012, Hesse et. al., 2009).

Renaturalization of rivers and their riparian wetlands have carried out in some place in Germany. This includes dike shift and restoration of natural water retention features like riparian wetlands, which also regarded as green infrastructures (Hesse et. al., 2009). River renaturalization is look upon as transformation towards multi-strategies flood protection where natural features combined with the hard structures like dikes, so as to bring the benefit of the natural processes into the flood mitigation. Kundzewicz, (1999) pointed out that dikes provide protection against floods, but attract development on low-lying areas. He recommended coping with floods by recognizing their existence and avoid low-lying areas. This recommendation agree with the Germany Flood Control Act of 2005, which give mandate to the municipalities to incorporate flood prevention in the spatial plans by avoiding development at the flood prone areas, hence leave space available for the river (Hesse et. al., 2009).

Under European Union laws, habitat creation is one of strategies for mainstreaming biodiversity protection into economic development strategies (EU Biodiversity Strategy, 2011). EU biodiversity policy, based on two Legislations, European Bird directive (1979) and European Habitats directive (1992) legislations, recognizes that, principle cause of biodiversity loss is habitat degradation. Motivated by the ecosystem services

provisioning by the natural and near natural areas, its priorities have been thus to create a network of conservation areas (Grossmann, 2012). Environmental Impact Assessment laws recommend the creation of new habitats or biological improvement to increase carrying capacity of the area to compensate for loss of habitat especially those falling under Habitat directives standards, Bird Habitats Directives or Natura 2000 (Habitats Directive, 92).

1.4 Objectives of the study

The objectives of this study are:

1. To test the applicability of prioritized ecosystem services for the Elbe Estuary on the SpadenlanderBusch / Kreetsand's study area habitats over two periods. The specific component of this objective are:

i. To identify habitats on the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's project area before and after project implementation ii. To test the applicability of prioritized ecosystem services for the Spadenlander Busch/ Kreetsand's habitats

2. To assess ecological integrity of the ecosystem before and after the planned management measure implementation. The specific component of this objective are:

i. To identify potential indicators for the assessment of the ecological integrity ii. To assess ecological integrity of the ecosystem before and after the planned management measure implementation.

3. To assess the relevant capacity of the study area habitats to provide ecosystem services before and after the project implementation. The specific component of this objective are:

i. To identify potential indicators for the assessment of the prioritized ecosystem services. ii. To assess the relevant capacity of the study area habitats to provide the ecosystem services before and after the management measure implementation. 10

4. To carryout Cost-Benefit Analysis for the project implementation option against the option of not implementing of the management measure

Hypothesis

i. Ecological integrity of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area increases with the implementation of the planned management measure. ii. Ecosystem services of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area increases with the implementation of the planned management measure iii. The implementation of the management measure is beneficial with regards to the prioritized ecosystem services.

Chapter 2 Literature Review

Literature review was conducted for the available literature about the topic to get familiarization with similar management measures concept which have implemented in other areas. Also to synthesize previous findings on the topic, and to learn about methodology and techniques used for the assessment of the ecological integrity, ecosystem services and the cost-benefit analysis. Review included research papers, National strategic plans, relevant organizations reports and directives.

2.1 Ecosystem services assessment framework

Ecosystem services assessment strategy is the analysis of landscape information to determine its capacities to provide ecosystem services (Burkhard et al., 2009). This assessment usually focuses on human-being as benefit exploiting agent. It also treats the interaction of ecosystem and economy development (Boumans et. al., 2005). Ecosystem services assessment has an extensive literature on diverse aspects. Assessment methodologies and techniques used also varies widely. However, mostly conducted in multidisciplinary approach. Some frameworks have developed to suggest approaches for ecosystem services assessment, but there is none which stands alone as a complete set to follow during ecosystem services assessment. However, each of these frameworks provide guidelines which can be picked to aid for the assessment strategies.

A system-oriented framework (DPSIR) (Drivers, Pressure, State, Impact, Response) is one of the best known structured framework, which summarizes the interaction between ecology, socio-economic and decisions on the land uses (Glemnitz et al.,2004). It is a powerful framework for the implementation of the ecosystem services approach since it communicate the interactive link between human-wellbeing and ecosystem services and ecosystem processes and structures (Boumans et. al., 2005).

Binning et.al.,(2001) interpreted the DPSIR framework for applying ecosystem services concept to natural resource management in Australia. They started with stakeholder driven ecosystem services inventory and link them with ecological, social and economics through utilizing of multidisciplinary knowledge and techniques. Boumans et. al.,(2005) interpreted DPSIR framework to develop integrated conceptual framework for the assessment of ecosystem services in Coastal areas. This conceptual 12

framework shows structured link between drivers on the land and their consequences on the ecosystem services provisioning and the Society responses (Gebiru et. al., 2011). Drivers on the land like human activities and natural phenomena put pressure on ecosystem functions and structures which leads to changes in the states of ecosystem (Gebiru et. al., 2011). The new states of the ecosystem may bring impacts on human-welfares which can be taken to mean as reduced ecosystem services provisioning. The impacts trigger the society responses to the impacts either through formulation of policies which changes land uses or technological (figure; 3).

This framework uses indicators to communicate feedback at every point. Hence it is useful to for derivation of indicators for ecosystem services assessment. From this framework, important steps for ecosystem services assessment can be deduced. The Land where human activities takes place (pressures) can be identified as a starting point, and its state (ecological integrity) assessed to determine the capacity to supply ecosystem services (impacts). Management measures implemented to improve services or to provide an alternative to ecosystem services is the Societies responses at different levels. The assessment strategy employed in this study utilizes the DPSIR structure.

Table 3. Ecosystem services assessment conceptual framework.

Response Drivers Decisions on land use Historical Estuary uses and e.g. policies and management management and State of estuary measures implementation habitats and morphology

(Trade-off decisions)

Pressure States Estuary ecological structure Estuary Ecosystem services e.g. and functions e.g. Biodiversity Flood control, Dispassion of tidal and Abiotic heterogeneity energy, Nutrient regulations Impacts Human Welfare Goals Human development Culture preservation

Drivers natural Biogeophysical

Source; Boumans et al., (2005) 13

Land covers identification, definition ecosystem services and derivation of indicators are the basic, preliminary steps towards assessment of ecosystem services on the landscape. Boumans et. al., (2005) and Burkhard et. al. (2009) suggested defining of the land cover as the preliminary steps of the assessment followed by ecosystem services definition. In fact, knowing land covers is the step to understanding the ecosystem and its structures and functions. Indicators also required to conduct ecosystem services assessment (Burkhard et. al.,20 09; Dowling, 2004). As define by UNEP-WCMC, (2009) indicator is a measure based on the provable data that give information more than it does to itself. Ecosyste m service indicators can be statistics or maps describing the ecosystem services in a way comprehensible to various users (UNEP WCMC, 2009). They provide information on the state and trends of ecosystem services benefits people receives hence used for ecosystem services assessments and economic valuation (UNEP-WCMC, 2009).

2.2 Ecosystem services assessment matrix

Ecosystem services assessment uses multidisciplinary approach to reach rational decisi ons for services management (Gebiru et. al., 2011). Assessment matrix have reported t o be a useful tool that gathers large information and presents it in a summarized man ner that is communicable to users. It links land covers information's with ecosystem se rvices while allowing use of potential indicators for assessment (Burkhard et. al., 2009; 2011; Gebiru et. al., 2011). Burkhard et al., (2009) used ecosystem services assessment matrix to apply multiple techniques for assessment of the land cover capacity to provide ecosystem services in Halle-Leipzig region. A set of defined ecosystem services was connected to the CORINE land covers information's through potential indicators to assess for their provisioning. They used 2-Dimensional matrix, with ecosystem services arranged on the first top raw and the CORINE land covers on the first column. The relative capacity of the land cover to provide ecosystem services were assigned in the corresponding cell. The relative capacity value were assigned based on the expert judgments.

In the millennium ecosystem services (2005), a similar assessment matrix was used to assess relative magnitude of ecosystem services derived from various wetland ecosystems. Cell size was used to represent the magnitude of the service provided per unit areas of the wetland (2005). 14

Abel et. al., (2002) used similar assessment matrix method to decide between different land uses scenarios basing on impacts they bring on ecosystem services in the Goulburn broken catchment, in Australia. Judgment on the level of impacts were performed by multidisciplinary stakeholders using multi- criteria. A choice for preferred land use scenario for the catchment was made based on the assessment scores.

Meas et. al., (2011) also used assessment matrix to assess impacts of trade-off between ecosystem services. Prioritized ecosystem services were put on the columns and other potential ecosystem services provided by the floodplain on the rows. Color was used to represent the trade-off impact level. Green color stood for positive and red color stood for the negative impact. The color intensity implied the strength of the impact. Multi- stakeholder options were used to assess impacts level between trade- offs.

2.3 Mapping ecosystem services

Maps are useful tools for ecosystem services assessment. They provide spatial information about ecosystem services by displaying areas of supply and areas of demand. Maps also indicates ecosystem services trends in relation to land cover changes (Burkhard et. al., 2009; 2011; Morri et. al., 2011). They also highlights areas which requires management attentions to protect land capacity to provide ecosystem services (Meas et. al., 2011).

Burkhard et al., 2009 had linked assessment matrix on ArcGIS maps to show areas of ecosystem services supply and area which uses the ecosystem services for the region of Halle-Leipzig. Therefore, mapping helps on the communication of the ecosystem services assessment results in the spatial aspects.

2.4 Estimation of economic value of the ecosystem services.

Most of the ecosystem services has public goods characteristics (Grossmann, 2012; Alan et. al., 2000; Siebert, 1995; 2008). They are regarded priceless, and difficulty to handle in the markets (Common et. al., 2011; Siebert, 1995; 2008). Therefore, they make no contribution in terms quantifiable by economic indicators and are invisible in decision making concerning land management options. Nevertheless, their utility contribution to human-wellbeing not denied, and the demand for them always exists

(Alan et. al., 2000, Atkinson et. al., 2006; Grossmann, 2012). Based on these statements, therefore, it is necessary to evaluation economic value of ecosystem for change public perceptions and to inform policy decisions (Alan et. al., 2000). There are some efforts employed today to develop market for ecosystem services through creating of schemes that give the investors a limited right to trade on ecosystem services (Binning et. al., 2001). In these schemes, regulations are used to create demand for services by limiting the accessibility and defining of ownerships (Binning et. al., 2001). These efforts referred to as a strategy for correcting market failure on the ecosystem services.

2.4.1 Total Economic Value Framework

Ecosystem services value often estimated in terms of Total Economic Value (TEV). TEV is the sum of benefits that ecosystem offer to the human-being (Atkinson et. al., 2006; Grossmann, 2012; Bauman's et. al., 2005). It includes use and non-use values (Dziegielewska, 2012, Diamantedes et.al., 2002). Use values are those values which involves some contact with ecosystem services either directly or indirectly (Burgess et. al.,2005). They are divided into direct use values and indirect use values.  Direct use values; refers to the values derived after the actual use of the ecosystem service have made. These values are divided into consumptive uses, and non-consumptive (Price, 2007; Burgess et. al., 2005; Diamantedes et. al., 2002).  Indirect use values; refers to the values that arise from indirect use of the ecosystem services through the components that support a service which is directly used by people, for example, water purification performed by a wetland. (Hawkins, 2003; Price, 2007; Diamantedes et.al., 2002)  Option value; refers to the value attached to the ecosystem services for the option of using it in the future (Hawkins, 2003) Non-use values; is the value obtained from ecosystem service that have no tangible use in the present and will never be used in the future. It include;  Existence value; refers to values derived from the satisfaction of knowing that a species or ecosystem exists, without tangible use of the species or ecosystem. (Dziegielewska, 2012; Grossmann, 2012; Price, 2007, Hawkins, 2003).

2.4.2 Ecosystem services economic valuation methods

Total Economic Value is usually estimated using a range of valuation methods in the same study area to aggregate the values provided land. The following are descriptions for some of valuation methods used for Total Economic value estimate by different authors; a) Revealed preference method; is the valuation method based on the actual spending on the ecosystem services by people (Price, 2007; Bennett, 2003; Ko, 2007). It uses market information's to gather the economic value of ecosystem services (Atkinson et. al., 2006). This method includes;

 The travel cost method: Is the method used to value a service requiring people to travel in order to access them. The cost, that people are willing to pay for travel and spend in the destination places, in order to access a the ecosystem services, placed as the value of the ecosystem services or the recreational area (Bauman's et. al., 2005; Bennett, 2003; Diamantedes et. al., 2002; Ko, 2007). This method used to value the recreation sites like the National Park or a species by measuring visitors satisfaction associated with seeing a species or not.  Market-based valuation method; applied to value ecosystem services traded in the real market (Bennett, 2003; Ko, 2007).  Replacement cost method; ecosystem service value estimated by the costs involved to provide a substitute or restoration of ecosystem service which have destroyed e.g. costs used to create a waste treatment plant to replace a destroyed wetland (Bauman's et. al., 2005).  Production function method; ecosystem service value derived from demand for the final marketed service output in association with information from the service production function for example, a status of wetland in relation to fish production and the fish price in the market (Bennett, 2003, Diamantedes et.al., 2002; Ko, 2007).  Hedonic pricing method; the value of the ecosystem service estimated from the value of the associated marketed good or service, e.g. a House price and the related ecosystem service qualities (Bauman's et. al., 2005; Bennett, 2003; Diamantedes et.al., 2002; Ko, 2007).

b) Stated preference techniques; create a market for ecosystem services by means of surveys on imaginary changes on the flow of ecosystem services. It surveys peoples willingness to give money for protection of the ecosystem and its services or their willingness to accept ecosystem degradation or loss of the ecosystem services (Ko, 2007; Bennett, 2003). This method includes;

 The Contingent Valuation Method; which uses questionnaires to determine people's willingness to pay to improve the provisioning of an ecosystem service or would be a willingness to accept for its degradation (Ko, 2007; Bennett, 2003; Bauman's et. al., 2005).

