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2014 5 Final Thesis Ung Loh, Jennifer (2013) 'Why vote for a fake kinnar when you can vote for a real one?’: representation and political identity among kinnars in Madhya Pradesh, India. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/18549 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. ‘Why vote for a fake kinnar when you can vote for a real one?’ Representation and Political Identity among Kinnars in Madhya Pradesh, India Jennifer Ung Loh Department of the Study of Religions SOAS, University of London Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD in Study of Religions 2013 Declaration I have read and understood regulation 17.9 of the Regulations for students of the SOAS, University of London concerning plagiarism. I undertake that all the material presented for examination is my own work and has not been written for me, in whole or in part, by any other person. I also undertake that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of another person has been duly acknowledged in the work which I present for examination. Signed: ___________________________ Date: ___________________ 2 Abstract This thesis examines the production of kinnar identity in the context of state politics in Madhya Pradesh. As a subordinate group, living on the margins of history, religion, gendered practice, and the social imagination, kinnars (or hijras) are often represented to and by the public as an impoverished and deviant group, who fail to fit into mainstream society. The election of seven kinnars in the state of Madhya Pradesh between 1999 and 2009 provided an opportunity for kinnars to be represented in a new way to the public, both in Madhya Pradesh and nationally. Their electoral victories and tenures paralleled a wider theme in respect to the entry of previously marginalised individuals into deliberative and legislative bodies, usually of lower-caste status, with the aim of gaining legitimation and formal recognition of their identity. In this thesis, I explore the relationship between representation and the production of kinnar identity in modern India. I analyse how kinnars and their supporters constructed kinnar identity as a viable, political identity, negotiating and narrating a new representation of their idiosyncratic bodies and behaviours. I argue that political participation was not beneficial for kinnar politicians, in the sense that they obtained few, if any, ostensible material or symbolic gains. Moreover, the case of these kinnars’ participation raises wider questions regarding marginal identity and recognition by the Indian State. Throughout the thesis, I explore how kinnar identity is located on the margins of various societal arenas and how entry into and representation within central spaces entails a significant negotiation and re-presentation of kinnar identity. I argue that modes of recognition fix individuals within an identity that is intelligible to the Indian State but fail to contain the heterogeneous forms of kinnar identity, forcing kinnars to identify in a particular way in order to be recognised. 3 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... 6 Conventions and Orthography ................................................................................................ 8 Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................................................................................. 9 Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... 10 Map of Madhya Pradesh ......................................................................................................... 13 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 14 I. Preliminary Literature Review .................................................................................. 17 II. Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................. 23 III. Fieldwork, Methodology, and Positionality ......................................................... 26 IV. Structure of the Thesis ............................................................................................. 30 1. The Hijra ‘Subject-Effect’: Configuring Subjectivity in Literature, Gender Performance, Religious Practice, and Social Spaces ....................................... 37 I. Figures of Ambiguous Sex in Literary Traditions .................................................. 38 i. Myths and Ancient Texts .................................................................................. 38 ii. Medieval Sources and European Travel Writing ............................................. 41 iii. Classification and Criminalisation .................................................................. 44 iv. Hijras as Sexed and Gendered Subjects ........................................................... 47 II. Performing Gender .................................................................................................... 52 i. Variations among the ‘Third Sex’ ...................................................................... 54 ii. Gender Within a Binary ................................................................................... 57 iii. ‘Authentic’ Identities ...................................................................................... 62 III. Religious Identifications .......................................................................................... 64 i. Syncretic Religious Identities? .......................................................................... 64 ii. Hindu Rituals ................................................................................................... 65 iii. Muslim Practices ............................................................................................. 71 IV. Hijra Society .............................................................................................................. 76 i. Social Roles ........................................................................................................ 76 ii. Retheorising Kinship ........................................................................................ 78 iii. Local and National Organisation .................................................................... 84 2. Kinnars in Madhya Pradesh: Fieldwork and Case Studies .......................................... 87 I. Choosing Sites and Research Methods ..................................................................... 87 II. Finding Politicians ..................................................................................................... 91 i. Attending a Sammelan ...................................................................................... 94 ii. Becharaji and Thane ......................................................................................... 96 iii. Comparing Mumbai and MP .......................................................................... 97 III. Case Studies: How to Elect a Kinnar Politician ..................................................... 98 i. Kamla Jaan, Mayor of Katni Murwara Town, December 1999 ........................ 99 ii. Shabnam Mausi, MLA for Sohagpur, March 2000 ....................................... 106 iii. Kamla Bua, Mayor of Sagar City, December 2009 ....................................... 115 IV. The Question of Representation ........................................................................... 125 3. Representation and Rhetoric: Constructing Kinnar ‘Political’ Identity .................. 127 I. What Is ‘Representation’? ......................................................................................... 128 II. Group Representation: Arguments for, and Problems with Identifying Beneficiaries ......................................................................................................... 131 4 i. ‘Fair Representation’ and Preferential Policies ............................................... 131 ii. Reservation for Kinnars? ................................................................................ 139 III. Constructing Kinnar Identity through Rhetoric ................................................. 146 i. Lack of Experience, Lack of Kinship, and the Aspect of Fear ........................... 146 ii. Producing Campaigns: Donations, Slogans, and Symbols ............................ 150 iii. Identity as ‘Lack’: Gender, Caste, Religion, and Community ...................... 152 IV. Representatives and Constituents: Theorising Relationships .......................... 157 i. Assessing Representative-Constituent Relationships ..................................... 158 ii. Failure
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