Agricultural Development in Uttarakhand

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN UTTARAKHAND

ABSTRACT THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

Boctor of $I)tlas(opt)p IN GEOGRAPHY

BY MUMTAJ AHMAD

Under the Supervision of Dr. Shamsul Haque Siddiqui ( Reader)

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA) 2002 ABSTRACT

The study region of the present research work, Uttarakhand

comprising eight districts namely, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh of

Kumaun, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal, Pauri-Garhwal and Dehradun

of Garhwal division. It extends from 28°43'24" and 31°27'30" N latitude

and 77°34'27" and 80°7'22" E longitudes. It encompasses an area of 51,125

square kilometres and account total population of 5.926 million

(according to Census of India 1991). The eocnomy of this region depends

on agriculture, where more than 80 per cent of its population dependent

upon this source. Being a hilly area, there is scarcity of agricultural land

and the share of per capita cultivated land is very low.

The present study is carried out for the period from 1979-80 to

1994-95. It is based on secondary soruces of data. There are the following

techniques have bene used by the author for the analysis of the present

study as follows.

i) The physical setting of Uttarakhand has been described in detail.

ii) To examine the trends of agricultural development, trend lines have

been plotted with the help of regression equation Y = a + bX,

regression lines make it possible to show the exact change in area

and production of different crops. iii) To assess the development of agriculture by the diffusion of

technological and institutional factors per thousand hectares of

cultivated land has been opted for the analysis of agricultural

mechanization i.e. tractors, pumpsets, wooden plough and iron plough. Besides, consumption of fertilizers (kg per hectare),

irrigation, agricultural credit societies, agricultural workers,

literacy and land holdings are taken into account.

iv) The indices of crop productivity, have been calculated on the basis

of Yang's yield index method for two periods 1979-80 and 1994-95.

v) The role of technological and institutional factors in the

development of agriculture has been examined with the help of

correlation analysis, factor analysis and composite mean Z-score

statistical technique.

The major objective of the present study are :

1. To analyse the importance of physical setting of the region which

facilitates basic necessities for agricultural practices.

2. To analyse the landuse pattern, cropping intensity and the trends of

growth in area, produciton and yield of major food crops of Uttara-

khand.

3. To assess the spread and diffusion of technological and institutional

factors in the study area.

4. To examine the spatio-temporal development of agriculture with

reference to crop productivity in the study area.

5. To examine the impact of tehcnological and institutional factors on

the development of agriculture in Uttarakhand.

6. To measures the levels of agricultural development in the study area.

7. To suggest appropriate guidelines for future development of

agriculture in Uttarakhand. For better assessment, the present work is divided into six chapters, which are as follows :

Chapter First deals with physical factors like relief, geology,

drainage system, climate, soil and natural vegetation of Uttarakhand.

Chapter Second presents the concept of agricultural development

and highlights theoretical aspects of technological and institutional

factors relating to agriculture.

Chapter Third describes the trends of agricultural development with

special reference to landuse pattern cropping intensity, growth rate

of area, production and yield of major food crops and their irrigated

area for four period i.e. 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95.

Chapter Four describes the spatial distribution of technological and

institutional factors in Uttarakhand.

Chapter Fifth devoted to spatio-temporal development of agriculture

with reference to agricultural productivity.

Chapter Six focusses the patterns of agriculture development and

technological and institutional factors in the study region. The

technological and institutional factors in the study region have been

assessed in three ways. Firstly, an attempt has been made to

determine the inter-relationship among independent variables

through correlation analysis for the period 1979-80 and 1994-95,

secondly, the precise role of various indicators of agricultural

development through Factor analysis. Thirdly, it exmaines the levels

of agricultural development through composite mean Z-score

technique. At last author has incorporated summary and many more suggestions

regarding the development of agriculture in Uttarakhand.

It has been observed that the percentage of gross cropped area to

the total reported area slightly decrease from 21.37 per cent to 21.26 per

cent during the period 1979-80 to 1994-95. The percentage decrease in

gross corpped area is due to new construction of settlements and roads in

the region.

An analysis of the trends of agricultural development reveals that

among cereals, wheat is the first ranking crop. The linear growth rate of

area under wheat increased by 53.50 per cent while production increased

by 52.25 per cent during the period 1979-80 to 1994-95. Rice is the

second leading crops in the study area. The growth rate of area under rice

decreased by 0.9 per cent, while the production icnreased by 68.8 per cent

during the period studied. The area under pulses has increased in fifteen

years except in case of gram and masoor, while the production recorded

are increased in all the pulses except gram.

Besides, masoor is the leading crop among other pulses in

Uttarakhand. It occupies largest area and improved its position in production. Among oilseeds soyabean, rapeseed and mustard and sesamum have achieved leading position in Uttarakhand. The phenomenal increase in oilseeds is due to the favourable climatic conditions of the study area.

Uttarakhand is not an important producer of sugarcane as compared to the sugarcane belt of western and eastern Uttar Pradesh, it is mainly cultivated in tarai-bhabar tract of the study region. Potato and onion are getting popular in Uttarakhand and its area and production both are gradually increasing.

The development and expansion of irrigation facilities have increased the irrigated area under various foodcrops in Uttarakhand. The food crops area under irrigation was 3.00 lakh hectares in 1979-80, which increased to 3.78 lakh hectares in 1994-95. Among all the food crops, sugarcane was heavily irrigated and more than 90 per cent of its area received irrigation. The areal increase under irrigation is due to increase in the number of tubewells, pumpsets, canals and irrigation by other sources (ponds, lake, wells and tanks) in Uttarakhand. The increase in irrigated area may be seen as glimpse of farmers awakening and the begining of revolution, which helps in agricultural development of

Uttarakhand. The total consumption of fertilizers has increased from

31.26 kg per hectare of cropped land in 1979-80 to 67.43 kg per hectare in 1994-95. The highest consumption of fertilizers reported was in

Nainital district (206.09 kg per hectare). The number of tractors per thousand hectare of cultivated land is very low, being of 5.53 tractors in

1979-80, this ratio however increased to 15 tractors per thousand hectare of cultivated land in 1994-95. The total area under HYV of seeds was

3,15,476 hectares which rose upto 6,83,543 hectares in 1994-95. The high yielding seeds programme has been successful in tarai-bhabar tract of the study area; while in other parts of Uttarakhand the adoption of this technology has been very slow. It is observed that the nubmer of agricultural credit societies per lakh of population decreased during the period 1979-80 to 1994-95. Land holding is the basic unit of decision making in agriculture.

More than 70 per cent of the farmers belong to the marginal class with

less than one hectare of cultivated land in Uttarakhand. Subsistance type of

farming is practiced in this area, because majority of the farmers depend

on small and marginal holdings for their sustenance. The study of spatio-

temporal development of agriculture v^^ith reference to agricultural

productivity for two periods of time (1979-80 and 1994-95) indicates that

during one and a half decades, there was a shifting of districts of high,

medium and low productivity. An analysing of areal change in agricultural

productivity indicates the overall increase in the productivity area under pulse, oilseeds and cashcrops excepting cereals. The increase in productivity area under these corps is due to better farm management and use of good quality seeds, which gives maximum returns to the farmers.

The farmers of this region are therefore taking interest in cultivation of these crops for commercial purpose.

The factor analysis of fifteen variables for the year 1979-80 indicates that 83.86 per cent of the total variance is explained by three factors (Fj 55.04 per cent, F^ 22.36 per cent and F^ 11.46 per cent),while during 1994-95, 90.50 per cent of the total variance is explained by these three factors (F, 56.97 per cent, F^ 22.30 per cent, F^ 11.23 per cent).

The study of levels of agricultural development based on composite mean Z-score indicates that even after a lapse of fifteen years, there is slight change in the spatial pattern of high, medium and low levels of agricultural development. The farmers belonging to the district of high levels of agricultural development enjoy better irrigation facilities, use of

fertilizers, use of HYV of seeds and implements and machinery, while in

the low levels of agricultural development, the impact of these variables

are comparatively low. In subsistence farming in Uttarakhand, there are no

saving and therefore no capital formation takes palce. To earn more returns, the farmers of this region adopted the cultivation of horticulture rather than crop production. AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN UTTARAKHAND

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

MottOX of IN GEOGRAPHY

BY MUMTAJ AHMAD

Under the Supervision of Dr. Shamsul Haque Siddiqui ( Reader)

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA) 2002 T6052 DEDICATED To MY BELOVED MOTHER (LATE MRS. SHAKIRA KHATOON)

"The angels ... singing unto one another,

can find among their burning terms of love,

None so devotional as that of "mother" Dr. Shamsul Haque Siddiqui Department of Geography Reader Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh-202002 (India) Phone : 0571-2700683 (O) 0571-2701351 (R)

Dated : . } [ .

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Mumtaj Ahmad has pursued

his research work and prepared the present thesis entitled,

"Agricultural Development in Uttarakhand" under my

supervision. This thesis is his original work and is being

submitted to the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for the

award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography.

M

(DR. SHAMSUL HAQUE SIDDIQUI) Supervisor ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The success of my academic endeavour depends to a great

extent on the quality of guidance and help one receives. In this

respect I would like to express my heartiest gratitude and sincere

indebtedness to my supervisor Dr. Shamsul Haque Siddiqui,

Reader, Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh, without whose skilful and valuable guidance, it would be

beyond my reach to complete the thesis so successfully and

efficiently.

I am sincerely thankful to Prof. Azimuddin Qureshi,

Chairman, Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh, for providing the necessary facilities to compelte this work without any difficulty or financial constraints.

I am also thankful to Dr. Abdul Munir, Reader,

Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh who has guided me at every stage for the completion of this thesis.

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitud to Dr.

Mohammad Shafi, Professor Emeritus, Department of Geography,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for this encouragement and valuable suggestion during the completion this thesis.

I am thankful to my youngers Mr. Mohd. Shoeb, Shakeel

Ahmad, Shamshad Ahmad, Azhar Aleem and my room-mates for their support and inspiration in the completion of the work.

I wish to extend heartiest thanks to my dearest friend Mr.

Tauqir Ahmad Abbasi for their co-operation, affection, care, encouragement, and fruitful suggestion which has been a great ii

source of strength throughout my studies. I am also thankful to

Dr. Fazlur Rehman, Sagheer Ahmad, advocate, Mohd. Hasan,

Faiyaz Ahmad, Sayeed Ahmad, Kausar Shamim and Jamshed

Ahmad for their co-operation and kind suggestion.

I wish to express my thanks to Mr. Ashfaque Ahmad for

his help in computer programming. Thanks are also due to Mr.

Munnay Khan and Mr. Mohammad Javed for his cartographic

assistance. I am also thankful to Mr. Naseemul Islam Ansari and

Talat Aapa, Librarian, Research Section, Department of Geography

for providing the encessary literature, I am also grateful to my research colleagues and friends for their cooperation and valuable suggestion during the course of study.

I am also indebted to my parents, sisters, brothers. Dr.

Mohd. Aazam, Mohd. Aslam, Aijaz Ahmad, Ishtiaque Ahmad and

Feroz Ahmad without whose blessings this thesis would not have been the light of the day.

The financial assistance from the University Grants

Commission through Geography Department of Special Assistance is greatly acknowledge because this thesis would have a remained incomplete without their assistance.

Above all, 1 express my gratitude to Almighty Allah who provided and guided all the channels to work in cohesion and coordination and led me to this path of success.

(MUMTAJ AHMAD) CONTENTS

Page Nos.

Acknowledgement i -ii

List of Figures iii - V

List of Tables vi - ix

INTRODUCTION 1 - 8

Chapter ! GENERAL AND PHYSICAL SETTING OF (7TTARAKHAJVD 9 - 73

Chapter-2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE 74 -103

Chapter-3 TRENDS OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT 104-156

Chapter-4 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF TECHNOLOGICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS 157 - 204

Chapter-5 SPATIO-TEMPORAL DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE WITH REFERENCE TO AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY 205 - 244

Chapter-6 PATTERNS OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT 245 - 282

SUMMARY AND SUGGESTIONS 283 - 296

APPENDICES 297 - 298

BIBLIOGRAPHY 299 - 317

GLOSSARY 318 - 319 iii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title Page Nos.

1.1 Uttarakhand - Administrative divisions 12 1.2 Uttarakhand - Physiographic divisions 18 1.3 Uttarakhand - Relief 21 1.4 Uttarakhand - Geology 24 1.5 Uttarakhand - Drainage system 31 1.6 Uttarakhand - Mean monthly temperature and mean minimum and mean maximum temperature. 40 1.7 Uttarakhand - Monthly quinquennial average rainfall 46 1.8 Uttarakhand - Soils 56 1.9 Uttarakhand - Natural vegetation 66 3.1 Uttarakhand - Landuse pattern 107 3.2 Uttarakhand - Area and production of major cereals 118 3.3 Uttarakhand - Area and production of major pulses 121 3.4 Uttarakhand - Area and production of major oilseeds ^^^ 3.5 Uttarakhand - Area and production of major cashcrops 127 4.1 Uttarakhand - Percentage of cropped area irrigated, 1994-95 161 4.2 Uttarakhand - Sources of irrigation, 1994-95 i63 4.3 Uttarakhand - Fertilizer consumption, 1994-95 168 4.4 Uttarakhand - Distribution of wooden plough, 1979-80 175 4.5 Uttarakhand - Distribution of wooden plough, 1994-95 176 IV

4.6 Uttarakhand - Distribution of iron plough, 1979-80 179 4.7 Uttarakhand - Distribution of iron plough, 1994-95 180 4.8 Uttarakhand - Area under high yielding varieties of seeds, 1979-80 183 4.9 Uttarakhand - Area under high yielding varieties of seeds, 1994-95 184 4.10 Uttarakhand - Agricultural credit societies per lakh of populaiton, 1979-80 187 4.11 Uttarakhand - Agricultural credit societies per lakh of populaiton, 1994-95 188 4.12 Uttarakhand - Distribution of Agricultural workers, 1971 191 4.13 Uttarakhand - Distribution of Agricultural workers, 1991 192 4.14 Uttarakhand - Distribution of literate persons, 1971 196 4.15 Uttarakhand - Distribution of literate persons, 1991 197 5.1 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, cereals, 1979-80 219 5.2 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, pulses, 1979-80 221 5.3 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, oilseeds, 1979-80 223 5.4 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, cashcrops, 1979-80 225 5.5 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, composite index, 1979-80 226

5.6 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, cereals, 1994-95 229

5.7 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, pulses, 1994-95 231 5.8 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, oilseeds, 1994-95 233 V

5.9 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, cashcrops, 1994-95 235 5.10 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, composite index, 1994-95 236 6.1 Uttarakhand - Factor scores of Agricultural development, Factor-1 (1979-80) 262 6.2 Uttarakhand - Factor scores of Agricultural development, Factor-2 (1979-80) 263 6.3 Uttarakhand - Factor scores of Agricultural development, Factor-3 (1979-80) 264 6.4 Uttarakhand - Factor scores of Agricultural development. Factor-1 (1994-95) 269 6.5 Uttarakhand - Factor scores of Agricultural development, Factor-2 (1994-95) 270 6.6 Uttarakhand - Factor scores of Agricultural development, Factor-3 (1994-95) 271 6.7 Uttarakhand - Levels of Agricultural development, 1979-80 276 6.8 Uttarakhand - Levels of Agricultural development, 1994-95 279 VI

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page Nos.

1.1 Seasonal quinquennial average rainfall and its percentage from total average rainfall in the districts of Uttarakhand 45 1.2 Showing pressure according to height from sea level 47 3.1 Land use pattern in Uttarakhand, 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95. 105 3.2 District-wise landuse pattern in Uttarakhand, 1979-80 109

3.3 District-wise landuse pattern in Uttarakhand, 1994-95 3.4 Intensity of cropping and its percentage growth (1979-94) 112 3.5 Growth rate in area, production and yield of major food crops in Uttarakhand, 1979-80 to 1994-95 115 3.6 Growth rate in area, production and yield of major food crops in Nainital, 1979-80 to 1994-95 130

3.7 Growth rate in area, production and yield of major food crops in Almora, 1979-80 to 1994-95 3.8 Growth rate in area, production and yield of major food crops in Pithoragarh, 1979-80 to 1994-95 136 3.9 Growth rate in area, production and yield of major food crops in Chamoli, 1979-80 to 1994-95 139

3.10 Growth rate in area, production and yield of major food crops in Uttarkashi, 1979-80 to 1994-95 141 3.11 Growth rate in area, production and yield of major food crops in Tehri-Garhwal, 1979-80 to •I rv J /"» r vli

3.12 Growth rate in area, production and yield of major food crops in Pauri-Garhwal, 1979-80 to 1994-95 146 3.13 Growth rate in area, production and yield of major food crops in Dehradun, 1979-80 to 1994-95 149 3.14 Irrigated area and its percentage to total cropped area of various crops in Uttarakhand, 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95 152 4.1 Net area irrigated by various sources and their percentage to the total in Uttarakhand, 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95 159 4.2 District-wise distribution of irrigated area by different sources in Uttarakhand, 1994-95 160 4.3 Nutrient wise availability of fertilizers in Uttarakhand, 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95 166

4.4 Levels of fertilizers consumption in Uttara- khand, 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994- 95 167 4.5 District-wise levels of fertilizers consumption in Uttarakhand, 1979-80 and 1994-95 169 4.6 District-wise distribution of tractors in Uttarakhand, 1979-80 and 1994-95 172 4.7 District-wise distribution of pumpsets in Uttarakhand, 1979-80 and 1994-95 173 4.8 District-wise distribution of wooden plough in Uttarakhand, 1979-80 and 1994-95 374 4.9 District-wise distribution of iron plough in Uttarakhand, 1979-80 and 1994-95 178 4.10 Percentage of area under high yielding varieties of seed from gross cropped area in Uttarakhand, 1979-80 and 1994-95 182 4.11 District-wise number of Agricultural credit societies per lakh of population in Uttarakhand, '1979-80 and 1994-95 ^86 vill

4.12 Number of Agricultural workers and their percentage to the main workers in Uttarakhand, 1971, 1981 and 1991 190 4.13 District-wise distribution of Agricultural workers and their percentage to the main workers in Uttarakhand, 1971 and 1991 190 4.14 Number of literate persons in Uttarakhand, 1971, 1981 and 1991 195 4.15 District-wise distribution of literate persons in Uttarakhand, 1971, 1981 and 1991 195 4.16 Number of land holdings under different categories in Uttarakhand, 1976-77 and 1990- 91 199

4.17 District-wise number of land holdings in Uttarakhand, 1976-77 201 4.18 District-wise number of land holdings in Uttarakhand, 1990-91 2 02 5.1 Method for calculating crop productivity index for district Dehradun 217 5.2 Number of districts under different productivity region with their indices, 1979-80 218 5.3 Number of districts under different productivity region with their indices, 1994-95 228 5.4 Areal change in Agricultural productivity in Uttarakhand from 1979-80 to 1994-95 238 6.1 Variables of Agricultural development 246 6.2 Correlation matrix of fifteen variables of Agricultural development (1979-80) 247 6.3 Correlation matrix of fifteen variables of Agricultural development (1994-95) 251 6.4 Factor structure of Agricultural development in Uttarakhand, through related factor matrix, 1979-80 257

6.5 Standardized Factor score of Agricultural development, 1979-80 260 IX

6.6 Factor structure of agricultural development in Uttarakhand, through related factor matrix, 1994-95 266 6.7 Standardized Factor score of agricultural development, 1994-95 267 6.8 Levels of Agricultural development 273 6.9 Standard score of variables for Agricultural development in Uttarakhand, 1979-80 275 6.10 Standard score of variable for Agricultural development in Uttarakhand, 1994-95 278

Agriculture occupies a place of pride in India's national economy.