 Choice Modeling or Choice Experiments; survey based method, a selected group of people are asked to choose or rank their most preferred services from grouped options that relate to different ecosystem services management scenarios (Bennett, 2003; Ko, 2007).

2.5 Benefit transfer

Sometimes managers are required to show net benefits for proposed environmental projects before their due implementation, resources and time to conduct researches for this purpose are often limited (Paul et. al., 2012 (www.feem.it)). Benefit transfer where results of other studies are applied to another study is used (Bingham et. al., 1992). This method provides some guidelines through which economic values estimated from other studies are adopted to a new site requiring management decisions at that moment. Benefit transfer method preferred for two main advantages, namely time and the cost saving (Deck, et. al.,1992). Paul et. al. (2012 (www.feem.it)) commented that, benefit transfer can provide estimates as accurate as the primary study if well applied the. Deck, et al., (1992) added that original study may provide more precise estimate, but benefit transfer provides adequate information.

2.6 Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) for ecosystem services management projects.

Cost-benefit analysis is defined as the social appraisal of investment projects. It is one of policy decision-making tool for quantifying trade-offs between benefits and environmental losses, because some of the projects intended for generation of ecosystem services (e.g. River channelization for navigation purposes) bears negative

impact to the ecosystem and some brings positive impacts. These impacts are often external to the private investor (Siebert, 1995; 2008). Therefore, cost-benefit analysis is considered as an attempt to correct market failure for ecosystem services (Common et al. 2011). CBA compares project investment options and choices one that is marginal in economic terms (considering economic values of the ecosystem services flow) (Common et al. 2011; Siebert, 1995; 2008). The best project option benefits therefore, should outweigh investment costs (Siebert, 1995; 2008).

Chapter 3 Materials and Method

Materials

3.1 Study Area

The River Elbe is one of the largest rivers in Central Europe (Fig.5). It has a length of about 1.100 km and a catchment area of almost 148,268 km (Hoda et. al., 2012). The River catchment is shared between Germany, Czech Republic, Austria and Poland. One third of its length falls within Czech territory, two thirds of its length falls within Germany. Some small catchment areas are falling within Austria and Poland (Meyerhoff, 2004). The River source is in the Riesengebirge (Krkonoše Mountains, Czech Republic). River discharges in the North Sea near Cuxhaven. As it flows through the Czech Republic, to the northern and central part of Germany, it passes through some major cities, like Prague, Dresden and Hamburg that form part of the River catchment. Despite human influence, the Elbe rivers cape still has many near- natural parts. Along the River from the Riesengebirge to the North Sea, there are more than 200 areas under different protection status including some which are protected for international significance (Biosphere Reserves) (Meyerhoff, 2004). Last 140 kilometers of the River are tidal influenced, and they form the Elbe Estuary. In this section of the River, there are about 30 nature-protected areas under national law. The National Park Hamburgisches Wattenmeer is one of these areas (Hoda et. al., 2012). The tidal condition makes unique wetland habitats and biodiversity with unique flora and fauna, including some species which are endemic to the area. These includes aquatic plants like (Elbe Water Dropwort (Oenanthe conioides), Elbe Hair Grass (Deschampsia wibeliana) and significant species like Checkered lily (Fritillaria meleagris) (Thiel, 2001). The Elbe estuary also has a rich fish population. Riparian wetlands provide spawning and hatching ground for fish like smelt (Osmerus eperlanus), eel (Anguilla anguilla), Twaite shad (Alosa fallax) and Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) (Thiel, 2001). The alluvial forests, mudflats and reed areas of the estuary provide habitats for resident and migratory birds. National significant birds like Arctic tern (Sterna paradisea), Barnacle goose, (Branta leucopis), Little Gull, (Larus minutes), Avocet, (Recurvirosta avosetta), Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) and Common snipe, (Gallinago gallinago) are found in this section of Elbe river. Populations of seals and Porpoises

(Phocoena phocoena) also occasionally forage on some parts of the Estuary (Freund et. al., 2010). The study site is located in the freshwater part of the tidal Elbe, Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area (figure 4; above), in the southwest of Hamburg city at the eastern edge of the Wilhelmsberg island (Tideelbe journal 2011). This space was used as spoil field in the past, and it was behind the dyke until 1999 when the when the flood protection dyke was shifted further west. The site includes the riparian floodplain forest. It is one of the rare habitats of the Elbe Estuary (Jacobus, 2012). The planned tidal, shallow water area have recently included into the Nature Protection Area (the Auenlandschaft Norderelbe) with expectation to its implementation.

Table 4: Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area

3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Testing of the applicability of the Elbe Estuary prioritized ecosystem services in the study area.

Testing of the applicability of the prioritized ecosystem services in the study areas followed three steps, which involved habitat identification for both present and future states, habitat quality assessment, and ranking and defining of the prioritized ecosystem services.

Habitat Identifications

Present states habitats were obtained from the Environmental Impact Assessment report which was conducted by the authorized agency (BBS Office Greuner-Pönicke). The habitats were verified through the field survey. Some information about the habitats were supplemented by using relevant habitat maps for instance, Hamburg habitats maps, species distribution maps of German and Europe. Species field guides, available literatures and expertise's verbal interviews also were utilized to gather information about the habitats.

Biodiversity (fauna groups) and species activities level for the present habitats was derived from an Environmental Impact Assessment report. Confirmation for the species availability information's and their activities also were conducted using a similar method as described.

However, during EIA exercise, suitable techniques were used to identify species and their activities in the habitat, ranging from sound detection, sign reading, and observation.

Potential species of plants and animals identified also were assessed for their population status which was linked to species rarity. Species were grouped according to their protection status. This information was utilized later for habitat ranking in this study.

Future habitats were obtained from the model habitats design made after the Hydrologic Engineering Centers River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) Model simulation which was carried out by the Melchior et al.,(Unpublished data) to determine hydrology 23

and sediments transport and deposition characteristics after the development of the shallow water area. The model was simulated to determine these characteristics in the Elbe River channel before the shallow water area created and in both the Elbe River and the shallow water area after its creation (Barbara, 2009).

Model simulations were carried out for different shallow water area designs, involving different inlet diameters and shallow water features depth. Number of inlet and outlet also were varied ranging from one to three. The aim was to determine a design which will bring best outcomes regarding the primary target of the shallow water area. The inlet size and features on the shallow water area were designed to reduce water velocity, at the same time providing large area for tidal energy dissipation and retaining valuable habitats currently occupying some areas of the study area as much possible. The design also considered the regulation of sediment depositioning in the shallow water area.

The Sediments Transport/Movable Boundary Computation component of this modeling system was used to simulate one-dimensional sediment transport over moderate periods of time (a year) (http://www.hec.usace.army.mil). Digital terrain model and bearing data for Elbe River water level corresponding to the study area from 2005 to 2008 were used. Simulation involved areas of Pegel Schöpfstelle (Billwerder Bucht) to Pegel Bunthaus. The best model which reduces higher amount of tidal energy, flow velocity and retains large area of the valuable habitats was selected.

Therefore, from the selected model habitats representing future state (after the measure implementation) were identified.

Habitats quality assessment and ranking.

The habitat quality assessment and ranking aimed to obtain information on the ecosystem healthy of the study area before the implementation of the measure and predict that of the future after the implementation of the measure considering the relationship between the habitat conditions (ecosystem state) and ecosystem services provisioning capacity.

Both the present state and the future habitat were assessed for their quality using combinations of criteria. The criteria used for the present habitats quality assessment were; level of habitat deterioration by human, biodiversity, present of species with high protection status and the extent of the use of the habitat by the major fauna groups. These major fauna groups were; birds, bats, mammals, insects, fish, reptiles and amphibians.

Criteria used for future habitats quality assessment were; the predicted level of disturbance on the habitat through management activities, number of the benefiting species and the conservation significant of the benefiting species (including their protection status).

Protection status of the identified habitats were applied for both present and the future model habitats according to the Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) § 30, and Hamburg Act (HmbBNatSchAG) § 14 for the implementation of the Federal Nature Conservation Act.

The combinations of the above criteria were used to develop habitat quality ranks. For present states, the habitats with a high level of deterioration, no detectable biodiversity and no fauna activities were ranked 1-very inhabitable. The habitats correspondent to a high level of deterioration, a low biodiversity level and no fauna activities were ranked 2-inhabitable. The habitats with a medium level of deterioration, a relatively medium biodiversity and a medium activities level were ranked 3–less habitable. The habitats with a medium level of deterioration, a relatively high biodiversity, and medium activity level were ranked 4–habitable, and a habitat with low level of deterioration, relatively high level of biodiversity and high level of fauna activities were ranked 5-very habitable.

Similar combinations were applied for the future habitats. The habitats with relatively no benefiting species, no species with protection significance and a high level of interference by human activities were ranked 1-very inhabitable. The habitats with a relatively low number of benefiting species, a low number of species with protection significance and a high level of predicted interference by human activities were ranked 2–inhabitable. The habitats with a medium number of benefiting species, a medium number of species with protection significance and a medium level of predicted interference were ranked 3–less habitable. The habitats with a relatively high number of

benefiting species, a medium number of species with protection significance and a medium level of predicted interference were ranked 4-habitable, and the habitat with a relatively high number of benefiting species, a high number of species with protection significance, and low level of predicted interference were ranked 5-very habitable. Finally, habitats five ranks where obtained for both present and future state habitats.

Ecosystem Services applicability on the study area (Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area).

A list of twenty and one ecosystem services which are selected as most essential (priorities) services for the Elbe Estuary was provided by the Hamburg Port Authority/TIDE-project. These services initially were classified into four classes namely provisioning services, regulating service cultural services and supporting services following Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, (2005) typology.

In this study, these ecosystem services where regrouped into provisioning services, regulation services, cultural services and contrary to Millennium Ecosystem Assessment’s typology, supporting services were classified as ecological integrity referred to Burkhard et. al., (2010), Muller et. al., (2010) and Muller, (2005) classifications (table 1).

These services were tested for their applicability in the study area habitats by relating habitats type and the ecosystem services provisioning relevancy. This exercise involved redefining of some of the services.

3.2.2 Identification of potential indicators for assessment of ecological integrity and ecosystem services.

A set of potential indicators for assessment of habitat ecological integrity, and the relevant capacity for the provisioning of the ecosystem services were derived basing on the features that show ecosystem health status and ecosystem services supplied to the people. At least one indicator was derived for each ecological integrity component or the ecosystem service.

3.2.3 Assessment of habitats ecological integrity and relevant capacity for the ecosystem services provisioning.

The ecological integrity and the ecosystem services provisioning relevant capacity of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s habitats were assessed using the assessment matrix. The assessment matrix used was adopted from (Burkhard et. al., 2009; 2011). This matrix is a two-dimensional matrix consists of columns and rows which together forms a network of grids within which informations were entered. The matrix in this case saved as a platform for gathering essential informations about habitats' relevant capacity to provide ecosystem services.

The ecological integrity components and the ecosystem services were placed on the first top raw of the matrix grids and habitats on the first column of the matrix grids. The relevant capacities were entered in the corresponding grids (table; 1).

Table 1: Two dimensional assessment matrix

The ecological integrity of the habitat and relevant capacity of the habitat to provide corresponding ecosystem services were assigned basing on the expertise judgments. 27

The expertise judgment referred to the utilization of the expertise knowledge on the ecosystem, to assess the relevant capacity of the habitats to provide ecosystem services in association with the functions and structures of that ecosystem. The judgment was supported with some relevant data about the ecosystem services in the study area. Some of these data obtained from the HEC-RAS (Model) simulation results, the Environmental Impact Assessment, the Elbe River water quality monitoring data, the historical maps for the study area, the habitat quality information's and through the benefit transfer methods.

Another factor considered for judgments was the potential of the habitat to provide ecosystem service compared to other habitats found in the study area, for example, the relevant capacity of a deep zone habitat to prevent floods through flood water storage compared to tidal forest, tidal reed, shallow water, paved road, tidal creek and the rest of the habitats. These information's were presented to experts to assist their judgments.

Values from 0 to 5 were assigned; 0 represented no relevant capacity on provisioning of the ecosystem service; 1 represented a low relevant capacity; 2 represented a relevant capacity; 3 represented a medium relevant capacity; 4 represented a high relevant capacity and 5 represented a very high relevant capacity. The same range of values was applied from the assessment of the ecological integrity.

Initially 9 assessment matrices for present and future were generated through consultations of expertise from different background. The aim of the consultation of expertise with different background was to benefit from professional experiences regarding ecosystem services. For instance habitat relevant capacity to provide services related to hydrology e.g. Nutrient retention, sediment regulation were assessed better by the experts with hydrology background.

Results of these matrices were used to produce the final assessment matrices for both present and future state habitats.

3.2.4 Mapping of habitats, ecological integrity and ecosystem service

The habitats quality, the ecological integrity, and ecosystem services were mapped using ArcGIS. The shape files for the study area were obtained from Hamburg Port

Authority after the development by the Melchior et al., (Unpublished data). Technically the assessment matrix results for ecological integrity and the ecosystem were linked to the map using the ArcGIS. A table of habitat quality ranks also was attached into the map using ArcGIS

3.2.5 Cost – Benefit Analysis (CBA)

The cost benefit analysis was carried by using economic values estimates for the ecosystem services before and after project implementation compared to the project costs. Total economic value framework was used for estimation of the economic value of four ecosystem services namely; water purification through nitrogen removal, climate regulation, flood prevention and aesthetic information and existence values of landscape and biodiversity provided by the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area.

Estimation for the present state habitats was assumed to be zero; hence estimation illustrated here are for future state habitats ecosystem services.

The Total Economic values framework was used in order to capture use and non use value of the ecosystem services.

Values were estimated using benefit transfer method. Four key steps recommended by authors for the application of benefit transfer method were applied to adopt values from other studies to the present study area were followed; a) Transferred values were defined; includes searching for relevant studies, and relevant values to be transferred. b) Transferability of values considering the similarity of sites was assessed, for instance in cases where communities living in the area were involved, population characteristics of the involved communities were considered for the original study and current study. c) Evaluation of the quality of the study and values to be transferred was conducted. This step involved assessing the quality of the original study to reduce transformation error d) Adjustment of values to be applicable for the current study area also was performed

Estimate of the economic value for aesthetic information and existence value.

The economic value of the aesthetic information and existence value of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area was estimated by values transferred from the study by Dehnhardt et. al., (2004). The value estimated was interpreted to have included existence value of biodiversity and habitats. The Interpretation relied on the fact that biodiversity and the habitats provide aesthetic values, like beautiful landscapes, and organisms that people enjoy, and also they have existence values people would like to conserve even if they will never use them.

The Willingness to pay survey conducted in the original study included non user preference so; the non user willingness to pay was assumed to include existence value.

The study by Dehnhardt et. al.,(2004) was selected for value transfer to the SpadenlanderBusch /Kreetsand's, because it was conducted in the similar environment conditions. Objectives of the study (original study) are corresponding with the targets of Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's project, and the methods used for data collection were familiar.

Contingent valuation method was used in the original study, where people’s willingness to pay for improving preservation of biodiversity and habitats along the River Elbe floodplain was elicited through interviews (Dehnhardt et. al., 2004; Meyerhoff, 2004). A total of 1,304 households within the catchment areas of the three rivers in German, namely Elbe, the Weser, and the Rhine were interviewed based on random samples for each catchment (Dehnhardt et. al., 2004; Meyerhoff, 2004).

The Elbe households were considered the ecosystem services users, while the Weser and the Rhine river catchments were considered non users. Questionnaires were designed to acquire respondent’s familiarity with the Elbe River and respondent knowledge about its ecological status. This knowledge was assessed by presenting seven ecological states of the Elbe. Finally, respondents’ willingness to pay was assessed by describing the management action to be implemented in the Elbe River floodplains (Dehnhardt et. al., 2004; Meyerhoff, 2004).

Values adjustments;

In order to allow value transfer to Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area, two assumptions were made. a) The same population from three catchments would be willing to pay for the project planned to be implemented in the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area for the same objective as described earlier, b) Stated values are influenced by the size of the area.

Total value stated (willingness to pay) including the onetime pledging was 153 Mio Euros. For the second year, it decreased to 108 Mio Euros after removal of onetime pledging (Dehnhardt et. al., 2004; Meyerhoff, 2004).

The total willingness to pay for Elbe floodplain was divided by the total area of Elbe floodplain, which is 15,000ha to get willingness to pay per ha.

The total willingness to pay for Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area was obtained by multiplying the size of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's willingness to pay per ha. by a total area (in ha.) of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area.

Calculation was conducted as follows;

Estimates including one time pledge ...... i

Estimates without onetime pledge ...... ii

Estimation of economic value of the water quality regulation services (nutrients retention).

The nitrogen was taken as nutrient for estimation of the economic value of water quality regulation (water purification). Values for this estimate were transferred from the study by Dehnhardt et. al., (2004) and Meyerhoff, 2004. Both studies had similar objective. The objective of the original studies by Dehnhardt et. al., (2004), and Meyerhoff, 2004) was to estimate the economic value of the Elbe floodplains as nutrient sinks using the replacement cost method.

Values transfer to Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand followed two steps.

1. Estimation of the retention capacity of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area

Dehnhardt et. al., (2004) and Meyerhoff (2004) analyzed the nutrient retention capacity the two sites namely Sandau and Rogätz floodplains. Retention capacities of these s ites were obtained primarily through measurements in the sites and analyzed using the statistical model developed by Behrendt et. al., (2000). The two sites were relatively similar (Sandau 830ha and Rogätz 860ha), but they differed in their capacity for nutrients retention. The Sandau site was the best site which had a retention capacity of 783 kg/ha/year and Rogätz was the bad site with retention capacity of 47 kg/ha/year (Dehnhardt et. al., 2004; Meyerhoff, 2004). Rogätz’s lower nutrient retention capacity was due to the proportion of the inundated area (Dehnhardt, 2010). Percentage area inundated of the Rogätz’s was 20% of the total area (860 ha), while Percentage area inundated of the Rogätz’s was 88% of the total area (830 ha) within the same test period of 10 days.

These values were normalized using literature data (Dehnhardt et. al., 2004; Meyerhoff 2004). The good site (Sandau) had 450 kg/ha/year and bad site (Rogätz) had 50 kg/ha/year after normalization (Dehnhardt et. al., 2004; Meyerhoff, 2004).

Values adjustment

Since the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area will be flooded daily, referring to the HEC-RAS model, and study area is located within the estuary (it receives high nutrient loads) its retention capacity was assumed to be equal to that of the Sandau (450 kg N/ha/year).

Therefore, the total nitrogen retention of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area was obtained by multiplying the size of the area in hectares (47 ha) with the retention capacity per ha per year (450 kg of N/ha/year).

Hence 47 ha * 450 kg of N/ha/year = 21150 kg of N/year

2. Defining of the substitutes and their marginal costs.

Replacement method was used to obtain the economic value of the of the nutrient retention service for the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area. The cost of removing 1kg of nitrogen in the water using a man-made wetland in Germany ranges from 5 to 8 Euros (Bräuer, 1993; Dehnhardt et. al., 2004, Meyerhoff, 2004).

Estimation of Economic value of Regulation of extreme events through floodwater storage.

Estimate of the economic values of the regulation of extreme events through floodwater storage service was done through value transfer from study the by de Kok et al. (2009). The original study was conducted for 536 km of the Elbe River. Values transferable to the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area due to biogeophysical similarities between the two study sites. The original site (simulated site) included a point 78 kms from away the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area. The aim of the original study was to determine the better flood risk mitigation strategy. Six flood risk mitigation strategies were evolved

Table 2: Flood mitigation strategies involved for determination of better flood risk mitigation strategies.

Strategy Kilometers Area in Storage Flood risk mitigation strategy (Scenarios) along the Hectares Capacity River (ha) in Mio (m³) DS+1(Dike Implementation of the design heightening) standard of a 100-year recurrence interval with an additional freeboard of 1 m for all dikes in Sachsen DR I (Dike 117-536 34658 738 Dike relocation shifting) (uncontrolled operation) of 60 potential sites DR II(Dike 120.5-536 9432 251 Dike relocation (uncontrolled shifting) operation) of the 33 potential sites identified in the IKSE action plan 33

POL A 117-427 25 576 494 Controlled operation of 31 (Controlled potential sites for retention retention ) polders identified in the IKSE action plan POL P 180 4557 138 Controlled operation of only the largest (Controlled 5 retention) potential sites for retention identified i n the IKSE action plan POL H 427 9909 112 Controlled operation of the 8 existing r (Controlled etention polders; at the mouth of the retention) River Havel near Elbe

Source; Kok et. al., (2009)

The value estimation methodology used by de Kok et. al., (2009) took four steps as follows;

i) The generation of artificial flood events; based on the statistical analysis of the hydrological data, using discharge data from 1964 -1995 (de Kok et. al., 2009). The yearly peak discharge was analyzed to obtain the flood frequency in the longitudinal sections of the River stretch from 0 to 536 km. From the peak discharge, artificial flood events were generated (de Kok et. al., 2009). ii) Flood routing; was modeled using the 1D steady-flow hydraulic model HEC-6 and mapped using GIS (de Kok et. al., 2009). The relevant information like dike height and strength, the inflow rate at the location of the dike breach, the water level in the main channel and capacity of the floodplain was used to model the flood route (de Kok et. al., 2009). iii) Damage assessment; involved generation of the values of the elements in risk. The spatial distribution of elements in risk and the relative damage functions were determined. Flood damage was described as the function of percentage value of the element at risk and the inundation depth. Total damage per flood event was calculated using the equation for each segment area of 100m2. iv) The flood risk assessment; defined as the product of flood hazards and the resulting damage. The damage for each flood event and average annual damage for each mitigation strategy was estimated (de Kok et. al., 2009). 34

The differences in average annual damage across management scenarios were used to evaluate mitigation strategy. Mitigation strategy with lower damage values were the better options. These values were compared to the baseline scenario to obtain the flood risk avoidance values. In other words, a social benefit for implementing that mitigation strategy was estimated. Baseline scenario means risk without any mitigation strategy undertaken.

Therefore, flood risk avoidance values = Baseline value - Mitigation strategy value The flood avoidance values obtained is presented in the table 3 below.

Value transfer to Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area followed two steps;

1. Defining of the flood mitigation strategy (according to Kok et al., 2009) which is similar to the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area situation.

Mitigation strategy from Kok et al., (2009), similar to the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area was determined by comparing site characteristics with the simulated site characteristics of the original study. The DR I (Dike shifting) (table 2) (because the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area also was obtained through dike shift, and it was protected by a dike). But the original site and the current study site differ in floodwater storage capacity, the original study the site had floodwater storage capacity of 738,000,000 (m³) while the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area will have flood water storage capacity of 880,000 (m³) as referring to the HEC-RAS model results (appendix 1).

2. Estimation of average annual flood risk avoidance of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area.

In the original study, the average annual flood risk avoidance for each flood risk mitigation strategy was estimated (table 2). The annual flood risk avoidance for the original study, was divided by the flood water storage capacity (in cubic meters), to obtain annual flood risk avoidance per cubic meter.

The annual flood risk avoidance capacity for the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area, was obtained by multiplying the average annual flood risk avoidance per year, with the flood water storage capacity of Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area.

Table 3: Annual flood risk avoidance for each flood risk mitigation strategy.

Flood mitigation scenarios, values in Mio Euros D S+1 POL A POL P POL H DR I DR II Protected by dike 0.39 5.82 3.94 0.00 1.89 0.00 Not protect by dike 0.00 20.15 9.44 1.36 3.82 0.64 Total 0.39 25.96 13.38 1.36 5.71 0.64

Adopted from Kok et. al., (2009)

The DR I (Dike shifting) mitigation strategy with the total flood storage capacity of 738, 000,000 (m³), had average annual flood risk avoidance of 1.86 Euros Mio. The average annual flood risk avoidance (18,600,000 Euros per year), was divided by total storage capacity (738, 000,000 (m³)) to obtain annual flood risk avoidance per cubic meter per year, as follows;

= 0.025 Euros per cubic meters.

Estimation of the economic value of the climate regulation service through carbon sequestration and burial

Economic value for the climate regulation through carbon sequestration and burial service was estimated trough value transfer from the study by Pithart (2008) and a study by Dietrich et.al, (accepted, 2012). Values for both studies were transferable because both studies were conducted within ecological conditions and socio-economic similar to that of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area. Value transfer to the current study area followed three steps;

a) Estimation carbon storage capacity.

Total Carbon storage capacity included was estimated including the aboveground storage and soil carbon storage was estimated.

The above ground carbon storage; values were transferred from Pithart (2008). The original study estimates were conducted in River Lužnice Floodplain, Czech Republic.

Carbon storage capacity was calculated using annual measurement of CO2 fluxes between a wetland ecosystem and the atmosphere using Eddy covariance. 7.54 t of

C02e/ha/year were estimated.

Soil carbon storage; values were transferred from the study by Dietrich et.al, (accepted, 2012). In their estimation, they followed two steps; first, they investigated the avoided social costs through the reduction of the greenhouse gas emissions using a landscape scale model of greenhouse gas emissions. Water management was the determinant of greenhouse gas emission or storage. They modeled water management scenarios for each segment of the area using WBalMo model system. They divided the area into hydrological response units (HRU) using three soil types; peat, sand and loam. A monthly groundwater level was determined in each HRU using four water management options/scenarios. From the groundwater levels, greenhouse gas emission probability was determined (greenhouse gas emission is the function of the water availability in the soil). The results were used to determine the greenhouse gas emission probabilities. Greenhouse gas emission probability was used to calculate the expected annual average global warming potential (GWP)(Dietrich et al. Accepted 2012).

The following were the water management scenarios tested for emission reduction potentials through model simulation. i) Stabilization scenario, less ambitious (Stab A): This involved reducing land use intensity on fen and grassland and raising the water level by 20 (cm) during winter and 40 cm below ground during summer.

ii) Stabilization, more ambitious (Stab B): Also low intensity land use on fen soils combined with higher summer water level targets and a longer duration of winter water level targets than Stab A. In addition, summer water targets was raised to 30 (cm) below ground. iii) Restoration, less-ambitious (Rest A): Target water levels for fen dominated sub areas (fen area > 20% of the sub area) were raised to surface level throughout the year. iv) Restoration, highly ambitious (Rest B): Target water levels for fen dominated sub areas (fen area > 50% of the sub area) were raised to surface level throughout the year. All affected arable land and grassland converted to natural wetland habitats. b) Defining of the management scenario similar to the conditions of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's project area

After the implementation, the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's project the conditions will be similar to that of the "Restoration highly ambitious" (Rest B), since after the management measure implementation, the shallow water area (floodplain) will be water logged all year round, and the grassland is converted to a wetland. Moreover, assumptions made to allow transferability was that once the shallow water area is connected to the river, groundwater level will be equal to that of the restoration, more ambitious (Rest B).