It contributes around 32 per cent to the national income. It has a share of

30 per cent in the gross domestic product (GDP) of the country and acocunts for about 18 per cent to the total value of the country's exports.

Agriculture is a source of livelihood for over 70 per cent of the population and provides fodder to the cattle and raw material to agro-based industries.

Its importance may be judged form the fact that any economic developments of the states or region of the country is possible only if efforts are made to develop agriculture. Agricultural output in India determines not only the per capita income of farm sector but also influences the standard of living of rural population and the nutritional standard of the poor masses.

It is evident that agriculture occupies a dominant position in the national economy, but the sad part is that its production efficiency is not upto the mark if compared v/ith other agriculturally advanced countries of the world. Its yield of crops in India is comparatively low, which is about

0.33 or 0.25 per cent of the yield of such countries. The low yield per hectare in the country is mainly due to improper cultivation of land and less use of modern agricultural inputs. The existing situation requires immediate attention of geographers, planners, economists and agricultural scientists to study the problems and suggest measures for enhancing output. One way out may be to conduct field to field surveys of agricultural areas to ascertain the local needs and satisfy them accordingly. Increase in per hectare crop yields and total production, can be achieved mainly through practicing multiple cropping, adopting high yielding varieties of seeds and through rational use of land resources.

Efforts are continuously being made in this direction and considerable improvement has been achieved in agriculture during the last four decades.

With the onset of green revolution in the mid 1960's, there has been rapid increase in agricultural production in India as a result of diffusion of technological innovations and use of institutional resources i.e. package of improved cultural practices involving high yielding varieties of seeds, use of fertilizers, irrigation, application of pesticides and insecticides and farm mechanization. It is believed that new technology has generated more income and employment to the rural mass, but the benefits are not evenly distributed among the different regions and group of people.

India has increased her production of foodgrains particularly of cereals, like wheat, rice and maize, presently the country is not only self- sufficient in food grain production but has also stock of foodgrains for any emergency requirements.

Though country has become almost self-sufficient in foodgrains production, the planners and agricultural economists have in recent years expressed serious concern about the slow rate of growth in production of principal crops. The average growth rate of total foodgrains production during 1994-95 to 2000-2001 was a dismal 0.81 per cent. Rice production during the period grew at 1.11 per cent and wheat production rose by 2.24 per cent. During the same period millets recorded a growth rate of 0.02 per cent and pulses registered a negative growth rate of 1.55 per cent. This trend has to be reversed and the agricultural development in the country should be put on a faster track to meet the foodgrain demands of the future. In order to catchup with other developing countries in agricultural

production and emerge as a leader in farm production in the years to come,

the country should drawup an innovative, farmer-friendly and

implementable farm policy. The new policy should make agriculture

economically rewarding and intellectually challenging to attract and retain

the youth in this important avocation.

Keeping in view, the importance of technological and

institutional factors, the author has selected "Uttarakhand" an area for

detailed study, because this is agriculturally backward and need special

attention. The economy of Uttarakhand is agriculture based and more than

80 per cent of its populaiton is dependent upon this resource. Being a hilly

area there is scarcity of agricultural land in Uttarakhand and the share of

per capita cultivable land is very low. Uttarakhand is a natural unit bounded

by Kali river in the east Tibet in the north, Himachal Pradesh in the west

and fluvial Ganga plain in the south. In general the attitude of the region

ranges from 1200 metres to more than 4800 metres. It is mainly drained

by rivers Yamuna, Ganga, western Ramganga, and Kali or Sarda. These

rivers generally take their origin in the snowfed mountains and are a

perennial source of water for drinking, irrigation and power generation.

Variation in altitude, topography, slope, and vegetation have resulted a varied climatic conditions in Uttarakhand. There is tropical climate at lower elevation. As one moves to upland upto 1800 metres, the climate becomes cool to cold temperate. Above 2400 metres in elevation, the climate is almost alpine to polar. Uttarakhand characterized by a rhythm of seasons, owing to reversal of winds during the south-west and north-east monsoon. There are three main seasons in a year - i) The Hot-weather

season (from March to mid-June), ii) The rainy season (from mid-June to

October), iii) The cold weather season (from November to February). The rainy season is associated with the kharif crops while the cold weather is associated with the rabi crops. The hot weather season is generally dry and does not permit cultivation until the onset of the south-west monsoon. The monsoon results in heavy rainfall in the outer Himalaya. June with 35°C is the hottest month and January with 4°C is the coldest month of the year.

Nine soil groups namely podzolic, gray brow forest, bhabar, red

sandy loam, mountain medow, tarai, skeltal and snow field have been identified in Uttarakhand. Depending upon ecological settings, soils too vaiy from slope to slope and valley to valley. Soils of Tarai-Bhabar, Duns and valleys differ much from those on slope and ridges. Soils of

Uttarakhand in general are quite thin-layered, stoney and poor in fertility.

Faced further with the problem of soil erosion and landslides due to heavy rainfall, the economic value of these soils is considerably less, except of course for cultivation of crops like potatoes and horticulture.

In consistence with the complexities of terrain and climate, the distribution of population (5.926 million in census year 1991) in

Uttarakhand is highly uneven and sparse. More than 75 per cent population of Uttarakhand is concentrated in five districts of Nainital, Almora, Tehri-

Garhwal, Pauri-Garhwal and Dehradun, which together constitute a little more than 2/5th of the total area. Population has greater concentration in the tarai-bhabar region and Duns, in valleys and on gently slopping and sunny uplands. A major part of the Great Himalaya is uninhabited. The

Uttarakhand as a whole has a very low density of population i.e. 133 person per square kilometre. Areas of higher density are those having good terrain, better climatic conditions, fertile soils, transport routes and facilities of water for various purposes.

Objective of the Study

The major objective of the present study are :

1. To analyse the importance of physical setting of the region which

facilitates basic necessities for agricultural practices.

2. To analyse the landuse pattern, cropping intensity and the trends of

growth in area, produciton and yield of major food crops of Uttara-

khand.

3. To assess the spread and diffusion of technological and institutional

factors in the study area.

4. To examine the spatio-temporal development of agriculture with

reference to crop productivity in the study area.

5. To examine the impact of tehcnological and institutional factors on

the development of agriculture in Uttarakhand.

6. To measures the levels of agricultural development in the study area.

7. To suggest appropriate guidelines for future development of

agriculture in Uttarakhand. Database and Methodology

The present study is carried out for the period from 1979-80 to

1994-95; based on secondaiy sources of data, obtained from Directorate of Agriculture Statistics & Crop Insurance and State Planning Institute,

Lucknow and District Statistical Handbook. The following techniques have been used by the author for the analysis of present work : i) The physical setting of Uttarakhand has been described in detail. ii) To examine the trends of agricultural development, trend lines have

been plotted with the help of regression equation Y = a + bX,

regression lines make it possible to show the exact change in area

and produciton of different crops. iii) To assess the development of agriculture by the diffusion of

technological and institutional factors, per thousand hectares of

cultivated land has been opted for the analysis of agricultural

mechanization i.e. tractors, pumpsets, wooden plough and iron

plough. Besides, consumption of fertilizers (kg per hectare),

irrigation, agricultural credit societies, agricultural workers,

literacy and land holdings are taken into account. iv) The indices of crop productivity, have been calculated on the basis

of Yang's yield index method for two periods 1979-80 and 1994-95. v) The role of technological institutional factors in the development

of agriculture has been examined with the help of correlation

analysis, factor analysis and composite mean Z-score statistical

technique. Plan of the Work

For better assessment, the present work is divided into six chapters,

which are as follows :

Chapter First deals with physical factors like relief, geology,

drainage system, climate, soil and natural vegetation of Uttarakhand.

Chapter second presents the concept of agricultural development and

highlights theoretical aspects of technological and institutional

factors relating to agriculture.

Chapter third describes the trends of agricultural development with

special reference to landuse pattern cropping intensity, growth rate

of area, production and yield of major food crops and their irrigated

area for four period i.e. 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95.

Chapter four describes the spatial distribution of technological and

institutional factors in Uttarakhand.

Chapter five is devoted to spatio-temporal development of

agriculture with reference to agricultural productivity.

Chapter six focusses the patterns of agriculture development and

technological and institutional factors in the study region. The

technological and institutional factors in the study region have been

assessed in three ways. Firstly, an attempt has been made to

determine the inter-relationship among independent variables

through correlation analysis for the period 1979-80 and 1994-95,

secondly, the precise role of various indicators of agricultural development through Factor analysis. Thirdly, it exmaines the levels of agricultural development through composite mean Z-score technique.

At last author has incorporated summary and many more suggestions regarding the development of agriculture in Uttarakhand.

The Himalayas are the most significant features on the surface of

the earth. This mountain chain forms a gigantic arc stretching from the

Naga Prabat peak in the North-west to the Brahamputra gap at the base of

the Nancha Bama peak in the east. It extends over a length of about 24,000

kilometres from west to east and varies in width from 150 to 300

kilometres. The Himalayan mountain chain could be divided into six

physiographic region

1. Jammu and Kashmir

2. Himachal Pradesh

3. Nepal Himalaya

4. Garhwal Himalaya Uttarakhand* 5. Kumaun Himalaya

6. Eastern Himalaya (North Bengal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Arunachal

Pradesh)

Historical Background

The name of Uttarakhand or Kedar Khand is extract from the

Puranic literature. Ved Vyas attached so much to it that he wrote an UP

Purana about it. It is because of this, the region is regarded as one of the holiest parts of the Bharat, being frequented by great saints and kings from different parts of the country. Every rock and rivulet is dedicated to some diety or saint and has an appropriate legend attached to it. Some of the

Himalayan Kingdoms such as Dwigarta, Trigarta, and Madra flourished

*Presently a new state known as Uttaranchal has been created incorporating the entire area of Uttarakhand and one district (Haridwar) from Uttar Pradesh. 10

here. The region had also been under the kingdoms of Brahamputra and

Shrughna, lying to the southeast and northwest of the Alaknanda

respectively. The kingdoms of Madawar and Govisana were confined to the

south of the Brahmaputra covering the bhabar and tarai region as

mentioned by Huen Tsang (Cunningham, 1963). The region had also been a

part of the Maurya and Gupta empires. In the 3rd century B.C., King

Ashoka erected a rock edict on the left bank of the Yamuna at Kalsi in the

Chakrata tehsil of Dehradun. During the medieval period (around A.D. 17th

century), a number of Rajput princes penetrated into the village of the

Himalaya due to the confusion created by Muslim invaders and setup a

number of small principalities. Many places have been named after the

regions from where they migrated e.g. Ajmer Patti and Udaipur Patti,

Katyuris who are known to have a long dynasty lost their stronghold on

Kumaon by about A.D. 1400 and split into scattered principalities (Ponde,

1937). Champawat was the residence of the Chand rulers of Kumaun (A.D.

700-1790). In the middle of the 16th century, Rana Balo Kalyan Chand, a

successor of the chand dynasty, established his fort at Almora. Raja Udyat

Chand was the last successful ruler of Kumaun. In 16th century. Raja Ajaipl integrated 52 fortress (yams) and their associated territories into Garhwal.

The Kiratas, Seythians and Mangoloid elements have also contributed profusely to the culture complex of the Garhkum Himalaya.

In A.D. 1743-44, there was a Rohilla invasion on Kumaon, but they could not establish their foothold. By early 19th century, the Gurkhas in their long sweep of invaison subdued Garkhum and territories beyond up to Kangra. Their territorial ambitions brought them into conflict with the 11

British, with the result, Nepal lost the territories of Kumaun and Garhwal

in 1815.After the British occupation Almora become the adminsitrative

seat of Kumaun and Garhwal. The residual state of Tehri was handed over to the Raja of Tehri by Britishers (Painuli, 1959) after retaining the most populous part of Garhwal. During this period there was development of roads, railway lines, education, agriculture and commerce. The latest political boundaries have been made after the re-organisation of the districts in the hill region of Uttar Pradesh in 1960.

Administrative Characteristics

Uttarakhand consists of eight districts namely, Nainital, Almora,

Pithoragarh of Kumaun and Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Tehri, Pauri and Dehradun of Garhwal division (Fig. 1.1). It extends from 28°43'24" and 31°27'30" N latitude and 77P34'27" and 80°7'22" E longitudes. It encompasses an area of 51,125 square kilometres and account total population of 5.926 millions (According to Census of India, 1991).

This well defined physical region is bounded by the river Kali in the east and river Tons in the west, stretching from the foothills of the

Himalayas in the south. This region extends upto Indo-Tibetan international boundary in the north. It measure an average 357 kilometres from east to west and 294 kilometres from North to south. The region is situated centrally in the longsweep of the Himalaya and forms a rather transitional zone between the pre-humid and the rather dry to Himalayas. It was looks like the crown of Uttar Pradesh and stand guard to the upper Ganga plain.

The layout of Uttarakhand is mostly uneven, the minimum and maximum 12

76° 79° 80° &v UTTARAKHAND ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS

r\

v. ^31 UTTARKASHI N r-' < CHAMOLI TEHRI GARHWAL

QEHR^DUN PITHORAGARhy r r-' -30 - PAURI GARHWAL 30H I— / INDEX ALMORA c INTERNATIONAL , • ) BOUNDARY / STATE BOUNDARY K DISTRICT BOUNDARY I • DISTRICT HEADQUARTERS NAINITAL .5

29-1 SI' 14' INDIA I . '' ? ^UTTARAKHAND

^UTTARAKHAND hS^'^ J 20 0 20 40 I \ 1 1 Kms hi: IJ 0 100 Source Census ot India 'Km N New Delhi

FIG. 1 J 13

elevations being respectively 1000 metre and 7,817 metre above the mean

sea level.

As we know that Uttarakhand is made up of eight administrative

districts.

1. Nainitial : The Nainital district is situated in the south-eastern part of

Uttarakhand (29°24'N lat. & 79°28'E long.). Its border touch those of

Pithoragarh, Almora, Pauri, Moradabad, Bareilly and Rampur districts and

Nepal in the east. The headquarter of this district are located at Nainital. It

is well known for many beautiful lakes and the mountain resorts that have

developed around them. The northern part of Nainital district encompasses

the lower Himalayan hills. In the south are the Dun valleys, Siwalik hills

and the fertile bhabar-tarai tract are along the plains of western Uttar

Pradesh.

The Haldwani area is located in the bhabar-tarai tract, many small

towns have developed in this area. These includes Kathgodam, Lai Kuan,

Bajpur and Rudrapur. The Ramnagar area covers the south-western part of this district. It is situated in the lower hills and bhabar tarai belt, it is fairly large town that lies on the main road leading to Almora and Ranikhet.

Kashipur is also large town. The famous Corbett National Park can be reached from Ramnagar.

Agriculture, tourism and industrial activities are the main stay of the economy of this district. The principle crops grown are paddy, wheat, sugarcane, maize,pulse and vegetable. The tarai belt is highly fertile land.

Fruits are also cultivated in various parts of Nainital district. 14

2. Almora : Almora district is situated in the east-central part of

Uttarakhand (29°3'N and 30°19' N lat. and 79<'2r and SO-'E long.). Its

headquarters are situated at Almora. This district is well known for its rich

forests and beautiful hill stations that attract thousands of tourist each

year. The economy of Almora district is largely based on agriculture.The

main agricultural crops are wheat, maize, paddy, vegetables and potatoes.

Apples are other fruits are also grown in the hills and valleys.

3. Pithoragarh : The district occupies the north-eastern part of

Uttarakhand {29°2T N and 30°40' N lat. and long. 79°50' E and 81°3' E

long.). Its border touch the International border with Tibet in the north.

Pithoragarh also has common borders with Almora, Nainital, and Chamoli

districts and Nepal. The headquarters of this district are located at

Pithoragarh. Important towns of this district are Berinag, Lohaghat,

Dharchula, Garbyang, Champawat and Pithoragarh. The principal crops

raised are maize, barley, jowar, ginger and potatoes. Animal husbandary is

another important source of livelihood for the residents of northern parts

of Pithoragarh district. The traditional route to the holy Mansarover lake

passes through Garbyang and Dharchula in the district.

4. Chamoli : Chamoli is the largest district of Uttarakhand. It occupies

the north-central part of this hilly region. Its northern border touch those

of Tibet, Uttarkashi and Tehri in the west, Pauri in the south and Almora district in the east. The temple town of Badrinath, the holy shrine of

Kedarnath and the famous valley of flowers/Hemkund are a part of this district. The famous mountain hamlets of Sonprayag, Gaurikund and Kund are a part of this district. The headquarter of Chamoli districts are located 15

at Gopeshwar, a newly built town. Other important towns of this district

are Karanprayag, Nandprayag, Rudraprayag and Gauchar, Alaknanda river

and its tributaries drain a larg€ part of Chamoli district. The main tributaries of this river are Mandakini, Dhauliganga, Nandakini and Pindar.

Economy is based on agriculture, livestock and tourism.

5. Uttarkashi : This is a second largest district of Uttarakhand (30°28' &

31°28' N lat. & 77°49' E & 79°25' E long.). It lies in the north-western part of region. Its border touch Kinnaur and Shimla district of Himachal

Pradesh and Dehradun, Tehri and Chamoli district of the region. In the northern part of this district lie the sources of the Yamuna and Ganga rivers. Important townships of Uttarkashi district are Uttarkashi, Purola and Gangotii. The economy is based on Agriculture and animal husbandary.

6. Tehri-Garhwal District : Tehri district occupies west-central part of

Uttarakhand (29°26' & 30° N lat. & 78°12' & 79°14' E long.). Its border touch with Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Pauri and Dhradun district. The head- quarters are located at Narendranagar. This district lies in the lower and middle Himalayan ranges. Important townships of this district are Tehri,

Chamba, Narendranagar, Muni-Ki-reti, Deoprayag and Kirtinagar. The economy of Tehri district is largely based on agriculture. The crop raised here are rice, wheat, maize, pulses and vegetables.

7. Pauri-Garhwal District : The district occupies the south-central part of Uttarakhand. Its headquarters are located at Pauri a small town located atop a ridge. The border of this district touch Dehradun, Tehri, Chamoli,

Hardwar, Bijnor and Nainital districts. Pauri districts encompasses the 16

Siwalik hills, dun type villages and the lower Himalayan hills. Pauri is

situated on a lower Himalayan ridge. Kotdwara is a small town in transition

zone between the plains of western Uttar Pradesh and the foothills. Other

important townships of this district are Srinagar, Dogadda and

Landsdowne. The economy of Pauri district is too based on agriculture.

8. Dehradun : Dehradun district occupies the south-western part of

Uttarakhand. The borders of Dehradun district touch of Saharnapur,

Haridwar, Pauri, Tehri and Uttarkashi districts of the region and Sirmur

and Shimla districts of Himachal Pradesh. The headquarters of this district

are situated at Dehradun. The Jaunsar-Bawar area of Dehradun district lies

in the north-west. Chakrata is the main township of this belt. Kalsi and the

famous Lakhamandal caves of Mahabharata times are historical places in

the Jaunsar-Bawar areas.