The results of the original study presented, that carbon emission reduction by the highly ambitious restoration scenario (Rest B) ranged between 3.9 to 7.8 t of

C02e/ha/year (Dietrich et. al., 2012). Therefore, this value was transferred to the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s project area. c) Calculation of total carbon storage capacity for the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area

Total carbon storage capacity for the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area was obtained by summation of the aboveground and soil carbon storage per ha. estimated from the two cases where summed to provided total carbon storage in the area per ha. The carbon storage per ha. was multiplied by the total area of Spadenlander

Busch/Kreetsand´s in ha. to obtain carbon storage capacity for the total area. (Calculation procedure is shown below)

Carbon storage capacity of Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s per ha. per year therefore, includes the above ground and below ground carbon storage.

Hence

Total carbon storage for was estimated by multiplying carbon storage per ha per year with a total area of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area.

c) Annual avoided costs from the greenhouse gas emissions reduction for the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area.

The avoided social cost through greenhouse gas emission reduction, was obtained by multiplying the price of 1 ton of C02 gas, by the total carbon storage capacity for the

Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area. The projected price for 1 ton of C02 gas by the year 2020 is 12.17 (www.eex.de, 2012).

Chapter 4 Results and Discussions

4.1 Results

4.1.1 Present state habitats. Present state habitats including significant species and protection status are described below. a) Tide riparian forest; the willow floodplain marsh with tidal influence. It includes the floodplain areas within the study area and 100m wide riparian forest extends through the riprap in the southern section where it bound by the Elbe river. The silver maples (Acer saccharinum) and Eurasian osiers species (Salix viminalis and Salix purpurea) dominated the tree layer of tidal floodplain forest. In some areas, hybrid poplar, elder, alder, sycamore and rowanberry were found in small numbers. Larger part of the forest seemed occasionally flooded by emergent flooding (e.g. during strong wind blow). Some white willow (Salix alba) observed to have grown bigger to a stems size of 60-80 (cm) thick, and a height of 20 (m) tall, their old branches broke down and covered the ground, making the area extremely rich in dead wood. Other areas where densely covered with herbaceous species. The widespread species included Smartweed (Persicaria hydropiper), Watercress (Nasturtium officinale), Common ragwort (Jacobaea vulgaris) (RL HH 1), stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), Sorrel broadleaf (Rumex acetosa), Common reeds (Phragmites australis), and Cabbage thistle (Cirsium oleraceum). In the lower reaches of the area endemic Hemlock water dropwort (Oenanthe conionides, (RL HH 1), strictly protected by Nature Conservation Act, Habitat II and Annex IV, priority species) was observed. Endemic Weevil-grass (Deschampsia wibeliana, (RL HH 3)) was found at the upper edge of the embankment. The Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) spread on the southern part of riparian forests. Other significant species identified included; Caltha palustris (HH RL 3), Calystegia Deschampsia wibeliana (HH RL 3, RL DR), Nasturtium officinale (HH RL 3), Rorippa anceps (HH RL 3), Rumex obtusifolius, Satlix alba, Salix cinerea, Salix fragilis (HH RL 3), Senecio erraticus (RL HH 1), Senecio sarracenicus (RL HH 2), and Veroniuber catenata (RL HH 2).

This habitat was considered very habitable and therefore, ranked 5. It was protected under Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) § 30.

(a) (b)

Table 5: (a) and (b) Tidal Riparian Forest; photo by Freund et. al., 2010 b) Willows of the wetlands, shores and moist site: Extensive, semi natural thickets found in narrow and wet places. It occurred along the water-edge and forms part of the riparian forests. It was consisted of mainly willow bushes and wickers. In the projects area, they were mainly in the north.Significant species identified includes Salix triandra, Salix viminalis and Salix cinerea.

This habitat was found very habitable and hence ranked 5. Like other wet willow bushes, it was protected under Federal Nature Conservation Act § 30 BNatSchG.

Table 6: Willow thickets (Photo; by Mangi, April 2012) c) Individual tree; the outstanding trees representing the species traits by size and age; at the study area three older, multi- stemmed Poplars trees standing in a line. Their stems diameters reached 1 m each (roughly estimates). In the study area, they were found on the north of the area.

Significant species of this habitat was Populus canadensis. The habitat was found habitable and ranked to 4; however, this habitat was not protected by Law. Since it was found in a highly deteriorated area. d) Modified River section; modified River section refers to River section strong modified. Straightened and its banks were reinforced with riprap. This habitat found at the north of the river Elbe where a 100 m wide riparian strip was found modified.

This habitat was found inhabitable, and it was ranked to 2, however, was not protected by laws.

(a) (b)

Table 7: (a) individual Poplars trees, (b) modified river section; (photo by Freund et. al., 2010) e) River Mud flats; muddy to sandy, areas with tidal influence, periodically falling dry. Found at the lower reaches of the Elbe River. The vegetation was limited to algae. Within the study area, the habitat was found on the two sites, which seem frequently flooded due to their lower laying position alongside the river. This habitat was ranked 5-very habitable, and like other less disturbed areas with predominantly natural characteristics in tidally influenced area independently of their vegetation, it was protected under the Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) § 30.

(a) (b)

Table 8: (a) and (b) River mud flats; (photo by Freund et. al., 2010) f) Tide Reeds (reed flats); areas dominated by tidal reeds community protected from wind and waves, relatively undisturbed. Tidal influenced reed bed in the study area was about half covered with closed reed plants and marsh marigold (Caltha palustris). This habitat interlocked with tidal floodplain forest areas. The smooth transition of reed bed vigorous growing (up to 4m height) due to optimal wetness and high nutrients availability was observed. In the study areas, this habitat found at the lower laying area alongside the Elbe river main stream. There were also wetlands species like weevil grass (Notaris bimaculatus).

In some places, the reeds were dead (probably due to weather events), but also in the range of underlying thick reed mats, there was hardly any other vegetation growth. Significant species identified included Phragmites australis, Deschampsia wibeliana (HH RL 3), Caltha palustris (RL HH 3), Callitriche palustris (RL HH 3). The habitat was ranked 5-very habitable. It was protected under the Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) § 30. g) Tidal ditches/ Channels; excavated artificial tidal channels, with silt and no vegetation on it. They occurred at different angles joining the River stream. They

discharges and recharges the river stream periodically. This habitat was ranked 2- inhabitable was not legally protected.

(a) (b)

Table 9: (a) tidal reeds; (b) tidal ditch; (photo by Freund et. al., 2010) h) Paved areas; represented areas paved by brick, concrete or stones. They have less significance as the habitats for animals and or plants. These included slightly hardened roads on the dike embankment. Within the project area, they occurred on pavements. Included access routes, passages for walking, cycling and slightly paved paths crossing dyke and the slopes alongside the Elbe. This habitat type was ranked 1-very inhabitable habitat, and it was not protected by law. i) High moisture nutrient, rich herbaceous sites; moist tall herbaceous vegetation found on nutrient-rich sites, humic, moist to wet clay soils or on more mineralized peats in wetlands and low-bog areas. This habitat type occurred only on small areas near the NSG Rhee, which seemed to receive high nutrient loading.

Species found were nitrophytes and semi-ruderal; Significant species identified included Angelica archangelica, Anthriscus sylvestris, Calystegia sepium, Cirsium 45

oleraceum, Lycopus Europaeus, Lythrum salicaria, Myosotis scorpiodes, Phalaris arundinacea, Phragmites australis, Rumex obtusifolius, Senecio erraticus (RL HH 1), Stachys palustris, Urtica dioica. It was ranked 5-very valuable habitat protected under the Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) § 30 or Hamburg Act (HmbBNatSchAG).§ 14 for the implementation of the Federal Nature Conservation Act.

(a) (b)

Table 10: (a) Paved areas, (b) Nutrient-rich ditch with standing water character: (photo by Freund et. al. (2010) j) Species poor, intensively cultivated willows; this habitat found to be continuously grazed. It was dominated by economically significant grass like Ryegrass (Lolium perenne). It was regarded high productive habitat. Intensive use of fertilizer and herbicide favoured Lolio-Cynosuretum species survival. This habitat type found at the basement of the new dyke. Significant species identified included; Lolium perenne, Poa trivialis, Taraxacum officinale, Trifolium pratense, Trifolium repens, Sanguisorba officinale (RL HH 1). The habitat ranked 2- inhabitable habitat, and it was not protected by Law.

k) Semi-ruderal grass and shrub; semi ruderal grasses, at their older stages of succession on fallow and mesophilic area, which was formerly disturbed through human activities. It is found on the slopes and lateral areas of roads. The vegetation was formed by mixed stands of ruderal mugwort (Jacobaea vulgaris) flat meadows and pastures like hawthorns (Arrhenatherum natheretalia). Other species were reeds grass, quack grass (Agropyron repens) or meadow- like plain oatmeal. Most valuable species identified in this habitat included Crepis tectorum (RL HH 3) and Securigera varia (RL R HH). This habitat was ranked 2- inhabitable and not protected by Law.

Species-poor, Semi- ruderal grasses intensively and shrubs cultivated willow

Table 11: the fallow area habitats; (photo by Mangi April, 2012) l) Moist ground semi-ruderal grass and shrub; Habitat mostly with vigorous growing perennial ruderal and related matting herbs (Galio-urticetea) representing indicator of moisture plants like Phragmitetalia australis and Molinietelia caeruleae. Vigorous growth was contributed by high nutrient loading which seem to originate from arable lands. This habitat type occurred in a narrow strip at the transitional zone between the River and the Elbe side ditches. Nevertheless, endemic species of ruderal were observed. Significant species identified were Carex vulpina (HH RL 3), Carex pseudocyperus (HH RL 3), Juncus inflexus (HH RL 3), and Veronica catenata (RL

HH 2). This habitat was ranked 3, corresponding to less habitable, and it was not protected by Law m) Riprap: bundles of coarse material covered the land. It was found at the embankment of the Elbe River and the junction areas of channels and at some places where the old dike was. This habitat found very inhabitable, ranks 1 and received no protection by Law.

Table12: Ripraps on the old dyke habitat; (photo by Mangi, April, 2012)

These habitat types are summarized in the map. The semi ruderal grasses and shrubs occupy the largest area of the present state habitats (figure 13).

Table 13: Map of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand, showing habitat types before the Shallow water area construction (present state). (Sources HPA, 2010)

Future habitats Model

The future model habitats are divided into vegetated and non-vegetated aquatic habitats. Vegetated habitats will be formed from the extension of the presented vegetation for example, the tidal forest and tidal reeds. Non vegetated habitats including mud flats and deep water zone are tidal dependent habitats. Some habitats will appear and disappear depending on the high tides and low tides. Location of the habitat at high tides is presented on the figure. 14. a) Tidal Riparian Forest; It will be found between +2.2m to +2.5 m asl. It will form an extension of the existing riparian forest along the River Elbe. It will be a functional habitat within tidal floodplain and priority habitat of low land tidal forest habitat type. It will be a valuable habitat for the key species like penduline (Auriparus flaviceps), holes breeder species (e.g. Woodpeckers (family Picidae)) and bats e.g. Nathusius bat (Pipistrellus nathusii). This habitat was ranked 5-very habitable like the adjacent habitat, and it will be protected under the Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) § 30 and Hamburg Act (HmbBNatSchAG).§ 14 for the implementation of the Federal Nature Conservation Act. b) Tidal Reeds: Marshes covered by reed plants, It will also form extension of the existing tidal reed habitat. It will be found at the altitude of +2.5 m above sea level right from the riverbanks towards the tidal, shallow water area. Reed plant species are reported to tolerant to frequent and relatively long duration flooding. Hence, they are suitable for this new transformation of the site. This habitat will be essential habitat for breeding birds such as reed warblers a migrant bird between Africa and Europe. Tidal reeds are also noteworthy for birds which feeding on seeds and grazes on the leaves and shoots. Some breeding birds were reported to build a deep-cupped nest among the reed stems to protect their young's. Reed buntings for instance is all year round resident in these habitats. They build their nest in the dense vegetation at the base of the reeds.

This habitat was designed to provide habitat for the Hemlock (Conium maculatum) and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) (priority species) plants and reed breeder bird species like reed bunting. (Emberiza schoeniclus). It will also be a momentous habitat for beetles and black butterfly species. This habitat was ranked 5 -very habitable and it will protected under the Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) § 30 or Hamburg Act (HmbBNatSchAG).§ 14 for the implementation of the Federal Nature Conservation Act. c) Deep zone creek: This habitat will be formed at mean water level of 3m below sea level at shallow water area. It depends on the rise and fall of water level. During high tide flow, the depth of 3m below sea level will be attained, and hence this habitat formed. It will provide habitat for indicator species like Sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), River lamprey (Lampetra fluviatilis) and Salmon (Salmo salar) (Allen et. al., 2006). It will also provide habitat for young fish of bream and associated species (Abramis brama and White bream)), asp (Aspius aspius) and feint (Alosa fallax) (FFH, Annex II). This habitat will be found at the centre of the study area, replacing some space of the current area occupied by “Half- ruderal grass and shrubs. This habitat ranked 3, less habitable and will be protected under Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) § 30 or Hamburg Act (HmbBNatSchAG).§ 14 for the implementation of the Federal Nature Conservation Act. d) Shallow water area: This habitat will depend on tides. It will be formed at water level of 2.5 m below sea level at the shallow water area. It will be adjacent to deep zone. Shallow water habitats will be high productive, anticipated functioning as nursery areas for nekton like Sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), River lamprey (Lampetra fluviatilis), Salmon (Salmo salar), Shellfish and crustacean species. It will provide habitat for foraging and protection from predators. It was ranked 5, very habitable habitat, protected under Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) § 30 or Hamburg Act (HmbBNatSchAG).§ 14 for the implementation of the Federal Nature Conservation Act.

e) Tidal creeks: It will be a tide dependent habitat, which will be formed when the mean water level at the shallow water area reaches 0.2m above sea level. It will provide habitat for Lamprey species (Petromyzon marinus and Lampetra fluviatilis) and Salmon (Salmo salar). Ranked 5, highly valuable habitat which will be protected under the Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) §30. f) Mud flats: This will also be a tide dependent habitat. At low water level bigger area of Mud flat will be exposed and vice versa. It will be non-vegetated wetlands with varying productivity determined by the adjacent habitats. Adjacent marshes may provide organic matter to mudflat microbial populations. The organic matter from marshes is essential for nutrient cycling in the mud flat and shallow water area general. It is expected functional habitat for crabs, snails and mud tubeworms. It will also function as foraging habitat for ducks (family Anseranatidae), sayer, gulls (family Laridae) and plover (one of the species, golden plover (Pluvialis apricaria)). However, during high water it will be a foraging space for fish (especially for indicator species and associated species of bream). It was ranked 5 very habitable and will be protected under Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) § 30. g) Thin-sand area: This habitat will occur together with the Mudflat. It will sustain high abundance of invertebrate prey and will be critical foraging areas for migrating shorebirds. It was ranked 5 very habitable, and protected under Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) § 30. h) Modified River section: This habitat exists in present and will exist after project implementation at the study area. However, its rank will shift to 3 after project implementation, due to anticipated habitat quality improvement. These will include water quality improvement and tidal energy reduction.

i) Paved areas; This feature/habitat exists before and after the project implementation. Its quality will not change after project implementation.

Table 14: Map of the SpadeLander Bush/Kreetsand's, showing habitat types after the shallow water area construction.

4.1.2 Applicability of the prioritized ecosystem services to the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsa nd´s area.

Most of the prioritized (provided) ecosystem services were applicable at the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area with few exception. Two services showed similar applications, and they were merged into one ecosystem service. These services were water quality regulation: transport of pollutants and excess nutrients and water quality regulation: reduction of excess loads coming from the catchment services, which were merged into one ecosystem service as a water quality regulation: reduction of excess nutrients coming from the catchment. Other two ecosystems services were redefined to form two new services; the erosion and sedimentation regulation by water bodies service and erosion and sedimentation regulation by biological mediation service were redefined and separated into two services named; sedimentation regulation; maintenance of the river channel depth and erosion prevision (table 3). The reasons for the two services were merged was because they represent same ecosystem service, which was water quality regulation (water purification). The other two services where redefined and separated because they had a mix of two ecosystem services into one services in both of them. Joining of services and separation also allowed for the derivation of appropriate indicators for the assessment.

4.1.3 Potential indicators for assessment of ecological integrity and ecosystem services.

Potential indicators for the assessment of each corresponding ecological integrity entity and ecosystem services are presented in the table 4. At least one potential indicator was derived for the both ecological integrity and ecosystem services entities. These indicators can be grouped into stocks and flows according to their measurement unities.

Table 4: Ecological integrity, ecosystem services and potential indicators

PRIORITIZED/TARGET ECOSYSTEM SERVICES FOR TIDAL RIVER ELBE Service Service component Rationale Potential Indicators Type Ecological 1 Biodiversity Total amount of abiotic and Indicator species representative Integrity biotic diversity at all levels for a certain phenomenon or (gene-landscape), regardless sensitive to distinct changes of rarity or vulnerability 2 Exergy capture The capability of the system to 1. Primary production measured enhance usable energy input. in amount of chlorophyll-a, levels. Energy used to build up biomass 2. Leaf index. (e.g. primary production) 3 Abiotic heterogeneity / The provisioning of the suitable habitats for Number of habitats (niches) per area of refugia different species, including functional groups habitats. Abiotic habitat components, species, and processes. It is essential for diversity indices or humus contents. the Ecosystem functioning. Provisioning 4 Food: Fish Presence and use of edible animals, Animals available as food source/ha. e.g. services including livestock growth and fodder fish available for catch/ha or KJ/ha. production 5 Water for industrial use Provision and use of water for e.g. cooling Amount of water extracted for industrial water, rinsing water, water for chemical uses in m³/year or Litters/year reactions 6 Water for navigation Presence and use of water for shipping Total cargo handled per year purposes

Regulating 7 Climate regulation: Buffering carbon stock in living vegetation, Carbon fixation (g C m-2 year-1), services Carbon sequestration burial of organic matter in soils Total amount of carbon sequestrated and and burial stored per hectare per year (t CO2) 8 Regulation extreme Storage of storm or extreme spring tides in Total number of storms mitigated events or disturbance: natural or flood control habitats Flood water storage 9 Regulation extreme Reduction of water current by physical Normal current versus reduced current events or disturbance: features or vegetation speed.(m/s) Water current reduction 10 Regulation extreme Reduction of wave height by physical Normal wave height versus reduced wave events or disturbance: features or vegetation height (unit in m) Wave reduction 11 Water quantity Role of land cover in regulating runoff & River network, Infiltration capacity; soil regulation: drainage of river discharge water storage capacity in mm per meter or river water Floodplain water storage capacity in mm per meter 12 Water quantity Buffering of average flood and discharge Available space for energy damping (in a regulation: dissipation variations in the river bed cubic meter) of tidal and river energy 13 Water quantity Formation and maintenance of typical Proportional of modified river features v/s regulation: landscape landscapes and hydrology possible natural river features of river maintenance network. 14 Water quantity Discharge and tidal input for shipping, River discharge m³ (discharge volume) regulation: including water use for canals and docks

transportation

15 Water quality Dilution of Nutrients, binding of N, P in Total amount of pollutants removed regulation: reduction of sediments and pelagic food web annually (ton ha-1 year-1) (Nutrient excess nutrients coming gradients between the inflow /upper point from the catchment and outflow/lower point)

16 Sedimentation Sediment retention due to change in water Soil erosion rate by land use type regulation: Maintenance velocity/tide energy or trapping sediment of the river channel and erosion prevention by vegetation, effects depth. of bioturbation

17 Erosion Prevention Retention of soils and sediments by plants; Measure of sediment load gradient between vegetation cover plays a pivotal role in soil two points per cubic meter of stream water. retention and the prevention of landslides.

Cultural 18 Aesthetic information Appreciation of beauty of organisms and Number of visitors or facilities; services landscapes Questionnaires on personal preferences 19 Opportunities for Opportunities and exploitation for recreation Number of visitors or facilities; recreation & tourism & tourism Questionnaires on personal preferences 20 Inspiration for culture, Appreciation of organisms, landscapes, as Number of Songs, pictures, cultural events art and design inspiration for culture, art and design and documentations’ of the Elbe river, organisms and landscapes 21 Information for cognitive Use of organisms, landscapes for Number of studies on the particular development educational purposes landscape.(Tidal Elbe)

4.1.4 Habitats ecological integrity assessment

Using habitat quality ranking method and Assessment matrix method.

The ecological integrity of the area was assessed using two methods, 1. Through habitat quality ranking using criteria which relied on the field data and through the use of assessment matrix. Both methods have used similar indicators biodiversity for instance was used as habitat quality ranking criteria and the criteria in the assessment matrix. Habitat quality ranking method also used level of deterioration while, the assessment matrix abiotic heterogeneity were used. These two criteria though slightly differently defined they have similarity because if the habitat is deteriorated abiotic heterogeneity are not found. So assessing the level of habitat degradation due to human activities means assessing the level of abiotic heterogeneity because ecological integrity is indicated by the biodiversity and physical components like water, soil and chemical processes like photosynthesis which are usually found in undisturbed or less disturbed habitats.

Therefore, habitat quality is referred to as ecological integrity, and quality rank represents the level of ecological integrity of the habitat. The higher the habitat quality, the higher level of the ecological integrity of the area (ecosystem health). High quality habitat provides favorable conditions for the species to survive and hence high diversity of species.

Less disturbed habitats in the present state, namely tidal forest, willows of wetlands, tidal reeds and mud flats, and the habitats anticipated receiving less disturbance in the future state, namely shallow water area, tidal reeds, willows, tidal forest, tidal creeks, mud flats, and thin sands, were ranked to 5-very habitable by using habitat quality ranking method. Yet, these habitats were assessed to a high relevant (level 4) ecological integrity (table 4 and 6) using the assessment matrix.

Highly disturbed habitats at the present state (semi ruderal grass and shrubs, and species poor, intensively cultivated willows) were ranked 2-inhabitable habitats. However, comparison to the future state was not possible because they are replaced by new habitats after the management measure implementation.

Mud flat habitat presented a difference for scores between two methods. It was ranked to 5-very habitable in the habitat quality ranking method, but it was assessed to 2 using matrix Method.

These results suggest that assessment matrix is accurate compared to the habitat quality ranking method. Habitat quality ranking method tends to generalize the ecological integrity of the habitats. These results are presented on the maps (fig. 15 and 16).

4.1.5 Habitats ecosystem services provisioning capacity assessment

The assessment matrix (table 5 and 6) shows the relevant capacity for ecosystem services provisioning capacity for each identified habitat. It is identified that the habitat quality determines the ecosystem services provisioning capacity.

Present state habitats (before project implementation) relevant capacities for ecosystem services provisioning.

Tidal forest has relevant capacity (assessed to 2) in the provisioning of regulating services, but the capacity differ between services. Has a high relevant capacity (assessed to 4) for the provisioning of carbon storage, wave reduction, tidal energy dissipation, and erosion prevention, but low relevant capacity for the provisioning of water quality regulation services and no relevant capacity (assessed to 0) in water quantity regulation services.

Tidal forest has no relevant capacity (assessed to 0) to provide any of the provisioning services assessed. Willows and tidal reeds habitats have high to a medium relevant capacity (assessed to 3 - 4) in the provisioning of the regulating services. Both (tidal forest and willow wetland and tidal reed) have high capacity (assessed to 4) in the provisioning of carbon storage, wave reduction and tidal energy dissipation, erosion prevention and water quantity regulation: landscape maintenance. They have medium relevant capacity (assessed to 3) in provisioning of flood control and river drainage maintenance services. Both tidal forest, willows and tidal reeds have medium relevant capacity (assessed to 3) for the provisioning of cultural services in the present state.

Modified river section, mud flats, individual trees, high moisture, nutrient rich herbaceous sites and moist ground semi ruderal grass and shrub have relevant capacity (assessed to 2) for the provisioning of regulation services and cultural services, and they have no relevant (assessed to 0)capacity to provide provisioning services.

Semi ruderal grass and shrubs, species poor, intensively cultivated willows have low ecological integrity and no relevant capacity to provide provisioning services and regulating services.

Dike and paved areas have no relevant capacity (assessed to 0) to provide provisioning services and regulating services. However, these habitats have relevant capacity to provide cultural services. Riprap have low relevant capacity (assessed to 1) to provide regulation services (erosion prevention).

Future state habitats (after the project implementation) relevant capacities for ecosystem services provisioning.

Tidal riparian forest, willows and tidal reeds ecosystem services provisioning relevant capacity remain the same as in the present state after the project implementation.

Shallow water area and Tidal creeks have high, relevant capacity on the provisioning of the regulating services while Deep zone creeks have overall medium relevant capacity to provide regulating services and Thin sands areas has low relevant capacity (assessed to 1) to provide regulating services. Both Deep zone creeks, Shallow water area, Tidal creeks, and Thin sand area have overall high, relevant capacity (assessed to 4) to provide regulating services. These habitats also have medium, relevant capacity for the provisioning of culture services.

The Deep zone creek, the Shallow water area, and the Modified river section had relevant capacity to provide provisioning services, which is water for navigation.

The provisioning capacities for a riprap, a dike, and the paved road do not changes after the management measure implementation.