The Mussoorie hill station is located in the northern part of the

district. It is located at 2000 metres high ridge and attracts many tourists

each year. There are a number of places worth visiting in and around

Mussoorie, for example, Dhanaulti, Surkhanda temple, Happy valley and

Kempty falls. Rishikesh is another important town in this district, it is

situated on the banks of the river Ganga. Rishikesh is an important religious town for Hindus and other towns are Doiwala and Raiwala.

Agriculture is the backbone (mainstay) of the economy of Dehradun district. A substantial part of the total geographical area of this district is under irrigation. The main crops raised here include rice, wheat, maize, sugarcane, pulses and vegetables. Fruits are also cultivated in some parts 17

of the Dehradun valley. Tourism also contributes to the economy of

Dehradun district in a significant proportion.

Relief

The region has a varied and complex relief features. There are

many ranges of mountain running in a general direction from north-west to

south-east. The slope is steeper towards the southern side and gentle

towards the north. The main rivers of the northern India i.e. the Ganga, the

Yamuna, and the Kali rises from this region and constitute three major

river systems. The area is studded with lakes which follow the general

trend of the range and is studied with their situation form a characteristic

features in the area. On the basis of physiographic attributes, this region

may be divided into three major physiographic divisions (Fig. 1.2).

1) Himadri (Greater Himalaya)

i) Himadri Ranges

ii) Himadri valleys

2) Himanchal (Lower Himalaya)

i) Himanchal Ranges and Hills

ii) Himanchal valleys and Lake Basins

3) Siwaliks (sub-Himalayan Tract)

i) Duns

ii) Siwalik Ranges

I. Himadri (Greater Himalaya)

The Himadri ranges run nearly along the international border of the country in this region, where glaciated topography is well preserved. 8

UTTARAKHAND PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS

I Himadri (Greater Himalaya II Himanchal( Lower Himalaya)

III Siwaliks (Sub Himalayan track 25 0 25 I I 1 Kms.

Source; Survey of India maps.

FIG. 1-2 19

The Himadri is 50 kilometres wide and has the highest elevation, which

are approximately more than 4000 metres where several high passes viz.

Lipm Lek (4,966 metres), Darma (5,329 metres), Niti (5,579 metres),

Mana (5,609 metres) and Jelu Khaga (5,329 metres) are situated joining the region with Tibet. Some Himalayas peaks, famous for their heights, are situated here viz. Nanda Devi (7,817 metres), Kamet (7,756 metres),

Trishul (7,120 metres), Nilkhantha (6,597 metres), Dumagiri (7066 metres), Bander Punch (6,315 metres), Gangotri (6,141 metres) and

Kedarnath (6,940 metres). These slopes and peaks are covered with several hundered metres thick ice covers, which make many glaciers like Milam,

Gangotri, Pindari and Bhagirathi.

The Greater Himalaya ranges are deeply cut by the head waters of the river Ganga (Bhagirathi and Alaknanda), the Yamuna and the Kali

(Sarda). The cross profiles of these valleys show convex form with steep valley walls reflecting the rising phase of the Himalaya and also the younger characteristic of the rivers.

The river Ganga forms the main valley of this region and drains a veiy large portion. The Ganga (Bhagirathi) rising from the Gomukh Glacier

(6,614 metres), which is 30 kilometres long and 2 to 4 kilometres wide, cut a fantastic gorge among the granites of the central axis of the Greater

Himalayas. The Yamuna rises from Bander punch range and it has two tributaries i.e. the Tons and the Giri. The valley of Kali (Sarda) form the eastern boundary of the region which ends on the Nepal border. Himadri may be divided into two relief subdivisions - i) Himadri ranges and ii) Himadri valleys. 20

Himanchal (Lower Himalaya)

The Himanchal is situated between the ranges of Great Himalaya in the north and the Siwaliks in the south. Lower Himalayan ridges have a general elevation of about 1500 metres to 2700 metres and the valleys bottoms between 500 metres to 1500 metres with a width of 75 kilometres. The region is full of a variety of landscape developed in different parts (Fig. 1.3).

The lacustrine basins and river terraces are dominant features of this zone. The valley of the river Ganga and its tributary are in young stage of profile development. They are immature, as they have been subjected to rejuvenation again and again. The main boundary thrust separates this region form Dunes. The ridges of this region, with highly compressed and altered rocks and separated from each other by deep valleys.

There is a lake basin near the outer range of the lower Himalaya which makes a zone of approxiniateK' 25 kilometres in length an 4 kilometres in width. The lake region of Kumaun is dotted with big and beautiful lakes. Some important lakes of the region are Nainital, Bhim Tal,

Naukuchiya Tal, Sat Tal, Khurpa Tal, Sukha Tal, Sarai Tal.

The Sukha Tal, a lake with no water, is situated near Nainital, while the Gohna lakes is in the Garhwal Himalaya in the valley of a tributary of Alaknanda named Birahi Ganga. The Diuri Tal is another important lake lying 10 kilometres the north-east of Ukhumath. The origin of these lakes is still ambiguous and doubtful. Thomas believes that the frequency of the lakes in this small region may be connected with the 21

UTTARAKHAND RELIEF

INDEX

ALTITUDE IN METRES

ABOVE ^800 METRES

3000 -^800 "

1200 - 3000 "

BELOW 1200 ^p 20 0

K ms

Source; Survey of fndiu maps

FIG .1-3 22

recent movement. The irregularily eroded surface of Siwaliks over which the Krol Nappe has moved must have contributed to the formation of the

surface irregularities, consequently upon the breaking up of the thrustmass. Thus the region has two sub divisions - i) Himanchal ranges and hills and ii) Himanchal valleys & lake basins.

The Siwaliks (Sub-Himalayan Tract)

The word Siwaliks derived from Lord Siwa lock, according to

Hindu's mythology. But here the term Siwaliks is used for a range of narrow and low hills which lie almost parallel to major ranges of the

Himalayas. It stretches in the north-west to south-east direction and forms the outer range of the Himalayan system. The hills of Siwaliks are broken up and are subjected from the lower Himalayan spurs by a series of structural low lands. The height of the Siwaliks varies roughly from about

550 metres to 1350 metres. Ranges of Siwaliks are intersected by numerous Siwaliks rivers such as Dabka, Baur, Nihar and Bhakra, at several places. These rivers have carved out their deep valleys. These ranges are lithologically quite different from those of lower Himalayan ranges. The southern slopes have steep scarps and the northern slopes descend gently to the flat floored structural valleys called Diws.

The sediments of Duns are brought recently from the upper ranges (Himadri and Himanchal) filled up in this region, which is 350 metres higher than the plain. Many Duns are found in Uttarakhand, such as

Dehradun, Kothri Dun, Chaukhamba Dun, Patri Dun and Kota Dun. 23

Geology

The Uttarakhand hills forms the eastern most part of the western

Himalayas. The geology of this region resembles that of Himachal Pradesh

in the west and Nepal in the east. The main difference between the

Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand is that in the former areas, the tethys

zone is very well developed. The Himalayas was formed by the mightest

thrusting of the earth layers and their rise is analogous to Nappe formation

of Alps, a tangential process upheavels and compressions resulting in excessive rock folds, faults and thrust planes, have changed much of their original and primitive structure. They are young with sharp relief features viz. Pyramidal peaks, knife edges, high ridges and deep abyssal valleys.

From south to north, the Uttarakhand Himalaya may be divided into the following three parallel zones (Fig. 1.4).

1. Sub Himalaya or the Outer Himalaya or Siwalik range

2. Lesser or Lower Himalaya

3. Great or Inner Himalaya

1. Siwalik

The sub-Himalayan zone of the Siwalik range lies in between the

Indo-gangetic plain and the lesser Himalaya. The foothill belt of this region is built entirely of Siwalik sediments. The Siwalik constitutes a great thickness of detrital rocks; clays and conglomerates, rising to an elevation between 5000 and 5,500 metres. These beds of sandstone and shales are separated from the Eocene belts of the lesser Himalayas by

"Great Boundary Fault". They are of varying width ranging from 10 to 15 24

UTTARAKHAND GEOLOGY

11> •.lb-e«»Nooio«iTt. ||| : ii[acWO

FIG .1-4 25 kilometres and form a system of foothills, which have an average height of

900 and 1200 metres. Siwaliks are chiefly composed of tertiary sediments and are related to the latest phase of the Alpine-Himalayan orogeny.

Though its upheavels was accompanied by movements of the Himalayan mountains themselves and probably by increasing latters. The Siwalik range is perhaps the most recently formed range of similar magnitudes on the earth. It is still in a primary stage of growth and it may be expected that in future it would rise in altitude and expand in width (Burrard & Hayden,

1907).

The Siwalik range is composed of the some little consolidated materials which forms the deposits of the level plains of northern India. It was formerly the northern most belt of the flat alluvial region and has been compressed by lateral forces into a long fold or range. The rocks of the

Siwaliks are entirely of fresh water origin and prove that the sea has not washed the base of the Himalaya since the eocene period (Burrard &

Hayden, 1907). Geologist believes that Siwalik in the south are burried under the alluviam of the Ganga. The exposed belt, however passes through the northern part of Saharanpur, the southern part of Dehradun, and

Garhwal and the middle part of Nainital. To the north,Siwaliks are backed by a discontinuous series of longitudinal valves known as Duns such as

Dehra, Kantri, Chaukhamba, Palti and Kata, of them Dehradun (35 kilometres long and 25 kilometres wide) is the biggest and most developed in urban and outdoor facilities. These duns have been filled in only recently from gravels derived from the central Himalaya. They rise to the heights of 350 metres from the plain. On the basis of lithology, the 26

Siwaliks may be divided into three units.

1. The Lower Siwaliks ii. The middle Siwaliks iii. The upper Siwaliks i) The Lower Siwaliks

Sandstones of the lower Siwaliks are relatively more compact than those of the Middle and upper Siwaliks. It is composed of medium to fine grained compact grey coloured sandstones, interbedded with minor saltstones, shales and some clays. ii) The middle Siwaliks

The middle Siwalik consist of essentially fme to medium grained salt and pepper sandstones with some saltstones and clay beds. These sandstones are friable due to cementation. iii) The upper Siwaliks

The upper Siwaliks are embeded with conglomerates and sand- stones. The pebbles of the conglomerates, consistof sandstones, quartzites, limestones, shales and phyllite.

2. Lesser Himalaya

This part of the Himalaya lies between the Siwaliks and the great

Himalayan zone is not defined features, though its southern contact, a steep thrust against the Siwaliks is generally sharp. It is bounded by the

'main boundaiy fault' to the south and the 'main central thrust' to the north stretches the zones of lesser Himalayas approximately 75 kilometres. It is 27

a crystalline zone of unfossiliferous (or poor fossiliferous) sediments

with complex tectonics rocks have been compressed and metamorphosed

to such an extent that they vary in age from Algankien to the Eocene

(Wadia, 1966). Lithological variation present a mosaic of colours buff,

cream, white, purple, pink, grey, green, yellow and slaty, presenting a feast

to the eye. The variety is pronounced in Uttarkashi region where

investigation proved that Dharaser, Surjuni and Uttarkashi Thrust have

affected rock variations from highly schistose cericite, quartz, litho-

stratigraphica! variations are pronounced in Almora-Askot and Baijnath

reigon in the earth. The contortions of the strata show that the lesser

Himalayan region has everywhere compressed horizontally. These

mountains are the result of not one but of many movements of the crust

and their history is more complex than that of the siwaliks. Here the ranges

have been uplifted and later forced to change their alignments. Thus the whole region has been subjected to successive compressions and general

wrinkling process is probably still continuing (Burrard & Hayden, 1907).

The lower Himalayan zone may be divided into three main structural features. i) Krol Belt - The Krol belt named after the Krol mountains in Shimla, stretches from the Shimla region in the north-west to Nainital in the south-east. The rocks of this belt includes slates, pryrites, sandstone and limestones. This region is marked by the presence of clay shales, with quarzites. This Krol thrust override a structural and erosional gap in the

Siwaliks (Ganseer, 1964). 28

ii) Deoban-Tejam Belt - It lies south of the main thrust of the greater

Himalaya and forms mainly the inner sedimentary belt of the Lower

Himalaya, stretches from the Shimla area in the north-west to the Kali

valley in the south-east. It is mainly belt of enormously thick limestones

and dolomites tapped by thick quartzites (Ganseer, 1964). To the south is

the Badolisera-Pithoragarh zone which runs just north along the north

thrust border of the Almora-Dudatoli crystalline means. To the north of

Askot-Baijnath crystalline thrust lies the Chamoli-Tejam zone, in which the sedimentary sectors are thicker than the southern belt and the tectonic picture somewhat less complicated by secondary disturbances.

Askot-Baijnath, which west of the Kapkot, are nearly connected to the main thrust zone of the higher Himalayas forming the northern border. The deepest outcrop of this is met between Tejam and Kapkot in the Sarju and the Ramganga valleys. The great thickness and rather constant development of practically unfossiliferous and only slightly metamorphic sediments, where the metamorphic seems to increase from the topographically lowest exposures to the top Horizons, is a unique feature in the inner part of the lower Himalayas. It has been suggested that the age of this part vary from pre-Cambrian to Mesozoic (Ganseer, 1964). ill) The Almora-Dudatoli Crystalline mass - The inner sedimentary zone of the lower Kumaun Himalaya is separated by the large Almora-

Dudatoli thrust sheet from the Krol thrust of Nainital and is subdivided by two smaller thrust remnants the Almora and the Baijnath thrust.

The Almora thrust forms a huge crystalline syncline. A marked change in the crystalline composition outcrops are met at bhowali with 29

some quartz, conglomerates, highly crushed quartzites and conspicous

green doloidal epidate diabases, near ranikhet region an increase of alkali

feldspar lead to granite geneisses, south of Almora, then is a coarse to

medium granites of muscovites, biotite, granite. The Almora granite which

dominates the champawat region (Ganseer, 1964).

3. Great Himalayas

The higher or Great Himalayan region lies to the north of the

Main central thrust. It spreads oyer 50 kilometres. It is a region of huge glaciers, huge U-shaped valley, horns, and the glacial lakes. The main central thrust separating the higher Himalayan zone form the lower

Himalayan zone is well outlined by the Kali valleys and valleys of

Goriganga and the Pindar rivers. The crystalline sheet of the higher

Himalayan zone is made of old metamorphic rocks and is composed of a series of highly fossiliferous sediments. The main rocks of this zone are qartzites, magnetites, gneiss, granites, schists, diorite, amphiboles (Singh,

1993). It is however a difficult and unaccessible area with an average relief between 4800 and 6000 metres, culminating into some of the highest peaks of Asia, viz. Bander Punch (6,315 metres), Kamet (7756 metres), Nanda Devi(7,817 metres), Dunagiri (7066 metres) and Trishul

(7,120 metres). Some of the giant glaciers such as Gangotri, Milan and

Kedarnath (largest after Karakoram glaciers) can be seen here (Wadia,

1966). 30

Drainage

The Uttarakhand is drained by short consequent tributary streams

which flow obliquely in the valleys and then join the main streams. The

great Himalayan ranges along with its major branch the Zaskar range forms

the general divide between the two major river system, the Ganga system

and the Indus system (Singh, 1983). The region is well drained by the

numerous rivers and the rivulets (locally known as Gad and Gadhera). The

drainage can be divided into three main system which is shown in Fig. 1.5.

1. The Ganga system

2. The Yamuna system

3. The Kali system

1. The Ganga System

Major parts of the region is drained by the Ganga system and its

tributaries, covering the whole of the Garhwal, except western portion of

Uttarkashi districts and western parts of Almora and Nainital districts

(Singh, 1993). The name Ganga is applied to the river below Devprayag where the river Alaknanda and Bhagirathi meet. After the confluence at

Devprayag the river continues to flow down in torrents and cascades for a distance of approximately 160 kilometres, and after cutting through the

Siwalik ranges of hills, its emerges into the plains at Hardwar in Uttar

Pradesh (Report, 1972). Its important tributaries are Alaknanda,

Bhagirathi, Bhillganga and Nayar rivers, i) The Alaknanda : It is the most important river of the basin as well as the region. The river derives its name from Alkapuri, the town where 31

UTTARAKHAND DRAINAGE SYSTEM

index RIVERS ^ GLACIER PRIMARY DIVIDE —- SECONDARY DIVIDE

SOURCE; Topographical Sheet No

20 10 0 20 40 I I II I I .J Km-s FIG'1-5 32

according to Hindu mythology "Kuvera" the God of wealth resides.

Alaknanda enters the Garhwal region where its joins with Mandakini rivers.

It flows to south-west and makes the boundary between the districts of

Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal. The Alaknanda flowing with a smooth surface gently winds around the point of confluence. It is 44 metres in breadth and rises 14 metres at the same point. The width of the united stream is 75 metres. The Alaknanda marks the great central line of lowest elevation receiving rivers as either side which in turn receives minor streams that got water through numerous rills and rivulets until the great dividing ridge is met which forms the watershed between the headwaters of the Kali or Sarda on the east and the Ganga system on the west.

From Rudraprayag upto Devprayag Alaknanda flows in the westerly direction and receives a large number of stream on both banks, main stream joining Alaknanda on the right banks are Bhardarigad,

Bariargad, Odiargad and Takaligad. The other branches have their sources at the Maniknath peak and Gopalpur Dong region. The stream which join

Alaknanda on the left bank are Baohangad, Gewatigad and Kalhunsyungad. ii) The Mandakini - It is the major tributary of Alaknanda, Mandakini drains the districts of Chamoli, and Garhwal making boundary between them and then its joins Alaknanda near Rudraprayag at a height of 1000 metres. Its main streams in the region are Lastargad, Helaungad, Lastergad descends from Latkhanar (2718 metres). An interesting point to note about the Mandakini in the break in its thalweg at Sonprayag where it first meet its major tributary Basaltic Ganga. The waterfall is about 100 metres high, possibly it is a rock step in the longitudinal profile of previously glaciated 3 3

valley occuring at its should at the junction of tributary (Bose, 1968).

ill) The Bhagirathi - River Bhagirathi is regarded to be the main source

of the Ganga river, between Tehri and Bhatwari, the river generally flows

in a comparatively broad open form except above Dharasu where it cuts a

deep gorges through quartzites. Bhagirathi flows towards the south and

cuts across the Himalayan axis in the granite gorges. It again turns at right

angles and flows towards the southeast just opposite in direction to its

upper course (Bose, 1968). The actual source of the Bhagirathi is in the

gangotri glaciers (25 kilometres long), some distance north of Kedarnath

at a point called Gaumukh (30°65' & 79H0'N). The gangotri is a few

kilometers down the streams from Gaumukh. The Bhagirathi joins the

western tributary called the Jahnavi, some distance to the north of main

Himalayan range between Banderpunch (6315 metres) and Srikanta (6133

metres) through a gorge in which the river bed is 3960 metres below the peaks on either sides. This region is said to be silt like opening in the rocks with practically vertical side reaching down 180 metres, to the bed of the river (Krishna, 1968). Bhagirathi enters the Garhwal region near

Pratap Nagar. Before coming at Pratapnagar it has made boundary between

Uttarkashi and Tehri garhwal districts. It runs in south-easterly direction and meet Ganga in Devprayag at the height of 449 metres. Its main contributary rivers and streams are Bhilganga rivers, Sirkandagad and

Chandbhangad. iv) The Bhilganga : Bhilganga descends from Kedarnath in the northern

Tehri-Garhwal. It flows in the south-westerly direction and meets

Bhagirathi near Tehri at the height of 672 metres. 34

v) The Ramganga basin : The Ramganga (also called Ruhut or Ruput in

its upper course) rises in Lower Himalaya at an altitude of about 3110

metres above sea level at latitudes SO^S' N and longitude 70°16'E near the

village of Lahba in the Garhwal districts of the Uttarakhand. Initially the

river flows in a south-easterly direction successively through Almora and

Garhwal districts for about 112 kilometres (Report, 1972). It flows with a

very rapid fall, first through Garhwal, again it debounches on the plains

near the Kalagarh fort in Bijnor districts. It is now a large river and 24

Kms lower down receives on its right bank, the Khoh which also rises in

Garhwal (Mishra, 1970). After flowing in south-westerly direction

Ramganga make the boundary of the two districts, Nainital and Garhwal.