Table 5; Assessment matrix result for ecological integrity and ecosystem services before the project implementation

: : :

disturbance disturbance

:drainage river of :dissipation tidal of :landscape :transportation

:reduction ofexcess

use .

ation

regulation regulation regulation regulation

depth

regulation

services

industrial

energy

antity

ntationregulation; Maintenance the of

reduction

river

rovisioning

LandCover EcologicalIntegrity Biodiversity Exergy capture Abiotic heterogeneity P Food:Animals for Water for Water navig Regulationservices Climateregulation: Carbon sequestration and burial Regulationextreme events or Floodwater storage Regulationextreme events or Wave Water quantity water Water qu and Water quantity maintenance Water quantity Water quality nutrients comingfrom the catchment Erosion prevention Sedime Riverchannel services Cultural Aestheticvalues Opportunitiesfor recreation tourism & Inspiration for culture, and art design Informationfor cognitive development

Tidal riparian forest 4 5 5 3 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 4 2 4 0 0 2 4 2 3 4 3 3 3

Willows of the wetlands, and moist site 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 3 4 3 4 3 4 4 1 0 4 4 3 2 3 3 3

Tidal Reeds (reed flats) 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 3 4 3 4 3 4 4 1 0 4 4 3 2 3 3 3

Individual tree 2 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 2 2 2

Modified River Section 2 1 4 1 2 0 0 5 2 1 5 1 0 1 4 5 3 0 0 2 1 4 1 3

Ripraps 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 5 0 1 0 0 0 3

Mud Flats 2 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 0 3 0 3 2 2 1 3 2

Tidal ditches/Channel 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 1 2 1 High moisture nutrient rich herbaceous sites 2 2 3 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 3 2 0 1 1 1 1 1 Moist ground Semi- ruderal grass and shrub 2 2 3 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 4 2 1 1 2 2

Semi- ruderal grass and shrubs 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 1 1 1 Species-poor, intensively cultivated willow 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1

Paved areas 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 1 5 0 1 Dike 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 3 0 3 Deep zone creeks Shallow water area Thin sand area Tidal creeks 62

Table 6; Assessment matrix result for ecological integrity and ecosystem services after the project implementation

: : :

: landscape

disturbance disturbance

: drainage of river

:dissipation tidal of :transportation

:reduction of

regulation

events or

use .

regulation

regulation regulation

depth

regulation

rmation

services

industrial

energy info

reduction

river

rovisioning

LandCover EcologicalIntegri Biodiversity Exergy capture Abiotic heterogeneity /Contribution to a total area P Food:Animals for Water for Water navigation Regulationservices Climate regulation: Carbon sequestration and burial Regulationextreme Floodwater storage Regulationextreme events or Wave Water quantity water Water quantity and Water quantity maintenance Water quantity Water quality excess nutrientscoming from the catchment Erosion prevention Sedimentationregulation; Maintenance the of Riverchannel services Cultural Aesthetic Opportunitiesfor recreation tourism & Inspiration for culture, and art design Informationfor cognitive development

Tidal riparian forest 4 5 5 3 0 0 0 0 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 0 0 4 2 4 4 3 3 4

Tide Reeds (reed flats) 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 4 4 4 5 4 5 4 4 5 4 4 3 2 3 3 3

Deep zone creeks 3 3 3 3 2 0 0 5 4 0 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 0 3 3 3 3 1 3

Shallow water area 4 4 4 4 2 0 0 5 4 2 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 0 3 3 3 3 1 3

Tidal creeks 4 4 3 4 0 0 0 0 4 2 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 0 3 3 3 3 1 3

Thin sand area 2 3 0 4 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 2 0 2 2 0 3 0 0 3 3 3 1 3

Modified River Section 3 2 4 2 2 0 0 5 2 1 2 2 0 0 4 5 4 0 0 2 1 4 1 3

Ripraps 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 5 0 1 0 0 0 3

Mud Flats 2 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 2 1 3 3 3 3 3 0 3 0 3 2 2 1 3 3

Paved areas 1 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 5 0 3

Dike 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 4 0 3 Willows of the wetlands, shores and moist site

Individual tree

Tidal ditches/Channel High moisture. Nutrient rich herbaceous sites Species poor, intensively cultivated willow

Semi ruderal grass and shrubs Moist ground Semi ruderal grass and shrub

Spatial Changes of the ecological integrity and Ecosystem services.

Maps are representing assessment results spatially. The assessment matrix results were linked to a map to show spatial changes.

Maps (Figure 15 a and b) presents ecological integrity before the project implementation as assessed through habitat quality ranking (a) and as assessed using assessment matrix (b). Figure 16 (a and b) presents ecological integrity of the study area after the project implementation. In both figures, 15 and 16, the habitat quality, which represents ecological integrity assessed through habitat ranking, represent high ecological integrity than the ecological integrity which was assessed using assessment matrix.

However, both figures shows that the ecological integrity spatially increases after the project implementation.

Figure 17 (a) shows relevant capacity of the habitats to provide the provisioning services before project implementation. The provisioning services increases after the project implementation (fig. 17 (b)). These changes were not easily detected in the matrix but are depicted in the maps.

Figure 18 a, and b shows spatial changes in the regulating services, after the project implementation. Figure 19 a and b represents spatial changes in the cultural services

Generally, maps have displayed spatial changes of the ecological integrity and the ecosystem services. Therefore makes easy interpretation of the assessment matrix. results.

(a) (b)

Figure 15: Map of SpadeLander Bush/Kreetsand; shallow Water area, (a) ecological integrity assessed by habitat quality ranking method (b) ecological integrity assessed using assessment matrix. Both before the project implementation.

(a) (b) Figure 16: Map of SpadeLander Bush/Kreetsand; shallow Water area, (a) Ecological integrity; ecological integrity assessed as habitat quality project; (b) ecological integrity assessed using assessment matrix - both after the project implementation.

(a) (b) Figure 17: Map of Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand: shallow water area provisioning services; (a) capacity before project implementation, and (b) capacity after the project implementation.

(a) (b) Table 18: Map of Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand: shallow water area regulating services; (a) before project implementation, and (b) after the project implementation.

(a) (b) Table 19: Map of Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand: shallow water area cultural services; (a) before project implementation (b), after the project implementation.

4.1.6 Cost – Benefit Analysis (CBA)

Total Economic Value estimates for the ecosystem services expected to be provided by the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area after the project implementation was used for Cost-benefit analysis. The assumption was that, at the present state, there is the small area, which provides ecosystem services (tidal forest and tidal reeds) therefore, its economic value is assumed to be zero.

Estimate of the economic value for aesthetic information and existence value.

The willingness to pay per ha including onetime pledging (high estimate) is 10200 Euros and the willingness to pay per ha without onetime pledging (lower estimate) is 7200 Euros. Therefore, for the 47ha of Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area, total willingness to pay was estimated as follows;

High estimate 10200 Euros /ha = 479,400 Euros per year Low estimates were given by 47*7200 Euros /ha = 338,400 Euros per year

Therefore, the aesthetic information service and existence value of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area, after the project implementation is estimated to range from 388,400 to 479,400 Euros per year.

Estimation of economic value of the water quality regulation services (nutrients retention).

Economic value of the Water quality regulation (nutrient retention) for the current study area was obtained by multiplying the total nitrogen retention capacity (21150 kg N/year) of Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area with the range of replacement costs (5-8 Euros per kg)

21150 kg of Nitrogen per year * 5 Euros per kg = 105,750 Euros per year. 21150 kg of Nitrogen per year * 8 Euros per kg = 169,200 Euros per year

Therefore, the economic value of water quality regulation through nutrient retention of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area range from 105,750 to 169,200 Euros per year.

Estimation of Economic value of Regulation of extreme events through floodwater storage.

The annual flood risk avoidance for the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area was obtained by multiply the annual flood risk avoidance per cubic meter (0.025 Euros) with the total storage capacity (880,000 (m³)) of the Spadenlander /Kreetsand´s shallow water area.

That is

Therefore, the economic value of regulation of extreme events through flood water storage service which will be provided by the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s shallow water area is estimated to 22,000 Euros per year.

Estimation of the economic value of the climate regulation service through carbon sequestration and burial

The avoided Social cost through carbon emission reduction expected after the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s project implementation is calculated as follows.

Euros/year

Hence the economic value of the climate regulation through carbon sequestration and burial, provided by the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area per year ranges from 6544 - 8762 Euros.

The Total Economic Value of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area.

The Total Economic Value of the ecosystem services provided by the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area after the project implementation is presented in the table 5. The estimate ranges from 0.45 to 0.68 Mio Euros per year, which is equivalent to 8,510 to 14,894 Euros/ha/year. After 54 years, assuming that the ecosystem services provisioning rate remains constant, their values will sum up to a range of 24.3 to 36.72 Mio, the higher range thus will be equal the implementation costs estimates.

The project implementation costs are estimated to around 36.56 Mio invested at once during the project implementation (Appendix: 2). Therefore, the ecosystem services can be thought as the return to the project implementation

The option of not implementing the project does not require investment costs and it does not provide the ecosystem services (considering the assumption made before). However, this option will continue to produce costs associated to the environmental degradation.

Table7: Economic values of ecosystem services.

Ecosystem services Lower estimates Higher estimates (Euros per year) (Euros per year) Aesthetic information and existence 338,400 479,400 values (biodiversity conservation and habitat protection) Water quality regulation services 105,750 169,200 (nutrients retention). Extreme events or disturbance: 0 22,000 Avoidance of flood risk through floodwater storage. Climate regulation: Carbon sequestration 6,544 8,762 and burial.

Total Economic Value 450,694 (0.45 Mio) 679,362 (0.68 Mio)

4.2 Discussion

4.2.1 Applicability of the ecosystem services at the study area.

Most of the prioritized ecosystem services which were applicable in the study area were regulating services (10 out of 21), which shows the most valuable ecosystem services to the human communities around Elbe Estuary. This is because the Elbe estuary is a vital space for shipping activities and a natural nutrient sink for the production activities in the basin including industrial and agriculture. Most of the regulating services in the list are related to the adjustment of the hydrology regimes (regulation extreme events or disturbance: flood water storage, water current reduction, wave reduction, drainage of river water, dissipation of tidal and river energy, and landscape maintenance) which is related to improvement of the navigation/transportation in the Elbe.

According to Grossmann (2012) prioritized ecosystem services for the Elbe Estuary have wetlands ecosystem services characteristics grouped into hydrological services like regulation of extreme events associated with the flow and sediment retention/regulation. Biogeochemical services like water quality regulation (nutrient retention) and climate regulation (greenhouse gases regulation) and ecological services like biodiversity maintenance (provisioning of habitats and refugia for various plants and animals). Therefore, these services were applicable on the tidal freshwater part of the Estuary, where Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area is located.

4.2.2 Indicators for the assessment of the ecological integrity and ecosystem services.

Most of the derived indicators were useful for ecological integrity and ecosystem services assessment in the study area. These indicators are divided into two groups; storks and flows (Meas et. al., 2011). Stocks represent ecosystem capacity to provide services. They are measured in terms biomass or total area (size in ha.) For example, primary production measured in the amount of chlorophyll-a, level or leaf index, number of habitats (niches) per area of habitats, Normal wave

height versus reduced wave height (unit in m), available space for energy damping (in a cubic meter) and river discharge m³ (discharge volume).

Flows on the hand, represent the benefit to the people, and they are measured in terms of unit benefit per year or any period. For example, fish available for the catch/ha or KJ/ha/year, amount of water extracted for industrial uses in m³/year or litters/year, and the total number of storms mitigated per year.

However, some of the indicators presented the challenge for their application on the ecosystem services assessment. For example, indicator for water for navigation was difficult to apply since total cargo handled per year, for all the vessels which uses the river section corresponding to the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area, was difficult to obtain.

4.2.3 Changes in the ecological integrity of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area.

Biodiversity: At the present state large area has low biodiversity. This is because of low quality habitats. Species distribution is correlated with resource availability. Thoroughly managed habitats supposed to accommodate a variety of species of the Elbe river/estuary in the future. In addition, extended habitats after management measure implementation, like floodplain forest, tidal reeds and moist willow thickets will have relatively high biodiversity habitats (appendix 3).

At the present large area of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand is a poor quality habitat rank 1-2 (very inhabitable to inhabitable) (figure 13). It is occupied by grasses and shrubs which usually dominate disturbed habitats. As it has pointed out earlier, this area was used as spoil field for wastes from the iron mining activities in the past. The contaminants are supposedly having modified the abiotic conditions of the area and deteriorated habitats.

The Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area at present is used by few species of birds and mammals described as the guest users of the, mainly for a short time foraging or hunting (Freund, Unpublished data). This supports the argument that this area is a poor quality habitat. Birds and other animals with a high developed

foraging and energy budget strategies, are not willing to risk their energy to forage in this area. There is few nesting or breeding activities in the area compare to the high quality neighboring habitats like the tidal forest, the willow bushes and the tidal reeds because this area has a poor food source and shelter to support the breeding birds, bats and other groups and their broods.

This argument is supported by the findings of Ferdinandez et al. 2008 who reported that habitat quality influences animal home range selection and population abundance. In their study to investigate the relationship between habitat quality and ecological functioning involving two species of bears, they found out that, habitat quality determined resources distribution and hence it determines species activities. Brown bear activities were controlled by habitat quality, which varied seasonally, and hence seasonal activities peaks like reproduction and hibernation.

This part of the river section, at present is assessed as poor habitat because of the impairment which is channelization. The channelization reduced habitat quality and habitat diversity of the river section. The channelization combined with riprap revetment, keeps the riverbanks isolated from its riparian wetlands hence reduced the exchange of water, sediments, nutrients and the organisms between the main channel and the riparian habitats.

Cooper, 1995 reported that the juvenile salmon preferred the natural riverbanks than the riverbanks reinforced with the ripraps despite the high abundance of the invertebrates on the riprap side. The channelization also reduces the ecological niches of the river through increased water flow and reduces nutrient uptake by the macrophytes over the river banks (Cooper, 1995).

After the project implementation, the large area of the present state of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area, will be transformed to the high quality habitats including deep, shallow water area (tidal wetland). These habitats, which will be thoroughly managed, will provide the high quality habitats for indicator species of the Elbe River (Freund, Unpublished data).

At some parts of this area, there will be the extension of the tidal forests and the tidal reed grass. These vegetated habitats of the tidal shallow water area will

increase the ecological integrity of the study area in general. The tidal reeds for instance play a fundamental role in the riverbanks protection from erosion and retention of the nutrients. It acts as a buffer zones between the arable land and the open water.They serve as a food resource for arthropods, birds and mammals including some which are endangered (Dienst, 2003).

The expectation are that, after initiation of the freshwater wetland habitats, development will be positive replacing the existing grassland pioneer species. Jacobs' et. al. (2009) studied freshwater vegetation restoration on the similar project in the Lippenbroek pilot project at Schelde Estuary, where the Controlled Reduced Tides techniques, was used to reinitiate inundation in the floodplain. Their findings suggested that tidal, freshwater vegetation recovered in this area within two years. The succession vegetation died back after the tidal flow initiating (Jacobs' et. al., 2009; Tanner, this 2002; Van Holland et. al., 2011; Van Holland, 2010).

Therefore, it is anticipated that Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area will follow a similar trajectory, and freshwater wetland vegetation will reestablish in the area and eventually form habitats to aquatic organisms.

Tanner et. al., 2002 also studied the habitats restoration in the Snohomish River estuary, where the floodplain was reconnected to the river through dike breaching. They found that the physical and biological conditions at the site changed soon after the tidal reestablishment.

Conversely, the transformation of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area has some costs involved. The future habitats involved the removal of the three unique trees, which are standing on the northwest of the site (figure 14). These older Poplars trees are unique to the area they offer aesthetic values to the people visiting the site. They are potential hunting tower for birds of prey and offer habitats for insects. Also, the conversion of the succeeding terrestrial area will lead to lose of some of the terrestrial adapted species. This should be considered a genetic loss. The river section however, improves through regulated flow regime and water purification offered by the shallow water area, so its ranking shift to level 3 after the project implementation (Figure 16).

Some research studies have reported ecosystem restoration to have a potential to restore biodiversity and ecosystem services (Borrell, 2009). Conversely, there are cases were restoration diverge from the plan and the expected results. The divergence suggested being higher in the temperate aquatic like the saltwater marshes than the terrestrial tropical ecosystems (Borrell, 2009).

Abiotic heterogeneity: Microclimate elements associated with the shallow water area establishment will potentially increase the habitat quality. The soil moisture content rise, plants, and the temperature regulation at the tidal shallow water area, will improve and increase niches for a variety of species (www.ducks.org, 2012). Biological processes of the tidal shallow water area will provide a rich foundation for the food chains that lead to an increase in a variety, and abundance of the organisms (www.ducks.org, 2012).

Belpaire et al.,(2011); analyzed the foraging success between fish foraging in a shallow water area at the Scheldt estuary, and they found that fish species used shallow water area as spawning grounds; fish caught in the shallow water area had ingested a high number of fish eggs, while those caught at the river channel (Scheldt) had none. Suggesting that, the tidal shallow areas are necessary spawning ground. Their findings also suggested a high biodiversity in the shallow water area since fish caught in this area had ingested varieties of prey including big terrestrial preys, compare to those in the river channel. The shallow water area also provided the fish with energy advantages twice higher than the fish foraging in the river channel. Their arguments are reasonable and suggests that the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area, will provide habitats to the diverse number of the species than before the project implementation.

Exergy capture: some of the habitats in the present state like the tidal reeds/reed flats, tidal riparian forest, modified river section, a high moisture nutrient rich, herbaceous sites, and moist ground, semi ruderal grass and shrub, have high to a very high relevant capacity for exergy capture (table. 5 and 6).

Modified river section relevant capacity for exergy capture was assessed based on the chlorophyll-a concentration measured at Zollenspieker (kilometer 598) between year 2004-2009. This exergy is useful for building up biomass in the aquatic food web. It is assessed to a high relevant capacity which suggests that, primary production is a high in the river section. This production is related to microphytes production (green algae). However, high microphytes production (green algae) is the indication of eutrophication. Verney et. al., (2009) suggested that high concentration of chlorophyll-a and organic matter suggests diatom bloom occurrence. They reported a diatom blooms peaks with average chlorophyll-a, concentration of 100 µg/l and particulate organic carbon at concentrations of up to 3 mg/l in the Seine Estuary, in France. Average chlorophyll-a concentration in the modified river section corresponding to Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area ranges between 60-120µg/l per year and total organic carbon concentration averages of 9.5 per year (figure 20 and 21). The Rhine, Loire, and Vistula River were assessed as eutrophic with the summer chlorophyll-a levels of 100 to 200 µg/l (Gerda et al., 1994).

Nevertheless the shallow water area construction will provide space for organic matter uptake (reduction) hence reduce the risk of eutrophic in this section of the river.

Average chlorophyl-a (µg/l) per year Measured at Zollenspieker (kilometre 598) Average chlorophyl-a (µg/l) per … 140.0

120.0

100.0 a (µg/l) (µg/l) a

- 80.0

60.0

chlorophyl 40.0

20.0

0.0 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Figure 20: Primary production at the Elbe river channel, measured at Zollenspieker, about 16 km from the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s, project site; (Source; Hamburger Behorde fur Stadtentwicklung und Umwelt, 2010).

Total Organic Carbon Measured at Zollenspieker (kilometer 598)(mg/l C) - Elbe River TOC (mg/l C) 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Average total Average Organic carbon(mg/l) 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Figure 21: Total organic matter-measured at Zollenspieker, Elbe River (Source; Hamburger Behorde fur Stadtentwicklung und Umwelt, 2010).

4.2.4 The Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s habitats ecosystem services provisioning capacity changes.

Results have indicated changes in the ecosystem services provisioning capacity between the two periods. However, changes various from one group of the ecosystem services to the other. Details are discussed per ecosystem service group as follows;

Provisioning services

Provisioning services in had small change between two phases.

Water for navigation; measured by total cargo handled per year remained unchanged between two phases. The river section is providing water for navigation and service is already very high. Positive impact of the shallow water creation on the water for navigation service (for instance sediment reduction) will improve the quality of the service but will not influence the increase of the navigation activities. The increase of navigation activities in the future is independent to the manageme nt measure implementation because there is an increasing trend of the navigation activities with time each year already. This service is accessed by some of the regions of Germany and the Czech republic which is a landlocked Nation using the Elbe river to access the oversea ports.

Two provisioning services were not provided by the study area since they involved extraction of resources from the area, a tendency which is restricted in the Nature reserve. The services were fishing for food and water extraction for Industrial uses.

Regulation Services

Climate regulation; Carbon sequestration and burial: Climate regulation is a vital service human receives from ecosystem. Increase in carbon in the atmosphere, which cause the global warming effect has implications in ecology like changes in

seasons and organisms phenology activities like reproduction and migration. Climate change also affects human health. It was reported recently that carbon increase in the atmosphere might have caused an increase in hay fever and asthma (Ziello, 2012).

The assessment of this ecosystem services indicated by the sequestration / storage capacity per hectare (tCO2), was based on three ecological processes which are governed by the introduction of water in the area; a) rewetting of the area will lower carbon dioxide emission due to the principle that water inhibits organic matter decomposition (soil carbon preservation) (Gedan, 2011). Water creates anaerobic condition in the soil due to lower oxygen diffusion and lower temperature (Dietrich, 2012, Gaodi, 2011). b) The extension and conservation of the tidal forest with potential for carbon sequestration. c) The tidal, shallow volume water/floodplain has potential to form peat land, which store carbon in the soil (Gedan, 2011; Forster, 2009; Gaodi, 2011; Finlayson, 2005; www.mirewiseuse.com, 2012.

The large area of Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand at the present state (semi ruderal grassland) is supposedly emitting carbon-dioxide basing on theory that decomposition rate on the top soil is relative high. Forster, 2009 reported that areas, which were once occupied by peat lands and then converted to agricultural areas, are simply transformed from carbon sink into a carbon source. They have potential of emitting up to 20 Mio t CO2 per year. Abberton et. al., 2009 also reported that C lost was high from top soils across England and Wales during National Soil carbon survey conducted between 1978 to 2003. Therefore, the shallow water area establishment will reduce chances of carbon emission and has potential to act as the carbon sink.

Water quality regulation; reduction of excess nutrients coming from the catchment: Shallow water areas habitats (floodplains/wetlands) has relevant capacity for nutrients retention and can thereby enhance water quality of the river (Balke et. al., 2011). Floodplains increase retention capacity due to velocity lowering and hence increase the time for nutrients uptake by plants and nitrogen gas release through denitrification in the sediments.

The shallowness of the shallow water area allows light penetration, will be sufficient for aquatic plants photosynthesis. Photosynthesis produces oxygen, required by microorganism for organic matter decomposition hence reduction of nutrients in the water (Balke et. al., 2011). Therefore, implementation of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's project, will increase water quality through increased surface area (shallow water area) for nutrients remove.

Regulation extreme events or disturbance; water current reduction and regulation of water quantity; dissipation of tidal and river energy: These services influenced by estuarine hydraulic forces originating from the coast/sea (leading to horizontal and vertical water movement patterns), morphology of the river and its riparian features and vegetation of the river floodplain.

In the present state of habitats, riparian forest, reed bed, willow of moist ground, tidal channels/ditches and mudflats habitats have relevant capacity to dissipate river energy and reduce waves length and tide amplitude (Hickey et al, 1995). Vegetated habitats create roughness which provide resistance to high energy tidal waves with high wave length and speed. They also slows down speed and reduce wavelength (Gedan, 2011). Vegetation increases sediment settling on floodplains through reducing flow velocity by increasing surface roughness where water currents are flowing through (Edward et al. 2010, Lehmann et. al., 2012, M.A 2005).

Non vegetated habitats like mudflats and tidal channels provide space for the tidal energy dissipation (Gedan, 2011). However, in the Elbe for the present state the contact between river water and these potential habitats for reduction of tidal energy is limited because habitats are spatially small and isolated to the river channel.

Future habitats have more potential to dissipate tidal energy and reduce tidal currents due to the increased connection to the River. They are designed to increase roughness at the periphery of the shallow water area to increase resistance to tidal energy and hence dissipate energy. The shallow water, deep water and tidal creeks also provide space for tide energy dissipation.

HEC-RAS model results show that the shallow water area created after project implementation has potential to dissipate tide energy for 286170 meters. Shallow water area also has the potential to reduce waves by 2.6 cm. This value is relatively low compared to the 3.63 m tidal range in the river channel, but the fact that this small unit of the area has showed this potential, is a sign that tidal floodplains has relevant capacity to regulate tidal energy.

Sedimentation regulation; Maintenance of the river channel depth: Shallow water areas have the relative potential to reduce sediment transport through the reduction of tidal energy. Shallow water area provides space for energy dissipation hence reduces forces that could push sediments to the upper estuary. Reduced tidal energy allows sediment settling downstream.

Tidal energy dissipation on the shallow water area will lower the differences between tidal flow and ebb flow hence reduction of the tidal asymmetry. The reduction of the tidal asymmetry will reduce tidal pumping effects and hence reduction of the upstream sediment transportation. Some of the sediment will be collected in the shallow water area for instance deep zone area since tidal flood velocity at the deep zone will be low therefore, settling velocity of sediment this zone will be high. However, sediment accumulation in the deep zone will cause management constraint of the shallow water area, since it will require to be removed

On the other hand, vegetated habitats of the shallow water area will have potential for sediment trapping (Francine, 1997, www.wetland.org, 2012). Despite the potential of the shallow water area, to regulate sediments, the contribution to the overall sediment transport problem is a very small due to the small size of the planned shallow water area.

Regulation extreme events or disturbance: Flood water storage; based on data from the HEC-RAS Model. The shallow water area has the capacity of storing 880,000 cubic meter of water. Therefore, the assessment shows the potential of the shallow water area to take excess water in case of an extreme flood event. The shallow water area will increase water infiltration in the soil hence, increases

soil water retention capacity (Hickey et. al., 1995; www.wetland.org, 2012; wwf.panda.org, 2012). Like other wetlands, shallow water will prevent flooding by holding water in its soil and vegetation (www.panda.org, 2012). During high water levels and storms, shallow water area will capture and store water, and slowly release back when water level is low. There by reducing the impact of flood (www.wetland.org, 2012; wwf.panda.org, 2012).

Studies have indicated that flood peaks of areas without wetlands can be as much as 80 percent higher compare to similar areas with wetlands (www3.cesa10.k12.wi.us,2012). A research result has reported that, 65,000 m3 capacity retention basins, reduced peak flows by up to 48% and delayed the flood peak for 6 to 10 hours (Reinhardt, 2011). The water retention ability of the wetland also facilitates groundwater recharge (aquifer recharge). Shallow water area vegetation, both emergent aquatic vegetation, reed vegetation and tidal forests, aids at flood defense by slowing down the downstream passage of flood peak by increasing surface roughness (Lehmann et. al., 2012; Hickey et. al., 1995).

Water quantity regulation; landscape maintenance: this ecosystem service is indicated by proportional of modified river features versus possible natural river features of river network. We based assessment of the availability of the floodplains as one of the natural features of the river. Therefore, all features which increase moisture transfer from the river channel to the periphery, adds into landscape maintenance.

Water quantity regulation; transportation: indicator used for the assessment of this service is river discharge m³ (discharge volume). The shallow water area has potential to store water during high flow level and discharges water back to the river during low flow.

Cultural Services

Elbe River and the coast of the North Sea contain cultural values, which community around wishes to protect for heritage. These include fantastic

landscapes and organisms. Tidal freshwater is one of unique habitat with high cultural values along the Elbe river. Protection of these areas also protecting cultural heritage for present and future generation. As mentioned earlier, the project area is part of the Rhee Nature Reserve with the expectation of its ecological improvement after the project implementation. Therefore, it will be reserved for cultural heritage and recreational activities.

Aesthetic information’s; this service is attached to biodiversity and the beauty of the landscape. The assessment suggests the increase in the future due to improved habitats for endangered and indicator species of the Elbe Estuary and biodiversity improving the ecology of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand also impacts the whole river continuum (river ecosystem connection and ecological transitions hence beautiful landscape).