Then its makes its way to the west and drains the southern Garhwal. Monda,

Sona and Mandalti are the important tributaries of Ramganga.

Kosi : The Kosi or Kaushalya, which is the third most important rivers of

Uttarakhand is the principal affluents of the river Ramganga. It rises on the

outer Himalaya in patti Borarau of Pargana Baramandal of Almora and does

not join the Ramganga until they have escaped from the mountains and

entered the plains, from its soruces the Kosi flows in southerly direction

upto someswar. In this section of its course the river is fed by streams

coming down the eastern slopes of the high chain of hills in that Patti-

Birchuwa (2568 metres), Gopai Kat (2763 metres), Bhat Kat (2774

metres) and Bhura Pirmath on the east forms the intershed between Kosi

and Gomti, a tributary of the river Sarju. From its junctions with soal upto

Kairna, it forms the boundary between the districts of Almora and

Nainital from Khaima, it flows north wards upto Bujan, then it takes a 35

north weserly course as far as Mohan, where it turns abruptly to the south

east and then south to Ramnagar, where it enters the plains at an elevation

of 366 metres above sea level. Between Kumaria and Ramnagar it is fed by

numerous torrents with very steep beds in which the rain water runs with great velocity, occassionally causing great damage. The Kosi is a most erratic and treacherous river in its behaviour, which cause huge damage to cultivations on its bank and to the irrigation work (Neville, 1922).

The Kosi is the only river which has a very great effect on the agriculture of the hills, until the floods of 1800 A.D., the village along the

Kosi had some of the finest irrigated lowlying canals in the hills, but they suffered greatly in that year from diluvian (Neville, 1922).

Pinder : The river rises in the Pindari glacier which lies between

Nandakot and Nandadevi, at an elevation of 3684 metres above the sea- level, its course is generally toward south from the foot of the glaciers. At

Dwali, it is joined by Kushini river, thence it bends to the south-west by

Khati to Wachham where it receives on the right bank, the Sundardhunga on the same side. The rest of its course is in the district of Chamoli, where it meets the Alaknanda at Kamprayag and Ultimately the Ganga.

Gola : The Gola river rises on the southern slopes of the ridge to the south of Dal in Dalpat in Almora.Its course is southwards from its source to Khamsyan, then it turns westward upto a point where it receives a stream from Malwa-Tal. It then turns south for about 3 kilometres and then again towards north west. It receives on its right bank the Borakheri stream which takes the flow of Bhim Tal at Ranibagh receives Ballia which takes 36

the surplus of water of Sal Tal and Nainital. The river leaves the hills at

Kathgodam and flows through Haldwani to the Terai and Join the Ramganga

on its left banks. The river is largely utilized for irrigation. In times of

flood, it becomes a violent and dangerous torrent, changing its channel

through a wide bed (Neville, 1922).

2. Yamuna System

The river yamuna rises at Yamunotri glaciers in Uttarkashi district

at an elevation of about 6320 metres, lying on the South-western slope of

the Bandarpunch peak. The Yamuna covers about 1/2 of the western parts

of Uttarkashi, a small western parts of Tehri-Garhwal and about 2/3rd

western parts of Dehradun. Asan is an important river of the Dun valley as

well as tributary of the Yamuna system. The Tons is the biggest tributary of

the river Yamuna. The volume of water brought by this river becomes

nearly doubles to that of the river Yamuna. The river Yamuna and the Tons

separately cutting Mussoorie ranges in to deep valleys and meet together

at Kalsi. The Giri, another important tributary of the river Yamuna comes

farther north-west of the Tons, bringing water from south-east Himachal

Pradesh, the Giri Joins the river Yamuna in Kirada Dun valleys

3. The Kali River System

The Kali river system is depicted by the name of the river Kali, this is the most important river of this system. This river system covers the eastern portion of the Uttrakhand region, in which the river Kali flows for a distance of 195 kilometres from the point of origin to the point exist from this region. The river Kali which rises near the Indo-Nepal Tibet, 37

trijunction follows a south-westerly course and runs almost at right angle

to the lower Himalayan and Siwalik ranges. The Kali system covers the

district of Pithoragarh and the eastern parts of Almora & Nainital districts.

The Kali system drains near about 1/4 portion of the region. It has two main head streams i.e. Khuti-Yankti and the Kalapani. The former is generally regarded as the true source of the Kali, The Kalapani is a collection of perennial springs while Khuti-Yankti takes its origin from the snowfield of Himadri, receiving water from the headwaters, the river

Kali flows in a south-west direction upto jauljebi (120 kilometres away) where it is joined another tributary Goriganga. Another important tributaiy of Kali is Sarju, which brings a large amount of water and flowing 105 kilometres from the origin. The place where Sarju meets Kali is known as

Pancheswar. The course from Romeswar to Pancheswar is about 20 kilometres. The full length of the Sarju river from its source to its confluence with Kali is estimated to be about 132 kilometres (Walton,

1910). The Kali (United stream) takes a south-eastern course from

Pancheswar and about 16 kilometres. Further, down streams receives the largest river on its western bank. Further south, it receives the Ladhiya river which rises in Nainital District, its important affulents are the

Ratiyagadh and Kuirala which join it near chaura in Talti-Rau and Pal-Belon respectively, Lower down the Ladhiya is joined by the Babkala river. With all these accessions. Kali becomes a great river before entering Nainital district at Barmder, Hence onward is marks the boundary between Nainital and the Kingdom of Nepal. It enters the plains at a heights of 243 metres above sea level. Hence further it is known as Sarda. 38

Climate

Uttarakhand experiences a wide range of climatic conditions. In

the tarai and bhabar tract adjoining the plains of western Uttar Pradesh, a

typical tropical climate observes. Sub-tropical climate conditions are

prevails in the Siwalik hills, Dun valleys and upto an elevation of 800

metres in the lower Himalayas, temperate upto about 2,400 metres and

sub-arctic and arctic at higher elevations. Thus while the mercury may rise to more than 40°C in the terai and bhabar tract, icy winds may be lashing the Nanda Devi Peak.

Most parts of Uttarakhand receive very heavy rainfall from the south-west monsoon from early July to the end of September. However the areas lying in the rainshadow of the main Himalayas, for exmaple, the upper Darma valley, receive very little rain. Both the south-west and north- east monsoon systems of the Asian continental mass played vital role in the climatic and weather conditions of this hilly region. The south-west monsoons are gigantic land and sea breezes that blow across the Indian subcontinent each year from July to September. In May and June, western and central India and the adjoining parts of Pakistan are heated to atmospheric temperatures of over 42°C. This results in a low pressure belt in this area, there is a high pressure zone over the sea and as a result, winds begin to move in towards the heartland of the Indian sub-continent.

As the wind pass over the mass of water, they pickup moisture and becomes saturated with it. These winds, laden with moisture are known as the south-west monsoon. They strike the Himalayan mountain chain and 39

cause heavy and widespread rains in most part of India. In winter, this cycle

is reversed. There occurs a zone of high pressure over central Asia and a

low pressure over the seas in the south. These winds are known as the

north-east or winter monsoon. They cause rains in January and February in

many parts of Kumaun, are not as heavy as those by the south-west monsoons. A fairly long and moderately severe winter is the chief characteristics of the climate of the region. However in the valleys and comparatively lower elevated areas in the region, tropical heat may be experienced during April to May and first half of June. Local population of the region, however divided the climatic year into three seasons.

1. Purler Kharso : (Hot Weather Season) (From March to Mid-June)

The hot weather season commence from March when the temperature rises sharply resulting in a relative fall in pressure and humidity. The heat is intense, though less severe than that experienced in the Gangetic plain i.e. Zaid crops.

This period can be divided into two parts i.e. a) Spring season (March-June) b) Hot summer season (May-June)

By the month of March, temperature begin to rise rapidly everywhere and reaches its maximum in the month of May. In this month, mean monthly temperature recorded as 17.7°C and 16.1°C in Dehradun and

Uttarkashi respectively (Fig. 1.6). From April, the heat further increases rapidly, while the air becomes dry. During spring season, the night in Tarai and Bhabar are tolerably cool, though day temperature is somewhat higher.

Generally humidity is low with a marked clear sky. 40

UJ sz K ™u J- Q " 1 »i ^ti

Ku c 3 3 2 •D i & UQJ . W s Q UJ I- - S Q Q I

a s s s o o ^ ^o ( I'o 6*0 ui) diun (6«a U() dui*! 41

April records a further increase in temperature when the mean

maximum temperature of Dehradun and Uttarkashi rises to 38.2°C and

35.4°C respectively. During May and June, the temperature continue to

increase, though much less rapidly than in March and April until the south-

west mansoon commences when the temperature is higher. In summer

season, low valleys and foot-hill zones are very hot and hot days are

experienced even upto 1600 metres above sea-level but the higher ridges

are cool even in the hottest month. May is even more hot with a mean

maximum temperature of 35.5°C and 35.0°C and mean minimum

temperature of 16.5°C and 9.2°C in Dehradun and Uttarkashi respectively.

Obviously, June is the hottest month of the year and mean monthly

temperature of this month is recorded 29.3°C and 24.9°C at Dehradun and

Uttarkashi.

2. Chaumas Or Baskat (The Rainy Season) (From Mid-June to October)

The season of general rains or the rainy season in Uttarakhand

generally commence by the middle of June. The begining of rainy season

being a complete change in the weather condition with the advent of rains,

experiences heavy and prolonged rainfall i.e. Kharif crops. In this period,

a diminished range of temperature is found throughout the year. The mean

monthly temperature in mountaneous region in July is 26.9°C in Dehradun,

and 24.2°C in Uttarkashi (Fig. 1.6). July and August have the smallest range

of temperature and these months having higher commodity, receives 80 per cent of the annual rainfall from the south-west monsoon. The monsoon

is weakened by September, though sky is not always clear. The rain is 42 received intermittently and due to low temperature, little change in humidity is observed. The distribution of temperature in the month of

October shows a slight fluctuation. The temperature condition show that though, there is a definite increase in the mean maximum temperature in the month of October, the mean temperature is less than that of September.

This is on account of decrease cloudiness and the influence of the mechanism of mountain and valley breezes. During this month, the velocity of wind is generally minimum due to little range in pressure.

3. Hyund or Sheetkal (Cold Weather Season) (From November to February)

By the end of October, -the skies clear, rain stop and there is a further fall in temperature. Significantly the begining of a cold weather season from November and last upto February. The season experience heavy and bracing, with only a moderate degree of variation between the day and night, snowfall is rare, though in exceptional year, it has been recorded even at on elevation of 900 metres (Walton, 1910).

The cold is comfortable above 1600 metres except during the middle of day. By December the cold weather season fully set in. January is the coldest months recording a temperature of 13.8°C at Dehradun and

\2.6°C at Uttarkashi. During the same month, tarai and bhabar zone enjoys a breaching climate, while the mountaineous part is severe. Nights are usually heavy and clouds particularly in low lying areas and severe frost occasionally occur. Clouds often interfere in mild winter and some rain usually falls in this season, which on the higher elevation occur in the form of snow, occasionally the snow, falls down to 1600 metres but melt 43 rapidly below 1200 metres and it seldom stays long on sunny slopes. It may be seen from the Fig. 1.6, the mean minimum temperature in the month of November range from 6.3°C at Dehradun and 7.4°C at Uttarkashi, but the mean maximum temperature ranges between 22.1°C and 26.6°C for the same station. The month of December record a further decrease both in the mean maximum and minimum temperature. The mean minimum temperature ranges between 3.9°C and -4.2°C at Dehradun and Uttarkashi respectively. The lowest temperature is recorded in the month of January when the mean minimum temperature at Dehradun, and Uttarkashi is 1.7°C, and 1.0''C respectively. By February temperature begin to rise but still remain relatively low as compared to that of November. A significant climatic features of this season is the occurrence of frost as well as snowfall in the early hours of morning, which adversely effect crops like,

Arhar, peas, gram and rapeseeds & mustard.

Rainfall Rhythm

The monsoon sets in towards the end of June and last till the later half of September, occasionally prolonging in to October (Mason, 1936).

The period from October to about middle of November is regarded as the post-monsoon period and thereafter the winter season sets in lasting till about the middle of march followed by the summer or pre-monsoon season

(middle of march to middle of June).

The rainfall generally increases in the valleys from south-west to north-east direction and decreases beyond the highest ranges while the plains of Uttar Pradesh receives 80 per cent of their annual rainfall during 44 the south-west monsoon from June to September. There are however, a few occasions in the monsoon season, when the rainfall in the plain districts may be lower but there are heavy rains in the hills causing floods in the river. In the outer Himalayas, rainfall is heavy, varying between 157.78 cm

(Dehradun) and 169.73 cm (Nainital). Rainfall decreases beyond the outer

Himalayas (Fig. 1.7).

July and August are generally rainest months, accounting for about 50 to 60 per cent of the total rainfall. November is the least rainy months, sometimes October is also a fine as November. The month of

October and November are characterised not only by clear skies and calms but also by a great range of temperature and heavy dews at nights (Walton,

1910). With the exception of monsoon, most of the rain during the remaining parts of the year occurs in winter and early summer, in association with the western disturbances across North India. During this period as much as 30 per cent of the rainfall occurs over these hilly districts.

It may be seen from the table 1.1 that the average annual rainfall received in the months from June to September varies from 63.00 per cent to 88.87 per cent of the total average rainfall in the districts of

Uttarakhand.

The distribution of rainfall in the Uttarakhand follows a contrast pattern. Guided by relief the Bay of Bengal currents of south-west monsoon after striking against Himalayas moves westward close to

Himalaya ranges, therefore the region receives heavy rainfall from these 45 a> x: s •<-> NO On 00 "Og o es m lO 1—1 O (S ON 00 es •d V M ® "S o 00 o CNl NO 00 JS ^ E2 vo fS .—1 r—1 ON •—1 NO

u c 1 « ji "S u _ 00 NO NO (N lo ON NfnO ONn NO 00 1 - O Tj1—-1 tn 00 o O cs cs CS ^ ^ wO 'n V •o c —« o f-H rn CI On o _ .—1 00 en rl- 1—1 CS r-- ^ On 00 NO ^ c as « 3 CS o OJD 3 U 1 « S A

r-- ^ ro Csl ^ O lo 'o « ON r- 00 m E ^ vo NO r- yr\ m o u 0) 1 OX) h a> X«i cc c -Ow U« m (N 00 m NO NO 01 w u ro ro NO o CS u O Q r^ t-- 00 00 in 00 au> a. u JS •o r- C o o o o m r- c o « 00 oc r- o — o 00 ^ (U 00 t-- N0O0 NO rCS- 0r0s T3 C8 uctJ e Ph I. cd . s r^ 1—1 NO OX) i s 00 00 ON O in r- « e2: a o 00 m NO o o o o 3 •J mm V — .2 On o m cs NO r^ 00 3 cj; t^ O f^ 00 C ^ ^ e On Ol o On r-' v 3 o > « m O > O" P ^ Pi ^ >—1 >—1 •—1 1—' 1—1 Pi c t+H '5 o C •o MM CO « X! c c IS c OQ o (ji 13 cO 3 W5 -t-t u "o Ot o •o R Im O o 'C 'C 2 (U 0) "c -C JC o "3 E jC <4-» si o u. C/5 5 U P Oh Q 3 C/O5 46

UTTARAKHAND MONTHLY QUINQUENNIAL AVERAGE RAINFALL

J FMAMJJASOND 20 0 20 /.o 60 I—-J—I 1 I I Kms

FIG. 17 47

currents in the south-eastern, north-eastern, south-western and north

central part comprising the district of Nainital, Dehradun, Chamoli and

Pithoragarh where the average rainfall is 169.73 cm, 157.78 cm, 152.75

cm and 151.40 cm respectively. Similarly the average rainfal in Tehri

Garhwal, Almora, Uttarkashi and Pauri Garhwal is 130.36 cm, 119.09 cm,

115.32 cm, and 109.87 cm respectively.

Pressure : Like temperature, pressure is also inversely proportional to altitude, decreasing with the increase of height. The pressure conditions, according to altitudes, are given below" (Kendrew, 1949).

Table 1.2

Showing pressure according to height from sea level

Height from seal level in metres Pressure in millibar (mb)

00 sea level 1013

609.60 or (2000 feet) 942

1219.20 or (4000 feet) 875

1828.80 or (6000 feet) 812

2438.40 or (8000 feet) 753

3048.00 or (10,000 feet) 697

3657.60 or (12,000 feet) 465

4267.20 or (14000 feet) 301

Humidity : Summer (March to May) is the driest part of the year, with relative humidity ranges between 30 to 60 percent. During monsoon season (June to September), the humidity attains a value of about 70 to 90 percent, while it remains between 50 to 60 percent during the remaining parts of the year. 48

Clouds : In this part of the Himalayas wet days with the exceptions of

monsoon are extremely rare. In the monsoon months of July to September,

skies are generally heavily clouded. Heavy clouding also persists in short

spells during winter months when the district is affected by western

disturbances.

Winds : Winds are generally light with 3 to 4 kilometres per hour in the

valleys and 5 to 8 kilometres per hour at local elevaiton of 2000 metres,

increasing further with higher altitudes. In the wake of western

disturbances and in associated with thunder storm, the winds may become

quite strong. Katabatic winds may also be experienced during night as a

result of local effects produced by nature of terrain.

Climatic Zones

Convective activity is essential for the occurrence of thunder-

storm, with the advance of the summer the activity becomes pronounced

due to ground heating. Thunderstorm occurs throughout the year.

Frequency being least in November and December and generally greatest

during the May and September. During winter and pre-monsoon months thunderstorm are sometimes accompanied by hail. Dust storms are rare and occur, if at all, in the valleys in summer. Hill fog is common during the monsoon months. Fog may also occur in association with western disturbances. In the valleys, morning fog may occur frequently in winter.

Due to its complicated relief the area has been divided into micro-climatic region by Kausic S.D. The micro-climatic conditions usually differ from valley to valley and locality to locality, according to the i) Direction of 49

the ridge, ii) degree of slope, iii) Sunny or shady aspect of slope;iv)

Intensity of forest cover and v) nearness to glaciers. The region can be

divided in to seven broad climatic zones, primarily based on altitude.

i) Subtropical Zone (300-900 metres) : This zone covers the whole of

Bhabar and parts of the siwalik over the southern slope of the outer

Himalaya. The mean annual temperature varies between 17°C to 24°C. The rain comes mostly from the summer monsoons, the annual figures ranging between 157 to 170 cm. About 85 per cent of the annual precipitation occurs in four months form June to September, winter depressions give about 12 to 25 cm of rain from the beginning of December to April. In

May there is a little convectional precipitation, about 3 cm in the whole months.