Opportunity for recreation and Tourism; the area is used for recreation activities by local people including cycling and quiet recreation activities as were recorded during EIA exercise (Freunde et. al., 2010). These activities have potential to increase in the future due to potential additional attraction of bird diversity, butterflies and fish for recreation.

Inspiration for culture art and design; Elbe Estuary is a part of communities’ cultures. So conservation of its ecosystem contributes to conservation of the culture. Elbe River in which Elbe Estuary is a part, is a culture and unit symbol, for instance recently the Yuhana - Elbe River project was launched to provide the opportunity for cultural and art connecting people of India and German the two rivers are used as symbols for culture and art connection.

Information for cognitive development; ecosystems and their components and processes provide the basis for both formal and informal education in many societies. Elbe River, including its estuaries, is one of most studied areas. The project will attract studies after it completion. This study makes one of the examples. The assessment also relied on the Lippenbroek, a similar project which has attracted many researches after its implementation. Most researchers speculated on what had happened after the project implementation.

4.2.5 Cost – Benefit analysis (CBA)

The Total Economic Value estimates of the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area involved only four ecosystem services due to data availability. If all the ecosystem services assessed, were estimated, the value could be higher. Some of the potential expected ecosystem services after the project implementatio n like the sediments regulation, dissipation of the tidal energy, and wave reduction were not economically evaluated due to data shortage.

Costanza et. al., (1997) estimated average economic value for world estuaries ecosystem services to around 18,713 Euros (23,000$) per hectare per year, which is higher than the estimates for the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s area (8,510 to 14,894 Euros/ha/year). This result suggest that the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand´s value was under estimated.

Hoverter results suggest that the project implementation option is beneficial over the alternative of not implementing the project. The option of not implementing the project does not engage monetary investment, but it will continue to generate costs associated with the ecosystem degradation like the biodiversity loss, carbon emission and the irregular sediment transport.

Never the less it should be observed that, the Cost-benefit analysis might have inherited errors from the assumptions used and also the economic value estimation methods used (benefit transfer method). However, it provides some highlights which can be used to make the choice between the two options.

Chapter 5 Conclusion

This study has utilized several methods and techniques to gather, analyze and interpret information about the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's habitats ecological integrity and ecosystem services over two periods that is before and after the project implementation.

The applicability of the ecological integrity components and the prioritized ecosystem services of the Elbe Estuary in the study area habitats (Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's habitats) was tested. Results have shown that 17 out of 21 ecological integrity components (3 components) and the ecosystem services (14 services) were applicable. Four ecosystem services required redefining. Two ecosystem services namely (i) water quality regulation: transport of pollutants and excess nutrients (ii) water quality regulation: reduction of excess loads coming from the catchment had similar application. Therefore, these two services were merged into one services namely; water quality regulation: reduction of excess nutrients coming from the catchment. Two other ecosystem services namely (i) the erosion and sedimentation regulation by water bodies, (ii) erosion and sedimentation regulation by biological mediation, were redefined and sorted into two new services. These are sedimentation regulation: maintenance of the river channel depth and the erosion prevention.

The ecological integrity of the study area before and after the project implementation also was assessed. Results have shown that there will be an increase in the ecological integrity of the study area after the project implementation. The increase is due to the transformation of poor quality inhabitable habitats (rank 2) namely semi ruderal grass, and shrubs, and species poor, intensively, cultivated willows to the high quality habitats (rank 4) such as shallow water area, tidal reeds flats, mud flats, tidal creeks, thin sand areas, tidal reeds extension, and tidal forest extension. According to the hypothesis made concerning the effect of the project on the ecological integrity of the area, the management measure implementations have a positive effects.

Moreover, this study also assessed the relevant capacity of the study area's habitats to provide ecosystem services over two periods. It was found that there

will be an increase in the provisioning services, the regulating services and the cultural services after the project implementation.

Cost-Benefit Analysis was carried out for the project implementation option against the option of not implementing the project. Results have shown that the project implementation is a better option. After 54 years, the Total Economic Value of the ecosystem services provided by the Spadenlander Busch/Kreetsand's area after the project implementation will sum up to a range of 24.3 to 36.72 Mio, the higher estimates therefore, will equal the estimated implementation costs.

The alternative of not implementing the project do not require monetary investment, but it will continue generating costs associated to ecosystem degradation e.g. Biodiversity loss, carbon emission, and irregular sediment transport.

It was also investigated that, habitat quality provides more useful information for the ecosystem services supply assessment than a habitat type itself. There is a high connection between the ecological integrity of the habitat and its capacity to provide ecosystem services.

Therefore, this study concludes that the project will increase the flow of ecosystem services benefit after its implementation.

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Appendix

Appendix 1: HEC-RAS Model results...... 102 Appendix 2: Estimated Investment Costs for the SpadeLander Bush/Kreetsands project...... 103

Appendix 3: CORINE map for the SpadeLander Bush/Kreetsands area...... 104

Appendix 4: Biodiversity of the SpadeLander Bush/Kreetsands area...... 105

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Appendix: 1 Table 15; HEC-RAS Model results

Model Results Model code Measurements Units values Rationale Increasing tide flood area , P1 increases potential for Local Flood area, m³ 880 000 Tidal energy dissipation

Energy Stronger tide energy diversion, P2 dissipation, m 286 170 reduces sedimentation

P3 Sedimentation m³ / Minimization of the sedimentation rate, year 17 000 in the created flood plain

Damping The high damping effect of the P4 effect cm 2.6 Tide range

(Source, HPA, 2012).

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Appendix 2; Estimated Investment Costs for the SpadeLander Bush/Kreetsands project.

Source HPA, (2010.)

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Appendix 3;

Legend

NON-IRRIGATED ARABLE LAND Kreetsands area. PERMANENTLY IRRIGATED LAND RICE FIELDS VINEYARDS FRUIT TREES AND BERRY PLANTATIONS OLIVE GROWES PASTURES ANNUAL CROPS ASSOCIATED WITH PERMANENT CROPS COMPLEX CULTIVATION PATTERNS LAND PRINCIPALLY OCCUPIED BY AGRICULTURE AGRO-FORESTRY AREAS

WATER COURSES WATER BODIES COASTAL LAGOONS ESTUARIES SEA AND OCEAN

Table 16; CORINE map for the SpadeLander Bush/Kreetsands area - showing Land use of the area until 2011. Source; (www.epa.ie, 2012)

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Appendix: 3.

Table 17; Biodiversity of the SpadeLander Bush/Kreetsands area and species activities before project implementation.

Most of the species activities are taking place in the Tidal riparian forest and the Reed and Willow of Wetland area.

Tidal reeds and

Significant Tidal Floodplain forest Willow areas Ditch at the Dyke Elbe River Bats Eptesicus serotinus Wide wing bat Strictly protected by law feeding area Roosting habitat feeding area Myotis dasycneme Pond bat endangered Myotis daubentonii Daubenton's bat Potential feeding area feeding area Myotis nattereri Natterer's bat Roosting habitat and feeding feeding area 8 Nyctalus noctula Noctule Strictly protected by law feeding area Pipistrellus nathusii Nathusius bat Potential feeding area feeding area Pipistrellus Pipistrellus Pipistrelle feeding area feeding area Potential feeding area and critical endangered Plecotus auritus Brown long-eared summer habitat Mammals Apodemus sylvaticus Wood mouse Capreolus capreolus Deer Erinaceus Europaeus Hedgehog Lepus Europaeus Hare Micromys minutus Dwarf mouse 10 Microtus agrestis Field vole Microtus arvalis Field mouse Oryctolagus cuniculus Wild rabbits Sorex araneus Shrew Talpa Europaea Mole Foraging Breeding Bird English name urdus merula 45 Breeding area Anthus trivialis Blackbird Potential foraging 108

Remiz pendulinus Tree Pipit foraging , breeding areas Fulica atra Penduline Tit Parus caeruleus Coot Saxicola rubetra Bluethroat Fringilla coelebs Bluetit Dendrocopus major Whinchat Sylvia communis Chaffinch Great Spotted Garrulus glandarius Woodpecker Alcedo atthis Whitethroat Pica pica Jay Phasianus colchicus Kingfisher Foraging Alauda arvensis Magpie Locustella naevia Pheasant Phylloscopus trochilus Skylark Certhia brachydactyla Grasshopper warbler Breeding area Sylvia borin Willow Warbler Foraging, Phoenicurus phoenicurus Treecreeper breeding Hippolais icterina Garden Warbler Pyrrhola pyrrhola Redstart Serinus serinus Yellow Warbler Anser anser Bullfinch Ardea cinerea Serin Erithacus rubecula Grey Goose Motacilla flava Grey Heron Acrocephalus schoenobaenus Robin Locustella fluviatilis Wagtail Breeding area Breeding area Aegithalos caudatus Sedge Warbler Saxicola torquata Warbler Turdus philomelos Long-tailed Tit Haliaeetus albicilla Stonechat Sturnus vulgaris Song Thrush Breeding area Breeding and Foraging Athene noctua Sea eagle Breeding area Oenanthe oenanthe Star Carduelis Carduelis Little Owl Breeding area Anas platyrhynchos Wheatear Acrocephalus palustris Goldfinch Gallinula chloropus Mallard Acrocephalus scirpaceus Marsh Warbler Breeding area Falco tinnunculus Moorhen Breeding area 109

Crex crex Reed Warbler Breeding area Parus montanus Kestrel Breeding area Potential breeding areas Troglodytes troglodytes Corncrake Phylloscopus collybita Willow Tit Breeding area Reptiles Natrix natrix Anguis fragilis 2 Foraging,breeding Amphibians Bufo bufo Toad Rana temporaria Common Frog spawning ground Rana lessonae / R. kl. esculenta spawning ground Rana arvalis Moorfrosch Spawning ground 6 Rana ridibunda Marsh Frog Winter habitat Triturus vulgaris Newt migration habitat migration habitat spawning ground Spawning ground fish Abramis brama Bream breeding and feedingarea Alosa fallax Feint Potential migration area Aspius aspius Asp Blicca bjoerkna White bream Coregonus maraena Houting breeding and feeding area Three-spined Gasterosteus aculeastatus stickleback Gobio gobio Gudgeon Potential migration area Gymnocephalus cernua Ruffe 15 breeding and feeding area Lampetra fluviatilis River lamprey Potential spawning ground Squalius cephalus Chub L.idus Aland Potential migration area Perca fluviatilis Perch breeding and feeding area Petromyzon marinus Sea lamprey migration area Rutilus rutilus Roach breeding and feeding area Salmo salar Salmon Potential migration area Sander lucioperca Pike-perch Dragonfly Aeshna cyanea Aeshna grandis Blue -green hawker Aeshna mixta Autumn hawker breeding feeding Large Emperor 11 habitats Anax imperator Dragonfly Coenagrion puella Horseshoe damselfly

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Erythromma najas Large garnet eye Tailed Damselfly Ischnura elegans Common Common Emerald Lestes sponsa Damselfly Pyrrhosoma nymphula Damselfly Sympetrum sanguineum Ruddy Darter Sympetrum vulgatum Common Darter Sympetrum pedemontanum Heidelibel-banded Brilliant emerald Butterfly Celastrina argiolus Buckthorn's Blue Lasiommata megera Wall Fox Nympalis io Peacock Nymphalis c-album Comma 9 Nymphalis urticae Small Tortoiseshell Potential foraging and breeding ground. Pieris napi Rape white butterfly Pieris rapae Small cabbage white Polyommatus icarus Restharrow Bläuling Vanessa atalanta Admiral Potential foraging and breeding ground Moth Arctia caja Brown Bear Catocala nupta Red ribbon Cucullia umbratica Shadow Monk Nola cuculatella Hedge Graueulchen 4 breeding and feeding habitat Hymenoptera Apoidea ssp. Bees, bumblebees Vespa crabro Hornet Beetles Acupalpus Meridianus Agonum scitelum Agonum thoreyi Amara aulica Amara bifrons Amara communis 32 Amara familiaris Anisodactylus binotatus Bembidion bipunctata Bembidion marimum Bembidion tetracolum

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Calathus melanocephalus Calodromius spilotus Carabus granulatus Carabus nemoralis Clivina collaris Demetrias imperialis Dromius quadrimaculatus Loricera pilicornis Nebria brevicollis Ocys harpaloides Odacantha melanura Oodes helopiodes Ophonus rufibarbis Paranchus albipes Patrobus atrorufus PFatynus livens Poecillus versicolor Pterostichus Melanarius Pterostichus oblongopuntatus Pterostichus strenuus breeding and feeding habitat breeding and feeding breeding and Trechus quadristriatus breeding and feeding habitat habitat feeding habitat Locusts white margins Chorthippus albomarginatus grasshopper Chorthippus apricarius Field grasshopper breeding and feeding habitat Nightingale, Chorthippus biguttulus grasshopper Chorthippus parallelus Common Grasshopper Chortippus brunneus Grasshopper 11 Chrysochraon dispar Large gold cricket Short-winged Conocephalus dorsallis Schwertschre Leptophyes punctatissima Speckled bush cricket Metrioptera roeseli Roesel Beißschrecke breeding and feeding habitat Pholidoptera griseoaptera Dark Bushdeters Tettigonia viridissima Green grasshopper breeding and feeding habitat Information was obtained from http://www.eb cc.info/pecbm -germany, 2012; http://bba.iowabirds.org, 2012 and BSS. (Unpublished data). 112

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