11) Warm Temperature Zone (900-1800 metres) : The mean annual temperature varies between 13.9''C and 18.9°C in this zone. Summer season begins from the end of April. In May and June the temperature varies between 26.1°C and 32.2°C in the day time. In the sunshine, the temperatures are 12°C to 16°C higher than those under shade. The night experience a fall of 13°C to 17°C. In higher localities two or three nights even in May, experience a snowfall from the western depression on the right tops.

Local temperatures are affected by the forest on the ridges and slopes of the spurs. The temperatures of the forested ridges and valleys bottom differ by 5°C to 12°C even on the same slope. In winter snow descends to about 1370 metres. However, it melts more rapidly on sunnier 50

slopes. The slopes are clear by snow by the begining of June. Monsoon

commence towards the end of June and ceases by the middle of September.

The heaviest precipitation is experienced along the outer ridges, which

form a barriers to check and exhaust the force of the monsoon. Heaviest

rainfall occurs between June 22 and September 21. It is accompanied by

moist and thunder. The streamlets and rivulets swell in floods.

Winter depression cause snowfall on seven or eight day in each

of the three months from January to March. Average number of snowfall

days is four in April and two in May.The amount of winter rain is also

controlled by local topography. The months of April and May are rather

marked by thunder and occasional hailstorms at all elevation. In May and

first half of June, before the break of the monsoon, convectional rain

occurs in the afternoon, in small amounts (12 to 25 cm) practically every

3rd or 4th day.

iii) Cool temperate zone (1800-2400 metres) : In this zone, the mean

annual temperature ranges between IO°C to 13.3°C, rising to 17.2°C to

21. PC in the wormest month and falling to 6.rC to 2.9°C in January. In

May and June, the daily range of temperature is I5°C to 20°C due to radiation in the night and dry air. From July onwards, the dialy range decreases till March,when it again begins to increase. The rainfall from

summer monsoon varies between 125 cm to 150 cm, according to the local topography, winter rainfall from the western depressions, mostly in the form of snowfall is 25 to 30 cm.The full force of the monsoon is felt in August, which has heavier rainfall than July in all the climatic zones of 51

Uttarakhand, irrespective of altitudes. Monsoon generally get exhausted by mid-September. In November wet days are extremely rare and the mountains standout for the greater part of the month clear of cloud. iv) Cold Zone (2400-3000 metres) : The mean annual temperature of this zone ranges between 4A°C to 10°C. there prevails a large cold winter of more than 5 months with temperatures below 6.1°C. The daily range of temperatures in June and July is observed to be more than 25°C. This zone experiences much lesser amount of summer rainfall than any of the southern zones. Before reaching the great Himalayan zone, the monsoon have to cross the Dhaula Dhar range, which checks their advance, only some clouds are able to cross this range and further the main ridge.

Therefore there are marked differences in the amount of rainfall in the front and rear of this main range. From June to September, the rainfall ranges between 37 cm to 50 cm in the frontal zone and 20 to 25 cm in the rear. Winter depressions cause 3 to 5 metres of snowfall from November to May and sometimes snowfalls continue upto the mid of June. v) Alpine Zone (3000-4000 metres) : In this zone, the temperature for 7 months in the year remains below 6.1°C and in this months of January it falls below -6°C, springs, summer and Autumn occur only for five months i.e. from May to September, but snowfall occur even in June. Night temperatures even during the summer remains below 4.4°C. The summer rains are not only monsoonal but also convectional. The effect of great snow ranges is two fold. Acting directly on the air in contact with them they cool it and make it sink to the valleys are drawn up and dynamically expanded so that if moisture is present in sufficient quantity, rain is 52

deposited. In April and May, showers occur nearly every day in these parts.

After rainfall, the temperature falls usually below 4°C and it becomes

extremely cold even in July. Snow melts in this zone between June and

September. From November to mid May the zone remains under snow ice.

In this zone, the diurnal and nocturnal winds have reverse directions. In the

day time, winds blow up the valleys and in the night they blow down the

valley.

vi) Glacial and Perpetually Frozen Zone : This area is limited to the

altitudes 4000 meters and above. In this zone, the temperatures remains

below zero for ten months and between l.TC and 3.9°C for two months of

summer. Snow melts during mon-soon in July and August. Here the alpie

forests undergo a gradual transition through xerophytic bush land to the

Alpine pastures (bugyab). Sometimes alpine forests may be seen upto

about 4200 metres, but above 4,800 metres, the landscape is a cold desert with no vegetation, wide variations in the amount of rainfall are observed depending upon the location and altitude of the recording station. Stations in the interior in general experience lower rainfall than the station on the edge of the area. About 90 per cent of the rain fall is recorded in the four months from June to September. •

Soils

Soil is the natural body derive from the parent materials. It is said that soil is the mother of agriculture. Therefore, all plant kingdoms directly or indirectly depend on the soil. As a matter of fact the Human civilization is depend on the soil for its well being. This is true for 53

Uttarakhand as well as all parts of the country (Negi, 1975). It is very

difficult to give classificaiton of soils of Uttrakhand so far no authentic

soil survey has been carried out for this region. There is wide variation in

soil types. These soils differ from valley to valley, slope to slope and even

on the same slope from place to place, the writer could however obtain

some information regarding soils from settlement reports and from some

studies by soil scientist. The land classification in Uttarakhand is based on

altitude and inigation facilities. According to Pant, the quality of soil is a

minor factor in determine the hill cultivation (Pant, 1935). Based on this

principle, the Agricultural land of Uttarakhand can be divided into the

following three categories :

1. Talaon or irrigated land

2. Upraon or unirrigated land

3. Katil land

Talaon Land : These are found near rivers or perennial streams in the high

land valleys. The soil is usually composed of fine alluvium and deposited

by the rivers. These are two types

a) Sera : These are first class irrigated lands with perennial supply of water and often lying on the river bed. These fields are used for high grade rice production. The best seras are situated in Bamsali near Ranikhet,

Mandel in Bageshwar and Khasporja basin near Pithoragarh. b) Pancher : These are second class of this category and are less fertile, being composed of coarse detritus. These lands are capable of easy irrigation, especially during the rain, but in dry years, they are difficult to be irrigate and are no better than upraon. 54

2. Upraon Land : These are permanently terraced and comparatively dry.

They always depend upon the monsoon for water supply. Usually the

uproan fields possess the following characteristics. They are situated at a

high level, are unirrigated and are sown with dry crops. The value of the

uproan land depend upon such factors as the moisture retention capacity,

accessibility of the slope and the position with reference to the aspect of the hills. If these factors are favourable, the uproar will be regarded as a better class land and is termed Talliya. This is generally occupy an intermediate position between the talaon and the upraon lands.

3. Katil Land : These Katil, khill, Irjan or Kalabanga are the names applied to unterraced cultivation on virgin soils. The hill tops are cleared and brought under cultivation after the shrubs have been burnt. They are generally left fallow by years. After sometimes, they are finally brought under terraced cultivations. In the Bhabar zone,the soil is mainly alluviam deposits on a mass of boulders and gravel. In Terai and Kashipur it resembles the soil of the plains further south. The upper portion of the

Terai, the soil is dark consistant loam, but the east, it is light. The soils of the Uttarakhand have developed from rocks with biotic schists and phyllite material under a cool and moist climate with rainfall extending to more than 150 cms. The soils are shallow, gravelly impregnated with unweathered fragments of stone with parent rocks occuring within a few centimetres at elevated spot to about 2 metres in valleys or depressions.

Here generally the soils are not calcareous, and neutral to slightly acidic in reaction. Moderately acidic soils are only met with or higher elevaiton where rainfall is high strong enough to leach down the bases from the soil minerals under temperate climatic conditions. 55

Altitude is the main factor in determining the productivity of

soils of Uttarakhand. The northern slopes in comparison to southern

slopes are usually less denued. So in the northern slopes, the task of cultivation is easier due to thicker soils than the southern slopes where the soil is granular. Uttarakhand has a wide variety of soil. The parameters listed below have been used to delineate the soils of this region into various types. a) Structural, textural and chemical composition of the soil. b) Soil fertility c) Geographical distribution and extent d) Soil horizons and their composition

The important soil types of Uttarakhand have been discussed below

(Fig. 1.8) :

1) Tarai soils

2) Bhabar soils

3) Gray-Brown forest soils

4) Podzolic soils

5) Mountain Medow soils

6) Skeletal soil

7) Red sandy-loam soils

8) Snow and snow field

1. Tarai Soils : Away from terraced and unterraced soils of the hills, a good amount of land lies in tarai. In 1948, a large tract of forests was cleared for reclamation and colonisation in the Nainital Tarai. In 1955, a soil survey was made and tarai soils were divided int^fine textural cum calcimorphic soil associations. s 56

UTTARAKHAND SOILS

INDEX

t- r- TARAI SOILS BHABAR SOILS

///A GRAY BROWN FORES SOILS PODZOLIC SOILS

MOUNTAIN MEDOWSOtLS

SNOW FIELD •• •• • RED SANDY 20 0 20 40 60 LOAM SOILS X X SKELTAL SOI LS U _L _J I I Kms Source'.Land Resource Atlas, Survey 0< India. 1996

FIG-1.8 57 i) Matkota clay loam :

Mildly calcareous, it is a textural clayey loam tending to be silty clay loam. It is rich in organic matter and the colour is dark grey at surface. The next layer is of light yellowish brown material with a silty loam texture, the organic matter is low, the water holding capacity is high because the sand content (fine and coarse) is low. It is poorly drained and is mildly alkaline, deficient in phosphoric acid but rich in nitrogen.

11) Matkota Loam - High calcareous :

These are highly clcareous throughout the depths. The depth of upper layer is 23 cms. colour is dark grey, brown and rich in organic matter. The next layer is grey brown with comparatively contain less organic matter. The coarse sand content is high. The organic carbon and total nitrogen content are high but diminises in subsoil. Total phosphorus is high but phosphoric acid is less, the soils are mildly alkaline.

Hi) Matkota Loam - Slightly calcareous :

The soil is poor in lime content due to its comparatively elevated situation. Loam to silty loam in texture and grey brown in colour at surface. The depth of this layer is 60 cms. with adequate quantity of organic matter. The next layer is 80 cms deep with pale brown blue colour.

The texture of middle and the lower layer is loam and silty clay loam.

There are coarse sand particles. The nutrients status is poor. The soil is mildly alkaline which contains low phosphoric acid. 58 iv) Matkota Loam - Non-calcareous

The texture is loam to sandy loam at surface. The colour of the

soil is greyish brown, darker in shade in lower layers. The intermediate

bottom layers are dark brown and yellowish brown. These are not good

soils for crops without irrigation, because the water retaining capacity is

poor. The plant nutrients is average, organic matter is slightly high in the

case with total nitrogen. The available phosphoric content are medium. The

texture of the soil is light.

v) Matkota sandy loam ;

This soil is dark brown to reddish brown in colour and the texture

is sandy loam to sandy. The whole profile is sandy in nature. It is not a

good soil. The percolation is excessive and therefore suffers from

droughty conditions. The soil has a very low water holding capacity. The

nutritional status of the soil is very poor. These soils have medium to high

contents of available phosphates. These soils are not fit for agricultural

crops.

2. Bhabar Soils : These soils occur in the form of a narrow belt in the

foothill region of Garhwal Himalayas. These soils have developed under a

sub-humid and moist climate which becomes dry during summer months.

These soils are found in the form of small pebbles, coarse gravels, detritus and mechanically transported from adjoining hills. The texture of soil is gravelly fine, silly, and invariably calcareous in nature.

The soils are of dark grey to black colour and a moderately alkaline in reaction. They are rich in plant nutrients but inspite of this, they fail to 59

support normal cultivation, especially due to the scarcity of moisture due

to rapid percolation and underground drainage. This excessive percolation

results from the presence of the boulder substratum below the surface,

which drains out all the water underground and which ultimately emerges

into the adjoining tarai tracts.

The soils supports only inferior crops of shorter maturity whose

water requirements are not high. Lighter dressing of fertilizers are better

manuring practices for these soils.

3. Grey Brown Forest Soil

These soils are found generally in sub-tropical regions between

610 to 915 metres. These soils, generally support deciduous forests.

These soils are rich in plant food because in this region both rainfall and

temperature are higher resulting in this vegetation growth. Decaying leaves of the trees play an important role in soil formation of organic matter.

These soil supports a thick and dense vegetation which is not only responsible for the comparatively high fertility but also prevents soils from being washed away during torrential rain. In cultivated areas some layers of the soils are washed away every years. Generally this is compensated by a new soil formation. Madua (Ragi), paddy, wheat and barley are the dominant crops of this soils groups, where pH value ranges between 6.0 to 6.5. The main properties of different horizons of forest soils are given below : 60

Horizon Depth Description (cms)

A 0-10 Dark brown to brown, sandy loam, fine sub angular blocky, fine roots abundant

A, 10-30 Yellowish red to redish yellow, clay loam, sub- angular blocky, roots abundant

B 30-45 Yellowish red to reddish yellow, clay loam, subangular blocky, thin clay skin, occasional quartzite, gravels, slightly sticky but nonplastic when wet, roots abundant.

B| 45-60 Yellowish red to reddish yellow, clay loam, thin clay skin, coarse root abundant

B^ 60-90 Yellowish red to reddish yellow, clay moderates to abundant.

B, 90-120 Yellowish red to reddish yellow, clay moderate to abundant

C Below 120 Yellowish red to reddish yellow, gravelly clay, subangular blocky, slightly sticky when wet.

4. Podzolic Soils : Podzolic soils are found in the cool temperate zone at

a height of 916 to 1830 metres. These are leached and acid soils with pH

value below 6 with low fertility. This type of soil is generally suitable for

coniferous forests, fruits and potato cultivation. The main properties of

different horizons of podzolic soils are given below.

Horizon Depths Description (cms)

A 0-10 Black, sandy to clayey loam, rich in under composed organic matter

Aj 10-30 Black, sandy to clayey loam, loose, rich in humus, acidic

B 30-50 Black, though of a relatively higher shade, sandy to clay loam,acidic 61

B, 50-70 Brownish black, sandy to clay loam, more compact than the other horizons acidic.

B^ 70-90 Brownish, sandy loam, large pockets of parental materials may be found in this horizon, acidic

C Below 90 Brownish, parental rocks may be found in the lower layers.

5. Mountain Medow Soils : This type is usually met near streams cool

and low lying shady places, due to very high ground water level, the soil

always remain moist and the organic matter is not completely decomposed

into humus. The morphology of typical soil type is given below.

Horizon Depth Description (cms)

A 0-15 Darkgrey, granular with brown spots, sandy loam, micaceous, more dark when wet

A, 15-35 Granular, dark grey, sandy loam, darker than A, bluish and brown spots at dirty brown spots round mica piece. This horizon contains mica stores.

B+C 35-45 Yellowish micaceous, sandy soils, brownish yellow when wet.

6. Skeletal soils : These shallow skeletal soils have their genesis over sloping land of high plateaux and small valleys. They are formed from variety of parent materials. This lithic and light textured soils are rich in humus and have mobile form of sesquioxides. The other pecularity of these soils is an altered "B" horizon. These soils are found in Uttarkashi,

Chamoli and Pithoragarh. These soils are suitable for wildlife, forestry and grazing. bZ

7. Red Sandy loam soils : This soil type is usually sandy in nature and

mostly found along slopes of the hills and ridges. It occurs at places which

receive maximum solar radiation and is dry due to their situation on slope.

The analysis and morphology of a typical red loam, soil profile is as

follows :

Horizon Depth Description (cms)

A 0-15 Brownish grey, slightly organic loamy soil with plenty of undecomposed orgnaic matter, darkens slightly in colour, when wet

B 15-50 Loamy, reddish brown soil containing little humus, deep red brown when wet

50-115 Loamy, sand, yellowish, brown soil, more yellow when wet

C 115-150 Loamy, ash grey, micaceous, soil of hydrogenic nature, more green when wet.

8. Snow and snow field : The perpetual snow fields are not actually soils, but barren areas of the Himalayas, the present glacier zone in the

Himalayas lies approximately between 3350 metres and 7000 metres above mean sea level and found in districts of Pithoragarh, Chamoli and

Uttarkashi.

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

The soils of Uttarakhand have very thin alluvium, as described above and hence are highly susceptible to sheet erosion and gully erosion.

Landslides are common here due to heavy rainfall.

Kumaun is subjected to widespread and extensive soil erosion,

But the problem has not attracted much notice and adequate measures to 63

combat it are (acking. In the lower hills excessive erosion has led to

increased setting of the rivers and ruining the agriculture of the hill areas.

One major factor responsible for this state of affairs is the upsetting of

the balance of nature, especially removal of the forests and overgrazing,

where the natural vegetation has not been tempered with, there is little

erosion, but in areas where the vegetal cover has been removed and the

rainfalls occured on bare grounds,extensive erosion is caused. Similarly

the result of grazing and lopping is the disappearance of the forest and

pastures and wholesole erosion of the soil (Hamilton, 1953). These

methods play a three fold role in soil conservation namely.

a) by reducing and controlling the surface runoff. b) by enabling the moisture to be retained in the soil for a longer period c) by protecting the soil from erosion etc.

For the conservation of soil, crops production and following slope is most important and have been suggested following indicator for

Uttarakhand (Roychaudhari).

1. The land with slope gradient not exceeding 15 feet per miles is fit

for agricultural purposes without any particular conservation

method.

2. The land with a slope gradient of 15 to 50 feet per mile is fit for

cultivation only after the applicaiton of some soil conservation

measures.

3. The land with a gradient between 50 to 100 feet per mile is not fit

for Agricultural purposes, but can be used as pastures with control 64

grazing. It can be used for agriculture only after very intensive soil

conservation measures have been taken.

4. The land with a gradient of over 200 feet per mile and above is only

fit for afforestation purposes.

5. Unclassified slopes, such as ravines etc. should remain permanently

under forests and never to be allowed to be grazed.

Natural Vegetation

Forest plays an important role in economy of our country. A

major part of the Uttarakhand is covered with forest (about more than 60

per cent area) and also constitute enormous wealths of the region. There

are four main factors which determine the broad features of vegetation of

the region.

i) Climate

ii) Soils

iii) Relief and

iv) Biotic factors

Geonomically, the natural vegetation of the region can be divided into three broad groups (Mathur, 1980). i) Broad leaves forests ii) Coniferous forests iii) Scrub and other similar flora

Hooker (1909) and Champian (1909) have presented a very comprehensive material on the vegetation types of Himalayas for the first time. 65

Champian and Seth (196S) have studied the complicated structure

of the region and divided the Himalayan region into six vegetation belt

according to height above sea level.

1. Upto 3000 feet - Tropical moist deciduous forest (Sal trees)

2. 3000-6000 feet - Sub-tropical pine trees (often upto 7500 ft

on the southern slope)

3. 6000-11,000 feet - Moist temperate: mainly conifers, some

oak trees

4. 6500-8000 feet - Dry temperate, often conifers, (mainly in

drier inner valleys)

5. 9500-11500 feet - Alpine: dense, small crooked trees, fern

and rhododendrons)

6. Above 11500 feet - Alpine, dry shrubs

Rautela (1963) classified the natural vegetation of Uttarakhand into four types, according to climate and altitude of the region (Fig. 1.9) :

1. Sub-tropical forest zone (300-1200 meter)

2. Temperate forest zone (1200-1800 meter)

3. Sub-Alpine forest zone (1800-3000 meter)

4. The Alpine zone forest zone (3000-4500 meter)

1. Sub-tropical Forest Zone

This zone is characterized by greater rainfall (170 cm or more annually) with fairly warm temperature. The climatic condition of this zone make the soil rich with humus for the growth of vegetation. This zone 66

UTTARAKHAND NATURAL VEGETATION

i' \

INDEX

SUB TROPICAL

TEMPERATE

SUB ALPINE

ALPINE 0 25 50 SNOW CAPEO AREA WITH GLACIER 1 I L Kms Source: Nafinal Atlas Maps ^Forest surveyof India

FIG.19 67 extending from north-west to south-east, almost covers the sub-Himalayan tract of the region. It occurs upto height of 750 metres towards northern slope and upto the height of 1200 metres towards the southern slope. Sal

(Shera robusta) is the most important species of this zone, it is found upto the height of 11,525 metres, it attains a height of usually 25 metres and sometimes 35 metres. These trees (sub-deciduous forest) shed their leaves with the begining of dry season. Sal trees are of great commercial value as they fulfill the needs of households purpose. Sal trees are quite prominent along the coarse of rivers. Besides, sal, the other species are also found in this zone are Haldu (Adina cordifolia), Dhuari (larger stromia purviflora). Sain (Terminalia lomentosa) and Tun (Cedrelaloona), Bhyunal is another important tree of this region which usually grows in the valleys and lower hillslopes. Mango, pipal and Banyan trees of plains are also found on the lower slopes of the hills. In the low and high rainfall region, dry deciduous and moist deciduous trees appear. The floristic composition in diy is "angle marmelos", dry bamboo break (Dindrocalmus strictus) and in the moist forest is Kamja (Halentela integrifolia), Kuri (Nyelanth esarbottrists), Semal (Samila malabasica), Amaltas and Dhundi.

2. Temperate Forest Zone

The temperate forests are found between sub-tropical and sub-

Alpine zone from 1500 metres to 1800 metres. The temperate forest appears upto 1900 metres on the southern slopes and upto 1800 metres towards the northern slopes (Osmaston, 1987). The dominant tree of this zone is "chir" which is light green in colour and forms a open forests of

20-30 metres height. There are a few shrubs and undergrowth grass which 68 appear during the monsoon. The chir produces useful timber for furniture, boxes, building and railways sleepers. Resin is extracted from these forest from which tarpentine oil is obtained. The valleys of Gori and the Tons rivers are full of chir trees. They are also found in the Yamuna, Bhagirathi, and Alaknanda river valleys. Extensive forest appears around Ranikhet and

Almora.

3. Sub-Alpine Forest Zone :

This vegetation starts from 1800 metres and continues upto 3000 metres. The forest of this zone covers a considerable area of the region. It can be divided into two parts i) The lower sub-Alpine zone ii) The higher sub-Alpine zone

The lower sub-Alpine zone is dominated by oak trees. There are various varieties of oak trees are found in this zone such as Banj oak

(Quercus income), Maru oak (Quercus dilatala) and Bruns oak (Quercus semicarpifolia) (Singh, 1993). Banoak is used for making agricultural implements due to its hardened wood, it is also used as fuel.

In the higher Alpine zone, the varieties of trees differ according to the elevations as follows i) Silver fir (Albies pundrow) ii) Blue pine (Pinies excelsa) 1900-3100 metres iii) Sprunce (Picea morinda) iv) Birch (Betula utilis) 2950-3600 metres v) Cypress (Cupressus torulesa) 2000-3000 metres vi) Deodar (Cedrus deodara) 2400-3050 metres 69

Cyprus is the most dominant trees found at the height of 2000 to

3000 metres. Its fine durable wood is commonly used in construction and

also as timber and railway sleeper (Spate, 1967). The tree attains a height

of 20 meters. Blue pine, silver fir, and spruce may be seen from the height

of 1900 metres to 3000 metres. Blue pine frequently grow in poor soil

and an steep slopes. Birch is found from 2950 metres to 3600 metres in

Bhagirathi valley.Its bark is used as substitute for paper.Some undergrowth

and Alpine herbs are also found, walnut and chestnut also grows in the

Bhagirathi, Alaknanda, and Pindar valleys. Thin Bamboo called Ningola are

found in the area specially around Almora, all types of conifers provide huge quantity of wood for different puiposes.

4. The Alpine Forest Zone

The birch of higher sub-Alpine zone continues to grow in the

Alpine zone also. The vegetation makes the upper most unit of the tree line i.e. 4200 metres and sometimes may be seen in small patches even on higher elevation. Above this line, there exists temperate grassland upto the snowline (4500 metres). The environmental aspects generally gives way to shrubs in the northern part and grasses in the southern part. Alpine grasses provide highly nutritive grazing grasses. Some medicinal and plenty of

Gaggl a scented shrub grow in Pindari and Nilkanth valleys. It is collected to produce incense. There are a number of varieties of medicinal shrubs available in higher Himalayas, which are get to be explored and put to use.

Mamiri a kind of root, is also collected in Uttarakhand, it is used in making surma, an ash like material applied in the eyes. Ratan-Jyot another shrub is collected in Yamunotri region. There is a large variety of flowers 70 in alpine meadows as in the valley of flowers. A good number of herbs found in the region are getiana, prunula, saifraga, geranium and astern.

Palsatillum, aconitum are important medicinal plants.

Fauna and Flora

Wild animals are integral part of natural heritage, some of our best known animals are threatened with extinction. Earlier the killing of wild animal was regarded as a sports. Flora has usually associated with fauna buthuman interference either directly or indirectly through deforestation, hunting, recreation and development has caused a great depletion of wild life, creating ecological imbalances on the whole.

Attempts have been made by the government to preserve and enrich the various species by maintaining their natural habit. A number of parks and sancturies have been established and maintained e.g. Kedamath sanctuary, valley of Flowers National Park, Corbett National Park (extensive in area and has a wide valley of fauna), Govind wildlife sanctuary, Nanda-Devi

National Park and Rajaji National Park (Singh, 1983). The representative of these regions are Elephants, Tigers, Panthers, Slath bear. Swam deer,

Spotted deer, hogdeer, four horn antelope and many colourful birds. In the

Alpine zone, there are some rarest animal found in India, Manal Pheasant,

(one of the most beautiful bird) brown beer, snow leapard, musk deer, and thar are rare animals, lake in Nainital district, the Ramganga and Kosi rivers invite Mahasheer anglers. 71

References

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2. Auden, J.B. (1937) : The structure of the Himalaya in Garhwal, Rec. Geological Survey India, 71(4), pp. 407-433.

3. Burrard, S.G. and Hayden, H.H. (1907): A sketch of the geography and Geology of the Himalaya Moiwtains and Tibet, vol. 4, Calcutta, pp. 85-87.

4. Rose, S.C. (1968) : "Source rivers of the Ganga" Mountains and Rivers of India (21st International Geographical Congress), New Delhi, pp. 362-369.

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6. Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth (1968) : A revised survey of forest types of India, Govt, of India Press, Nasik.

7. Calder, James and J.D. Herbert (1981) : Geology of the Indian Subcontinent, New Delhi, pp. 187-218.

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9. Ghildyal, B.P. (1981) : Soils of the Garhwal and Kumaun Himalaya, in J.S. Lall and A.D. Moddie (eds). The Himalaya, India International Centre, Delhi, pp. 120-137.

10. Hamilton, A.D.F. (1953) Siwalik Erosion "Himalayan Journal, Vol. VII, P. 88.

11. Idem and H. Prasad (1980) : Drainage system of Uttar Pradesh, The Journal of Scientific Research, B.H.U., Varanasi.

12. Kendrew, W.G. (1949) .• Climatology, London, P. 284. 72

13. Krishna, M.S. (1968): Geology of India and Burma Madras, pp. 24-25.

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17. Mason, K. (Lent colonel) (1936) : Rainfall and rainy days in Himalayan, West of Nepal, Himalayan Journal, vol. 8, pp. 84-96.

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99

Agriculture has witnessed over all development in the world since

the begining of this century. Indian Agriculture has also undergone change

owing to the governmental efforts and scientific utilisation of land. The

government has setup commissions and committees for the promotion of

the welfare and prosperity of rural population in India e.g. the Famine

commissions and committee on co-operation of 1915 and Royal commission on Agriculture in 1926. These commissions and committee made many recommendations for the development of Agriculture in India.

After independence, the economists, geographers. Agriculture planners and the government of India have all been concerned with agriculture and its development. According to Khare (1987) due to certain inbuilt constraints of a backward area development in certain parts could not be spread to the rest of the area. The agriculture development should be co-ordinated with dispersal process through a chain of agrobased industries and it is through such a decentralized strategy that one can achieve the balance regional development in the country. Shafi (1972) has given a formula both to determine the productivity of a particular crop with reference to yield per hectare and the area of that crop in the districts in relations to the national level. Tara Shukla (1969) pointed out certain problems of growth of traditional agriculture, stages of increasing agricultural production, spread of new technology and bases of technological research.

According to Shafi (1981), The optimum use of land for production depends on to a large extent on the level of technology and the system of farming. In his opinion there are two ways for increasing food 75

production :

a) increasing the area under cultivation

b) increasing the output per head.

He also points out that one of the major hinderance in the optimal

use of the land lies in the land tenure system. Noor Mohammad (1981) has

emphasized that the use of modern technology for bringing about a change in Agricultural output. He pointed out that the technological factors such as fertilizers, improved seeds,pesticides and new farm implements are capable of increasing the Agricultural productivity. According to Commen

(1966) the term technological change means all kinds of innovations and inventions which are aimed at increasing the efficiency of agricultural productivity, Bhalla (1977) has concluded that the variations in the agricultural productivity is introduced mainly by the nature of various inputs of technology.

In view of Kanwar (1969) for maximum output from land, it is required to bring more land under inigation, fertilizers, High yielding varieties of seeds and better organic technology.

According to S. Thirumalai (1954) the developoment programme based on technology are related to the conservation of soil resources, expansion of irrigation facilities, intensive farming through the application of modern techniques, manures, fertilizers and HYV of seeds.

According to Pal (1968) the imgation alone can not increase the required agricultural production, it is other inputs also used with adequates water supply which can increase the agricultural production. 76

The immediate out come of the green revolution was in the form

of increased Agricultural production, but in view of Arshad(1986) it has

failed to make any appreciable differences in the overall rate of

agricultural growth. According to him, the introduction of high yielding varieties of seeds along with new technology and fertilizers alone can not balance agricultural production. An all round production and growth in all the crops in all the regions is the only solutions.

Sharma (1976) has suggested that the development of Agriculture should be assessed not only by productivity levels but also with reference to inputs such as fertilizers improved varieties of seeds and irrigation.

The policies of increasing the fertilizer use as suggested by

Desai (1986) should be based upon a strategy which aims at both rapidly converting the untapped potential in to actual use and contineuously raising the economic potential of fertilizer use through upward shifts in response functions. It has been seen that fertilizer diffusion has been most rapid on crops and varieties which respond to fertilizer use dramatically, even though they did not have best price environment.

According to the Jaine Quizon (1985) fertilizer is the crucial input in raising the agricultural productivity, it is because of its importance that the government intervention in the fertilizers market to encourage its more widespread production and use has been a common phenomenon. As the availability of fertiliser is limited. Arora and and Sharma (1981) have proposed to increase under pulses or other non-fertilizers using crops whereas HYV of wheat and Paddy may be raised under irrigated conditions. 77

Jain (1970) concludes that Agriculture is now paying well on account of

the availability of a wide array of HYV of seeds and hybrid seeds. If

institutional finances are made available to the farmers, they can purchase

all these costly inputs and agricultural productivity can be increased. Rege

(1969) pointed out the relationship between soil, water and plant and

suggested use of irrigation to get assured crop especially during drought.

It is now widely recognised that in plans for agricultural regeneration in

India, irrigation has to play a catalyst role. Bhatia (1984) feels that the use of the fertilizers and HYV of seeds requires assured water supply of the farmers.

Roy (1979) suggested that the irrigation development and improved water management are crucial to India's agricultural development. The supply of land being inelastic accelerated growth in production is possible only through increased multiple cropping and relisation of higher crop yields per unit area, both of which are heavily dependent on irrigation.

Vasant (1987) suggests that efficient management of the developed water resources and supply and application of all other inputs needed for irrigated agriculture can produce sufficient foodgrain for the over increasing population of India.

Barter (1957) state that the agricultural implements and

Machinery can raise the agricultural production and it was therefore suggested that machinery and implements should be introduced in areas where they are not used. 78

The Food and Agriculture organisation has published two reports

in 1953 and 1955. The report published that the machinery is more cheaper

than labour. The second report published in 1955 gives an idea of progress in technology for agriculture. Another report published in 1968 deals with the problem of raising agricultural production by applying modern technology. Jain (1966) also concluded that mechanization is highly responsible for raising the agricultural productivity, Mathur (1969) has revealed in relation to pest studies that the use of HYV of seeds and seed treatment with organomercury compound is an important step towards the control of a number of seed-born diseases.

According to Singh (1984) increasing the agricultural production is a must and their protection from pests is as important as use of irrigation, HYV of seeds and fertilizers. He has suggested that the farmers need to be educated about judicious use of fertilizer otherwise boon can turn in to bane.

According to Khanna and Mittal (1970) there are about 85 species of insect pests reducing the yield of rice in Uttar Pradesh. In a recent study made in U.P. the key question was raised as to how the increase in Agriculture productivity, is dependent on variable like irrigation by canal, tubewell and from other sources, HYV of seeds, fertilizers per thousand hectares and tractor per thousand hectares. Shafi

(1981) pointed out that for optimum utilization of land resources, the programme of land reform, consolidation of fragmented holdings, irrigation and drainage should be integerated and executed in proper sequence. 79 According to Raza (1968) the output of food per head can be

raised out by increasing the yield or productivity per acre. This can be

achieved through carrying out necessary land reforms. He pointed out that

there are strong reasons to support the view that there has been some

casual link between the land reform and Agricultural productivity. Singh and Mishra (1964) after making a survey of land reform in Uttar Pradesh, suggested certain changes for increasing the area under cultivation including current fallow by more than eight percent.

According to Jather and Beri (1949) the most important feature of backwardness of Indian Agriculture is the endless subdivisions and fragmentation of holdings. In the-light of their occurences the author have suggested remedial measures to control this problem. Report of National

Commission on Agriculture (1976) pointed out that one of the major causes of low agricultural productivity in India is the fragmentation of holdings. It suggests, the consolidation of holding as the only answer to improve the agricultural structures.

According to Thirumalai (1954) agricultural credit is the pivotal problem in the scheme of agricultural development in India. Credit is the motive power for setting on its wheel the productivity machinery in agriculture conceived and planned on scientific basis.

According to Goud (1987) the strategy of agricultural development is the extending for proper financial assistance to the farmers so as to improve them from clutches of money tenders and for rapid agricultural development. He reveals that there should be a separate agency 80

to finance the farmers at village level. He also state that primary

agricultural co-operative credit societies play an immense role in

transformation of the traditional agriculture into a modern one.

Chawdhari (1970) pointed out that in India, the first

comprehensive analysis of the whole problem of Agricultural credit was

made by the Committee of Director of All India Rural credit survey

appointed by the RBI in August 1951, its report suggested three important

ingredients

a) the Governments concern must assume major responsibility for

provision of funds.

b) the realisation of the intimate relationship between the Agricultural

credit and marketing of agricultural credit and marketing of agricultural

produce.

c) the agricultural credit based on the productive capacity of the borrower

is feasible and ought to replace credit based on the security of immovable

property.

Kumarswamy (1969) pointed out that a study published by Union

Ministry of Co-operatives and Panchayati Raj shows the importance of

cooperative in the development of Agriculture providing loans and other

important inputs. Cooperatives ensure the full share of all the farming

community through balanced growth of production.

According to the Nath (1970) that the development of cooperatives and expansion of infrastructure will help in the development 81

of Indian Agriculture. Agricultural development throughout the world is

strongly motivated by the incentive of the farmers, which may take the

form of pride and ownership, security of occupancy and expectation of a

just division of farm income between landlords and tenants. These factors

eveiy where have the impact in improving the conditions of land.

Agricultural development is unquestionably a multi-dimensional

concept, of which crop production, crop-diversification and commercia-

lization of agriculture are the main components. Agricultural development

in a particular region means by and large, an improvement of land

productivity with the application of higher degree of modern inputs. In

most areas, this implies provision of inputs to farmers to enable them to

increase the yield productivity as such does not merely means the quantity

of production but includes in its perview, the variety and the quality of the produce. Igbozurike (1971) pointed out that the variety of agricultural produce can be noted from the crop diversification index. Diversification of cropping as an element of agricultural development is being supported not on economic grounds but on consideration of self-reliance in agricultural production and maintenance of soil fertility.

Diversification of Agriculture must be constructed as the second vital aspect of Agricultural development. It stands for promotion of dairying, cattle-rearing, pig raising, bee-keeping and fishing.

These activities not only significantly contribute to the basket of agricultural products but also generate additional employment for the surplus agricultural population, especially in crowded agricultural 82

countries like India. Commercialization of agriculture is still another

dimension of agricultural development.

Hutner (1969) concluded that the degree to which market forces

have penetrated an area and the scale upon which they operate will be the

crucial factors in almost every question of Agricultural development. The percentage of cropped area under cash crops may be used as a parameter of commercialization of agriculture. The density of market centres per

1000 sq.km of area can also provide a clue to the degree of commercialization of agriculture.

Davey (1975) pointed out that the development of agriculture is also to be judged from the degree of equity in farm incomes and the nature of agrarian relations. The test of any development is the extent to which it delivers social justice. The unequal distribution of land ownership and economic power makes it possible and profitable for the landowner to combine various modes of exploitation of the rural poor. Frankel (1971) concluded that one of the conspicuous weaknesses of the Green

Revolution was that it widened the disparities in farm income. An endeavour of agricultural development however should not produce deteriotation in ecological conditions. It should not lead to defacement of forests, exhaustion of soil nutrients, depletion of underground water and emergence of water logging conditions. Conseration of physical resourcfes is an integral part of any agricultural development. A review of geographical literature reveals that in India very few attempts have been made to define agricultural development and to select criteria in the light 83 of any conceptual framework. Rarely a distinction is made between the elements of agricultural development and the factors in agricultural development. Among all the studies the dominating focus is only on productivity dimension.

A composite index of Agricultural development based on three factors : i) Growth rate of Agricultural output ii) Use of modern inputs in Agriculture and iii) The producticity per hectare. It was put forth by Nath (1962) to

compare the level of agricultural development in various states of

India.

Sharma (1971) pointed out that Agricultural development should be assessed not only by the levels of productivity or trends in agricultural productionn but also with reference to various physical inputs like irrigation, fertilizers, improved seeds and extent of cultivated area."

Alam (1974), using data for individual tehsils in his study of disparities in development in the Andhra Pradesh, employed six indicator for the agricultural sector. Two of these related to productivity

(agricultural output per agricultural worker per acre) and four to factors in agricultural development (percentage of gross irrigated,canal irrigated, and double cropped area).

Raza (1978) after analysing 41 indicators of agricultural development, grouped into four subsets of productivity, production conditions agrarian relations, and change in agriculture. Productivity was 64

measured in terms of output per hectare, per worker, per tractor, per

tubewell, and per unit of fetilizers.

Mohammad A. (1979) pointed out that the stages of development

of Agriculture can be measured by two factors of labours and land productivity. It is well accepted fact that the higher the stage of development of Agriculture, the greater is the land and labour productivity.

Since agricultural development depends on Agro-technological determinants like irrigation, fertilizers, high yielding varieties of seeds and agricultural mechanization, it together form a developed kind of agricultural landscape and provide a frame of parameter to measure the level of agricultural development of a region. For agricultural development, the process of diffusion of agricultural innovations must be accelerated and the new farm technology should be made available to the cultivators so that they understand it easily. A speedy and extensive change could only be brought about bringing technological change and adoption of innovation and by fonnulating labour intensive oriented scheme in various sector.

Krishna (1992) pointed out in this paper, that agricultural development, in true sense, denote the quality of agricultural system of a region in terms of productivity, diversification and commercialization consistent with desired state of Agrarian relation and ecological balance.

According to Thakur (1992), after independnce, particularly during the last two decades, there considerable change in almost all the parameters of agriculture in India, due to the variation in physical and 85

socio-economic conditions, these changes in agriculture are not uniform

all over the country either spatially or temporally.

According to M.R. Khurrana (1992) the differences in the levels

of Agricultural development in a particular districts are largely in terms of

differences in irrigaiton facilities, rural electrification, use of chemical

fertilizers, adoption of HYV of seeds and so on.

Gangwar (1997) pointed out that since, the mid 1960's there have

been rapid increase in agricultural production in India as a result of

diffusion of package of improved cultural practices involving high yielding

varieties of seeds use of fertilizer irrigation, application of pesticides and

farm mechanization.

Swaminathan (1999) concluded that before the mid sixties,

increase in foodgrain output in the country was attributed mostly to the

growth of the cultivated area and the extension of irrigation, since, then,

the new farming system symbolized by HYV of seeds, use of agro-

chemical q^id mechanization had the powerful impact on the food sector of

the countiy. ^

Technological Factors

Technological factors are an important parameters which modified the structure of Agricultural production process. The term technological change defined as all kind of inventions and innovations

aimed at increasing the efficiency of agricultural production, it is a key to rapid growth of Indian agriculture which requires to continuous economic

adjustment of farm organisation to adopt technological improvements on a beneficial basis (Commen, 1966). 86

The suitable combination of various technological factors i.e. mode of irrigation, use of chemical fertilizers, high-yielding varieties of seeds, modern agricultural implements and machinery and enormous improved farming technology are liable to increase agricultural productivity and yield. In recent past the technological factors have played a significant role not only in overcoming various environmental constraints on agriculture, but also in bringing up yield level and promote the development of agriculture. "A different types of method have been evolved to increase productivity by using fertilizers and better techniques of using the soil fertility and the control of pests and diseases through the development and manufacture of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides. In short, the speedy and extensive development of agriculture more or less depends on technological change and spatial diffusion of agricultural innovations, increase in the cultivated area and double cropped area are often due to technological improvements" (Mohammad.Noor, 1981).

The farmers uses mechanical power and machinery either to increase food production or to maintain a given volume of production at a smaller cost. Power and equipments costs today represents an important and increasing proportion of total farm costs differ from farm to farm. "It is important to note that the farmers have such knowledge of power and machinery as enable to - i) choose the equipment well suited to their needs, ii) understand the working principles of the machines so that they may be kept in good conditions, iii) understand the application of the equipments in order that it may be operated efficiently (Robinson, 1972).

The present supply of agricultural implements is quite insufficient to meet 87

the existing demands. This serious gap in the agricultural programmes

undertaken during the plan period has been in the field of improved

agricultural implements (Jain, 1966).

Fertilizers

Application of fertilizers input is recognised as one of the

quickest ways in boosting agricultural production, the provision of

fertilizers at reasonable costs and at all the suitable time is an essential

requirements for the development of agriculture (Champa, 1976).

Fertilizers are usually regarded as the alternatives for animal

manures but that is not true. Animal manures improves soil conditions and

supply nutrients to the plants and its effect remain for long time. Animal

excreta and green manure contribute directly to the soil matter. Fertilizer

do so indirectly by increasing the quantity of crop residues available for

incorporation into the ploughed lands (Ignotieff, 1976).

Nitrogen,phosphorus and potash are required by the plant in large are known as primary nutrients. While calcium, magnesium and sulphur are secondary nutrients. The requirements of these nutrients are generally supposed by the use of common NPK fertilizers. Lack of nitrogen results in poor growth of plant and a uniform yellowing of the leaves. Indian soils are deficient mainly in nitrogen. The sources from which the required nitrogen can be used are farmyard manures like cowdung and vegetables refuse, elements of nitrogen can be applied through the nitrogen fixation process (Durray, 1986). Deficiency of potash is usually associated with a purple leaf colour, particularly at the edges but in certain crops such as 88

cotton and tobacco, the leaves became dark green. The effect of potash on

sugarcane differ with soil and rainfall. The sugar content of the cane is

increased by the use of potash. Thus an important process towards

increasing the agricultural efficiency is to ensure the appropriate use of

fertilizers and this can be done not only by just going alongwith the

general recommendation. Infact fertilizers and manures constitute a

crucial input in agricultural production (Thirumalai, 1954).

During the last 25 years or so the importance of fertilizers in

India has grown phenomenally. The total annual consumption increased by

over 40 times. "What underscores the importance of fertilizers at this

stage, however, is the increasing dependence of growth in agricultural

production on frtilizers due to limited scope for extensive cultivation.

Clearly fertilizers is important in any strategy of intensive cultivation of

land because yield depends on soil fertility (Desai, 1979). Singh and

others (1970) have emphasized the role of fertilizers as "the use of

fertilizers, apart from irrigation, is regarded as one of the fastest way of

increasing productivity of crops".

High Yielding Varieties of Seeds

As we know that India is a labour abundant country and therefore

labour using input should be preferred. High-yielding varieties of seeds

are capable to increasing production, and planners also realize that production of quality seed will continue to be an important inputs for crop production strategy (Five year plan, 1978-83). Improved varieties of seeds is an essential ingredients on the recent green revolution and rightly 89

named as miracle seed (Sadhu & Mahajan, 1985). The importance of better

seed can be judge from the statement of H.B. Sprague (1958) that if the

U.S. we suddenly to revert to older strains and varieties, we would be

plunged into a famine a food shortage of calossal proportion (Salamon &

Hanson, 1964). In 1960-61, a package project in seven intensive Area

development Programme (lADP) districts were experimented. These areas

were such which had an assured supply of irrigation and were free from

natural hazards. The project decided to introduce HYV with recommended

dose of chemical fertilizers. The lADP districts showed 25.53 per cent

high yield than non-IADP. In some case it was 50 per cent agricultural area

under HYV seeds is in great increasing. A considerable amount of increase

in area under HYV seeds of wheat, paddy, maize, jowar and bajra have been

reported every year. The highest area under wheat and the lowest area

under jowar. For most traditional varieties of wheat and rice, fertilizer

responses fall at about 40 to 50 Kg of nitrogen per hectare. In India

recommended fertilizer doses for the Mexican wheat are 80 to 120 kg

nitrogen, 40 to 60 kg Pp, and about 40 kg Kp per hectare (F.A.O. UN,

1969).

The success of high yielding programme has modernise

agriculture and brought about rapid increase in the food grain production

(India Annual, 1981). So the application of the package of inputs of HYV

and recommended doses of fertilizers have resulted in increase in yield per hectare (Dutt, 1986).

As a result of the introduction of HYV, rice production is also increasing at a faster rate in the wheat growing states, like Punjab, haryana 90 and western Uttar Pradesh. The new maxican varieties like Lerma-Rajo,

Sonara-64, Kalyan and PV-18 became so popular that the government was unable to meet the demand of farmers for better seeds and it also could not supply adequate quantities of fertilizers against the rapidly rising demands.

The introduction of genetic science has revealed possibilities of increasing yield of crops, through new varieties, sometimes based on hybrid seeds (Thirumalai, 1954).

Irrigation

In India farmers are most dependent on rainfall for the supply of water to their fields but monsoons are highly uncertain and irregular. In any particular years, the rains may not arrive at all or it may come in torrential form. Again the monsoon may start too early or too late. All this upsets agricultural works, resulting in partial or complete failure of crops.

Therefore irrigation can afford security against the vagaries of monsoon

(Agarwal, 1953). Due to inadequate rainfall, farmers could cultivate only one crop without irrigation in the limited period. Therefore irrigation development and improved water management are crucial to India's agricultural development. The accelerated growth in production is possible only through increased multiple cropping and realisation of higher crop yields per unit area, both of which are heaivly dependent on irrigation

(Roy, 1979). In monsoon lands where the rainfall and its distribution shows wide fluctuations, irrigation facilities are must for achieving assured and high level of agricultural production (Batra, 1978). In areas where the rainfall is plentiful and well distributed over the year, there is 91 no problem of water,but rainfall is very scanty in certain areas as well as uncertain. In these areas, artificial inigation is essential (Dutt & Sundram,

1971). It is fact that the agricultural development lies in the extension of irrigation. The main sources of irrigation in India are canals, perenial rivers, tubewells, and other sources like Tanks, ponds and wells. For getting the maximum benefits from irrigation, a planned system of irrigaiton has taken into account :

a) the supply of required water to the crops in season, b) the damage and disposal of excess water, c) Prevention of flood damages, d)

Conservation of soils, e) Conservation of water for dry period, f) the prevention of erosion by natural agencies.

The command area development programme was introduced during fifth plan. The programme highlight development of irrigation system by the construction of field channels, land levelling and landshaping, introduction of rotational water supply system and irrigated crop soil water management practices. "A number of analytical studies have proved that India can increase its agricultural production to a large extent. If adequate and assured irrigation facilities are available

(Mohammad, Noor, 1981).

Mechanization

The term mechanization is used to cover any means of mechanisation from the most simple to the most complicated, for carrying out agricultural operations from the first preparation of the land to the final preparation of the harvested products. The means of mechanisation 92 can be - i) simple land tools or land operated machines, ii) animal drawn tools and iii) moterised equipments, either with tractors or with static or carried engines, including those engines used for crop protection and irrigation etc.

The term mechanisation implies the introduction of tools, implements and machines which replace human and animal labour.

Mechanization is a most important system that can revolutionise Indian agriculture. The electric power and diesel power play significant role in the mechanization and rationalization of farm operations. The electric pumps and oil engines pumpsets are widely used for lifting water for irrigation purposes. Besides, power is used for spraying of plant pesticides and for harvesting, threshing of crops and crushing of sugarcane also. The use of machinery depends on certain prerequisites of which size of fields occupies prominent position. Most of the farm implements and machines are used beneficially in large size fields but their efficiency suffers if the plots are small. Indian agriculture is characterized by small size of land holding which stand in the way of mechanization. Therefore the Govt, as well as researchers has suggested that use of mechanized tools as first step towards the development of agriculture sectors. Mechanisation of agriculture will help in developing the economy upto marks (Agrawal,

1953).

Modern agriculture machines are very powerful tools which can bring great benefit by appropriate and timely use. Mechanization has increased the yield of crops, in case of timely preparation of the ground seeding, cultivaiton and harvesting (SalmOn & Hanson, 1964). 93

Insecticides and Pesticidcs

Crop insects, pests and its diseases produce a hinderance in the

way of agricultural production, fanners are always conscious everywhere,

crops and the corpping pattern and the variable climate conditions place an

ideal environment for the generation and thriving of insects, pests and

weeds. Therefore there is a continuous activity of pests, diseases and

weeds throughout the year posing a threat to our agriculture (Reddy,

1980). The analysis of various pesticides is done by several institutes i.e.,

Mysore and the Indian Agriculture Research Institute New Delhi. Different

types of pesticides, insecticides, nematicides and other chemicals are used

in agriculture, D.D.T. has improved the economic, social and health status

of developing country.

The task of increasing food production has many problems, one

of the most important is the control of pests, weeds and insects (Rao,

1971). It has been estimated that the average annually loses due to weeds

in crop land is greater than due to animals and plants diseases. The

seasonal weeds with broad leaves are the most effective in shading the corps and decreasing the yields.The only way to reduce loses in production by weeds is its control by practising clear cultivation. There are various controlling measures used for insects, diseases, pests and weeds for preventing their damages and reduction in yield i.e. Mechanical, physical, chemical, cultural and biological, cultural practices such as crop rotation, mixed cropping, date of sowing, depth of sowing and field sanitation through removal of diseased debris and weeds play a most important part in the control of plant diseases. The use of chemical for controlling the 94

diseases and pests are widespread in the world today, it is the only best

way to achieve the quick results, it is used in different forms such as dusts

and sprays. The use of pesticides therefore should increase together with

the use of modern technology for proper agricultural development.

Institutional Factors

Institutional factors play an important role in the development of

agriculture. The institutional factors include land consolidation, credit

supply, co-operative society and size of land holdings. All these factors play a veiy significant role in the development of agriculture.

Land Consolidation

Agriculture is the most important and basic occupation of the

Indians. The term land consolidation has been implies as an amalgamation and redistribution of all or any isolated and scattered units of individual plot into one consolidated compact field (Government of India, 1972). As we know division and subdivisions of holding result in the inefficient and unprofitable farming. By means of consolidation, all the scattered plot, of an individual farmers are consolidated in a compact are of larger size, which is equivalent to the area of all the scattered plots put together. Once all the agricultural plots of a farmer become compact or consolidated, it becomes easy to make use of the modern techniques for agricultural operations. On his consolidated fields, the farmers can erect tubewell and can use newly developed techniques of Agriculture viz. HYV of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and tractors etc. Moreover he can take care his consolidated farm in a much efficient manner. Thus we can conclude that 95

the consolidation of holdings has a direct impact on the productivity of

agriculture and in this way Indian agriculture has been developed in a right

direction.

Credit Supply

Credit is an essential for agriculture as for trade and industries.

The farmers require for purchasing seeds, fertilizers and agricultural

implements and machinery. Therefore we can say that credit supply is the

backbone of Indian agriculture. In agriculture, one of the main hinderance

is the smaller income of the farmers. Generally there were five agencies

which provide agricultural credit in the country such as

1. Indigenous money landless including even the zamindars and tenants.

2. Co-operative societies including credit societies, large land

morgage bank and marketing societies.

3. Bankers

4. State managed and controlled credit agencies including the R.B.I.

5. The state

For the agricultural development in general and adoption of

agricultural innovations in particular, substantial amount of capital is required, but the Indian farmers are so poor that they can not afford it properly. They take money at a very high rate of compound interests from various sources like middle man, money lenders and commission agent for their daily life. They exploit the poor farmers to the maximum extent. The result is that the farmers hardly get rid of the debt of these agencies, it is 96

very rightly state that Indian farmers by and large are bom in debt, grow up

in debt and die in debt. For the development of agriculture, the government

and other vairous institution are trying to help them by providing credit

facilities at a lower rate of interest. If these facilities are available to the

farmers they could grow double or even triple crops in a field within a

year. As a matter of fact, availability of adequate and timely credit

facilities promote fast development of agriculture.

Co-operative Society

It plays a very important role in the development of agriculture.

The co-operative society in India so far have been able to provide long term, short term and medium term loans to such farmers who are only the members of the co-operative. They are regarded as best agencies to provide productive loans to the farmers. The chief merit of co-operative finance is that it provide urgent and immediate financial help to the farmers.

The problem of agricultural marketing i.e. the pattern of the selling the agricultural produce are primitive and very defective. Now the co-operatives are the best remedies with respect to agricultural marketing.

Cooperative society is the best medium for a progressive in and developed agriculture. Major items of agricultural inputs are provided by co- operatives society. The supply and distribution of chemical fertilizers,

HYV of seeds, implements and machinery,irrigation facilities, pesticides and spraying have also done by this society. 97

Land Holdings

It is a very crucial factors in the development of agriculture. It is marked as a problematic factor of Indian agriculture, because large number of holdings are declared as uneconomic. During the British rule in our country, the condition of farmers and scope of agricultural development was veiy unsatisfactory. This was because the evils of institutional factors had reached to their maximum. In the pre-independence period, the story of agriculture was a story of feudalism. In that system of agriculture a very large proportion of agricultural produce had to go into the pockets of landlords and the farmers could get a very small share from it, therefore their interest towards the farming ultimately decline. Size of land holding is another institutional factor and it is most important to measure socio- economic status. In the study area the size of land holding is generally marginal as well as small, a large number of farmers have the average size of holdings from <1 to 4 hectare. According to one group of scholars there is a positive and high co-relationship between the size of holding and adoption of agricultural innovation. The argument proposed by these scholars is that, many innovations such as tractors, harvesters, threshers, sprayers, power tractors and other agricultural machinery can be used economically only in contiguous and large strip of land, it is therefore assumed that larger the size of holdings, higher is the use of agricultural innovations and higher is the agricultural productivity. Further if the size of holding is large, mechanical power can be easily used on this holding at cheaper rate with a great productivity. 98

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40. Nath, v., (1969) : The Growth of Indian Agriculture, "A regional Analysis", Geographical Review, vol. 59, p. 369.

41. Pal, B.P. (1968) : New Planning for water management research, Indian Farming, vol. 17, No. 10.

42. Quizon, J. (1985) : Withdrawl of fertilizer subsidies : An economic appraisal" Economic & Political Weekly, vol. 20, No. 39, Sept. pp. A- 117A-123.

43. Reg, N.D. (1969) : Water management - A new concepts in Agricultural planning, Indian Farming, vol. 23, No. 11.

44. Roy, S. (1979) : Irrigation development under India's New plan (1978-83) : An appraisal" Agricultural situation in India, vol. 34, No. 5, Aug. pp. 303-308.

45. Raza, M., (1968) : A land reform and landuse in U.P., The Geographer, vol. 15, pp. 39-49.

46. Raza, Moonis, (1978) : Levels of regional Development in India, Indo-Soviet Symposium on Regional development and National Planning, Tiblisi Baku, Appendix II.

47. Robinson, D.H. (1972) : Freams, element of Agriculture, London, pp. 523-24.

48. Reddy, D.B. (1968) : Plant protection in India, p. 2.

49. Rao, VP. (1971) : Biological control of Insects, pests and weeds, Everyman's Science, vol. 6, No. 2, p. 90. 102

50. Shafi, M. (1972) : Measurement of Agricultural Productivity of great Indian Plains, The Geographer, vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 4-13.

51. Shafi, M. (1981) : Increasing our agricultural Production, The Geographer, vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 1-8.

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54. Sharma, P.S. (1971) : Agricultural Regionalisation of India in Chandra Sekhar (ed). Economic & Socio-cultural dimension of regionalisation, Registrar General, New Delhi, pp. 253-278.

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TRENDS OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT 104

Uttarakhand region was a mountaineous area of Uttar Pradesh, here there agriculture and allied occupation are the main sources of income for bulk of the population of Uttarakhand. It not only provides food to 5.926 million (1991) but also supplies raw material to numerous agro- based industries. In the rural areas of the interior hills upto 90 per cent of the people are directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture. As a whole over 80 per cent of the population is involved in agriculture in the rural areas.

Land Use Pattern

Landuse is an important aspect of geographical studies and the progress of an area can be measured to a certain extent by the way in which its land is used and maintained (Rao, 1986). The landuse pattern is determined by various inter-related factors like the environmental, socio- economic, and also the scientific management of the land itself. Table 3.1 shows the area under different categories of landuse as percentage to total reported area for four period of time viz. 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and

1994-95*. The percentage of area under forest is very high, which means small percentage of land available for cultivation. The area covered by forest is 64.0 per cent in 1994-95,while it was 64.57 per cent of the total

*The author has selected four periods at five years interval viz., 1979-80, 1984- 85, 1989-90 and 1994-95, to study changes in landuse pattern, cropping intensity and growth rate in area, production and yield of major foodcrops. The base year has been selected to know the conditions prevailing after the onset of Intensive Agricultural Area Programme which started in 1964-65 and green revolution of 1966-67. The period under review shall therefore reveal the success or failure of lAAP and the impact of green revolution in the study area. Due to non-availability of the data for the study region during 2000-2001, the study has been concluded during the year 1994-95. 105

Table 3.1

Landuse Pattern in Uttarakhand

(Area in hectares)

Crop/year 1979-80 1984-85 1989-90 1994-95

Reported Area 5323230 5418108 5372625 5369589 Forest 3437056 3437405 3240767 3435513 (64.57) (63.44) (60.31) (63.98) Usar & not 289356 298832 284628 290644 suitable for (5.43) (5.51) (5.30) (5.41) cultivation Area under other 118817 123760 131035 135076 uses excluding (2.23) (2.28) (2.44) (2.51) cultivation Culturable waste 315726 318832 301781 312158 (5.93) (5.88) (5.62) (5.81) Permanent pastures 217198 272263 211584 218998 & other grazing (4.08) (5.02) (3.94) (4.07) Land Area under 185772 207803 204892 214059 miscellaneous trees (3.49) (3.84) (3.81) (3.98) Curren fallow 21195 12011 7538 7918 (0.40) (0.22) (0.14) (0.15) Other fallow 31516 44255 60553 62968 (0.60) (0.81) (1.12) (1.17) Net sown area 706594 702975 731846 692255 (13.27) (12.07) (13.62) (12.89) Area sown more 431103 389138 456552 449379 than once (9.00) (7.18) (8.50) (8.36) Gross cropped 1137697 1152413 1107398 1141634 area (21.37) (21.27) (20.61) (21.26)

Figures given within the brackets shows percentage from the reported area of the whole region Source : Agricultural Statistics, Directorate of Agriculture and Crop Insurances (1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95) Krishi Bhavan, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 106

area in 1979-80. The usar and uncultivable area is remain constant from

5.43 per cent in 1979-80to 5.41 per cent in 1994-95, while area under

other uses is merely increased from 2.23 per cent in 1979-80 to 2.51 per

cent in 1994-95.

The percentage share of area under miscellaneous trees, crops

slightly increased from 3.49 per cent to 3.98 percent, while the area under

permanent pastures and other grazing land, minor increased from 4.08 per

cent in 1979-80 to 4.77 per cent in 1994-95. The percentage share of

culturable waste land registered negligible, but negative change from 5.93

per cent in 1979-80 to 5.81 per cent in 1994-95.The current fellow has

also undergone change from 0.40 per cent in 1979-80 to 0.15 per cent in

1994-95 but other fallow land is increased from 0.60 per cent in 1979-80

to 1.17 per cent in 1994-95. It is evident that difficult terrain indicates

the fluctuation in the area available for cultivation. It has been observed

that net sown area slightly decreased from 13.27 per cent in 1979-80 to

12.29 per cent in 1994-95. The decrease in net cultivated area is due to

construction of new settlements and roads in the region. The multiple

cropping area or double cropped area (area sown more than once) has also

beeb decreased from 9.0 per cent in 1979-80 to 8.36 per cent in 1994-95.

Consequently the total gross cropped area has been merely declined from

21.37 per cent in 1979-80 to 21.26 per cent in 1994-95 (Fig. 3.1). There

are numerous streams, 'Gad' gadhera in the region but very little use of them is made for irrigation because of rugged topography, difficult

undulating landform features and high cost of lift irrigation scheme. 107

UTTARAKHAND

LANDUSE PATTERN 1979-80 1984-85

1989-90 1994-95

B Forest B Usar & not suitable for cultivation S Area under othenises exd cultivation • Culturable waste B Permanent pastures & other grazing land OArea under misci Trees B Current fallow • Other fallow m Net sown area g Area sown more than once

Fig. 3,.l 108

District-wise Distribution of Landuse Pattern

District-wise distribution of different categories of landuse area has been analysed over two period i.e. 1979-80 and 1994-95. It may be seen from Table 3.2 that in 1979-80 Nainital district had the largest netsown area being 29.63 per cent of the total reported area of the district, followed by Dehradun (17.64 per cent), Almora (15.60 per cent), Pauri-

Garhwal (14.50 per cent), Tehri Garhwal (12.74 per cent), Pithoragarh

(12.11 per cent), Chamoli (5.22 per cent) and Uttarkashi (3.93 per cent).

The area sown more than once in all the district varied from 1.95 per cent to 18.81 per cent. About 77.75 per cent of the netsown area was double cropped in the district Pithoragarh, but the Uttarkashi has the least area

(1.95 per cent) under double cropped in the region. Chamoli district discourage following, with the result that only 0.13 per cent of the area was left uncultivated during this period, there was little scope for further extension in cultivated area through waste land reclamation, as in all the district, the culturable waste was below 11.00 per cent of the total area.

Uttarkashi and Chamoli had below 3 per cent of their total area, available for reclamation.

Table 3.3 shows that during 1994-95, the percentage of netsown area however decline. In Nainital the net sown area declined to 28.35 per cent, while the other districtacquiring netsown area, namely Dehradun

(16.96 per cent), Almora (15.65 per cent), Pithoragarh (13.18 per cent),

Tehri-Garhwal (12.42 per cent), Pauri Garhwal (11.70 per cent) and

Chamoli (5.70 per cent) and Uttarkashi (4.20 per cent). The practice of double cropping (multiple cropping) has flourished in the region, three 109

C/3 T3

m o m —< fO ^ o •o aft (N ^ fS r- irt so 3 « © JS S CQ C X^ — I ow ^(N c i2 23 O) u« !/3 3 O lU Oo. 3 S -S ^ _ lo lo eo I- •O a <« ^ S OS OS ^ •oO c U it C -ca 05 o w I Si P a> .S N 3 • •• 3 •rPi O P •o 00 1 S 00 illi 55 w tn ci I OnS 00 so r—-H p 00 (N tN Sa « C5 « ^c •• CDOO (/) 3 s po •«a •5b 8 o o Ui ^ 2 E Xi •w I i-i 00 3 < O 2 2 E O O a; Q(U fSp C- CO 110

u Ct-l3 £O sp. Mg o o 5 fe

o\ o m sr- js ON m ^—^ (N 00 ' V s "n c: o ^ 00 (N 0 0 u 11 u-i ON fW t -t- 41 — o h 2 -a M c 05 0. c. o .£ 23 in 00 ^ C f2 0) NO in ^ 00 n rs i-H (U Q. n 0 e oi1 13 || «3 m si r- ^ C 00 I < o « e < P o ^^ /—> o ^—• w ON t^ I. m s s (S 0000 io 00 >n u I/l © C! 05 '2 00 TO t^ Tt w ^ £ TOo ON X) TO 11 r- 1-H n r-n <0 CO ^ra 1 T3 2 t-l o 'C o u t-TOl 00 i i 53 ^ 03 op t3! < 2 O (L> S o I o 5 Dh Q e2 D 00 Ill district had more than 10 per cent of their area under multiple cropping and the remaining district shown below 10 per cent of their area. District

Dehradun had a large percentage (20.32 per cent) of its total area under multiple cropping,while Uttarkashi recorded 2.12 per cent of their area under multiple cropping. The practice of fallowing is still common,its area has increased from 1979-80 to 1994-95. Only one district namely, Pauri-

Garhwal had more than 2 per cent of their land under fallow. In the remaining all district,the percentage of fallow land ranged between 0.20 and 1.87 per cent of the total reported area.The percentage of culturable waste of the region remain constant duringthe period from 1979-80 to

1994-95, there were three district, namely Tehri-Garhwal, Almoraand

Pithoragarh where more than 8 per cent of culturable waste is present, the remaining districts have below 6 per cent of cultural waste of their respective reporting area.

Cropping Intensity

This is an indicator of the extensive or intensive use of landuse for crop production. The intensity of corpping pattern implies to the number of crops grown in a field during an agricultural year. The rapid growth of population has been exerting pressure on land. Land are being unextensible, therefore intensification of cultivated area is the only alternative measures for increasing production. The cropping patterns are mainly guided by physical, technological and institutional factors like favourable climatic conditions, irrigation facilities, agricultural mechani- sation, adoption of chemical fertilizers and high-yielding varieties of seeds. A congegerate impact of these factors transforms the landuse 112

•o o ro B o o c « OS <53 J3 + ¥ > M CO La t-H m CS p S) CQ f-H r-i • ^ VO vo s CO 'C 0 ^^—^ e T Os •a3 + 9 + as ct 00 r- (N u ON fN 00 as J= (N v-i fN ON u 0 o o (N J= W-) f—NO< NO NO ex) ^—^ es 1/1 ^ (N ND (U c ON 00 0 r- c u .e CO u W) ? ? r> <0 C i/5 es >0 t-M z Os" rsi d 0. k-0i •T3 U C cn •—>0I m •a « fN 00 c OX) VD CO c o u m 1/1 'S. B 00 >NO0 m fN 3 Q. x: 1 fN O O 0 rr •ri 30 u 'C w ao 00 m r- < o m 0 u 0) JS >0 0 r- r- vo -*-» <0u 00 ro hCS. 0 o 00 "O f^ Or-S >0 CA t-COc s Ci, NO NO CO C/2 CO NO po "cO D •ri + + + 3 0 c B ON Nt-O v0o0 ^ Tt 'u 0 Z NO fN N00O 00 3 < HJ O V) o a> 00 •0 u ^ 0\ o ta OSs 4 OS Uc r- 00 00 O o\ ON OS 00 113

efficiency, which means the degree of extent to which the net-cultivated

area is re-sown. The percentage of gross cropped area to the net sown

gives a measure of landuse efficiency, which in other words, may be

termed as cropping intensity.

The table 3.4 represents the corpping intensity of various districts of Uttarakhand from 1979-80 to 1994-95. The cropping intensity varies from district to district in the area studied. The highest percentage of cropping intensity are recorded in the district of Nainital. It has achieved 5.61 per cent growth rate between the year 1979-80 and

1984-85, whereas in the same period, the percentage growth of the remaining districts are found below 2.0 per cent. The highest percentage growth rate of cropping intensity are recorded between 5.00 to 5.61 per cent in three districts namely, Nainital, Pauri-Garhwal and Dehradun, during the year 1979-80 to 1994-95 in this region. The rest of the districts fall under 2.0 per cent growth rate in the area studied.

Major Food Crops : Trends of Growth

The distributional pattern of individual crops varies in space and time, according to the local forces governing their cultivation. A study of rate of increase or decrease of major crops over time will shows the combined impact of forces playing their part and will help in understanding the direction of agricultural development. The linear growth rates in area and production of major food crops grown in Uttarakhand have been calculated using regression equation. It is expressed as Y = a + bX, where

Y refers to linear growth trend model for area and production separately and X is time variable. The trend values thus obtained for area and 114 production were plotted and jointed to show the general trend. The area and production data for years , from 1979-80 to 1994-95 have been obtained from various issues of Agricultural Statistics, Directorate of

Agriculture & Crop Insurance, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.

The growth rate in area, production and yield of individual crops in Uttarakhand are given in Table 3.5 for three quinquennial periods i.e.

1979-84, 1984-89 and 1989-94 and the year-wise trend of area and production of major cereals, pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops are shown in

Fig. 3.2, 3.4 and 3.4. An attempt has also been made to explain the changes in trends of growth rate in area, production and yield of each crop in the region.

Wheat : Among individual crops wheat followed by rice, accounted for the highest growth rate in Uttarakhand with respect to area, production, and yield per hectare. Wheat is the leading crop and occupied an area of

367.71 thousand hectares in Uttarakhand and the area under its cultivation increased to 385.04 thousand hectares in 1984-85. In 1989-90 the area again increased to 391.18 thousand hectares but it decreased to 371.39 thousand hectare during the period 1994-95. As against this the production of wheat continuously rose from 441.92 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to

493.72 thousand ones in 1984-85, 572.41 thousand tonnes in 1989-90 and

678.76 thousand tones in 1994-95. The Average yield rose up from 12.0 quintal per hectare in 1979-80 to 12.82 quintal per hectare in 1984-85,

14.63 quintal per hectare in 1989-90 and it further increased to 18.27 quintal per hectare in 1994-95. 115

Table 3.5 Growth rate in area, production, and yield of major food crops in Uttarakhand (Figures in percentage)

Crop/year 1979-84 1984-89 1989-94 1979-80-1994-95

Rice A -1.70 + 1.77 -0.95 -0.91 P +50.32 +8.83 +3.32 +68.88 Y +52.90 +6.97 +4.19 +70.42

Wheat A +4.71 + 1.59 -5.05 + 1.00 P + 11.72 + 15.93 + 18.58 +53.50 Y +6.83 + 14.11 +24.88 +52.25

Maize A -3.67 -6.72 -7.34 16.75 P +23.29 -12.95 -19.20 -13.27 Y +27.99 -6.67 -12.77 +4.18

Barley A -18.55 +40.92 -17.43 -5.23 P -36.24 +83.35 -13.19 + 1.48 Y -21.78 +30.14 +5.18 +7.06

Gram A -57.42 +2.40 -5.40 -58.75 P -22.88 -7.87 + 14.53 -18.63 Y +81.06 -10.08 + 17.65 +91.54

Peas A +57.75 +7.07 +61.36 + 172.53 P + 136.58 +0.82 +33.13 +217.58 Y +50.15 -5.85 -17.47 + 16.67

Aihar A +45.46 -4.97 -0.24 +38.15 P + 178.24 -37.03 -30.07 +22.13 Y +91.36 -33.85 -30.07 -11.48

Masoor A +5.14 -3.00 -3.92 -2.02 P +0.71 + 10.07 +20.96 +34.10 Y -4.12 + 13.27 +25.90 +36.74

Urd A +56.76 +21.83 -7.81 +76.08 P -1.56 +34.63 + 17.02 +55.09 Y -37.07 + 10.00 +27.27 -11.91 116

Sesamum A +55.27 +3.26 -13.90 +38.06 P -26.84 +61.83 -25.96 -12.34 Y -52.84 +56.89 -14.28 -36.58

Rapeseed A +33.68 -17.46 +2.35 + 12.93 & Mustard P + 100.99 -18.38 +24.15 + 103.67 Y +50.44 -1.18 +21.32 +80.35

Soybean A +30.68 + 19.77 +41.24 + 121.07 P +28.95 +44.42 +9.02 + 103.02 Y -1.37 +20.59 -22.77 -8.17

Sugarcane A -0.36 +29.82 -3.78 +24.46 P +22.06 +70.25 -6.68 +93.90 Y +22.50 +31.14 -3.02 +55.79

Potato A +65.31 + 14.14 + 10.63 + 108.95 P +113.80 +23.14 +9.59 + 188.54 Y +29.32 +7.79 -0.90 +38.14

Onion A + 13.71 -0.90 +25.35 +41.25 P + 16.24 -21.42 +32.46 +20.99 Y +2.22 -20.70 +5.67 -14.34

A - Area, P - Production, Y - Yield

Source . Agricultural Statistics, Directorate of Agriculture and Crop Insurances (1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95) Krishi Bhavan, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 117

The trend lines of area and production as plotted and depicted in

Fig. 3.2 show a rising trend. It may be seen from Table 3.5 that wheat has

registered a linear growth in area and production in the region by 53.50

per cent during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95 due to the adoption

of modern inputs in the region.

Rice : Rice is the second leading crop in this region, it covers an area of

283 thousand hectares in 1979-80, however the area decreased to 278.18

thousand hectares in 1984-85. But it has further increased to 283.10

thousand hectares in 1989-90 and again declined to 280.41 thousand

hectare in 1994-95.Although it recorded a fluctuation in area but the

production and yield per hectares achieved a significant increase. The

quantum of production rose from 326.38 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to

490.64 thousand tones in 1984-85, 533.99 thousand tonnes in 1989-90

and reached at the level of 551.19 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. Similarly

the yield increased from 11.53 quintal per hectare in 1979-80 to 17.63

quintal per hectare in 1984-85, 18.86 quintals per hectare in 1989-90 and

19.65 quintal per hectare in 1994-95.

The trend lines of area and production of rice shows an upward

movement (Fig. 3.2). It may be evident from the Table 3.5 that the area under rice decreased by 0.9 per cent while the production increased by the

68.88 per cent during the period from 1979^80 to 1994-95.

Barley : The area occupied by Barley was 29.97 thousand hectares in

1979-80 and it decreased to 24.41 thousand hectares in 1984-85. But it further expands to 34.40 thousand hectares in 1989-90 and then declined 118

UTTARAKHAND TRENDS OF GROWTH IN AREA AND PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CEREALS (1979 - 94) WHEAT 600 RfCE 700 ... o y-' ^o y 500 600 / z / o / / / / o / /.•* _ /• Q 400 / 500 / o / cc / t Q. V W 300 4 00

200 , 1 1 1 . 300 J L 1979 89 1 994 1979 84 89 1994

60 r M AlZ E 50 r- BARLEY o o .o x 2 50 40 o /

20

20 _l L 10 J L 1979 84 89 1994 1979 84 89 1994

AREA IN HECTARES

PRODUCTION IN METRIC TONNES REGRESSION LINE

FIG-3-2 119 to 28.40 thousand hectares in 1994-95. It shows a fluctuation in both area and production but the yield shows different trend, and decreased from

11.75 quintal per hectare in 1979-80 to 9.19 quintal per hectare in 1984-

85 but it again increased to 11.96 quintal per hectare in 1989-90 and 12.58 quintal per hectare in 1994-95.

The trend lines of area and production of barley shows an elevated pattern (Fig. 3.2). The linear growth of area and production are given in

Table 3.5. It may be evident from the table that the area under barley decreased by 5.23 per cent while production increasedby 1.48 per cent from 1979-80 to 1994-95.

Maize : The area under maize was 38.06 thousand hectares in 1979-80 but it continuously declined to 36.66 thousand hectares in 1984-85 to 34.20 thousand hectares in 1989-90 and 31.69 thousand hectares in 1994-95. As again this the production and yield of maize was 43.65 thousand tonnes and 11.47 quintal per hectare in 1979-80, which rose to 53.82 thousand tonnes and 14.68 quintal per hectare in 1984-85. But during the subsequent year the production as well as yield declined to 46.86 thousand tonnes and

13.70 quintal per hectare in 1989-90 and 37.86 thousand tonnes and 11.95 quintal per hectare in 1994-95.

The trend lines of area and production of maize depict downward movement (Fig. 3.2). It is obvious from the Table 3.5 that the maize has a negative linear growth in area and production in various quinquennial periods. The area as well as production declined by 16.75 per cent and

13.27 per cent during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95. ] 20

Gram : The area under gram was 4.29 thousand hectares during the period

1979-80 but it decreased to 1.82 thousand hectares in 1984-85, 1.87

thousand hectares in 1989-90 and 1.77 thousand hectares in 1994-95.

There has also been a gradual delcine in the production of gram from 1.92

thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 1.48 thousand tonnes in 1984-85, 1.36

thousand tonnes in 1989-90 and further increased to 1.56 thousand tonnes

in 1994-95 but the yield shows fluctuation during the period studied.

The trend lines plotted in Fig. 3.3 shows a downward movement.

It may be seen from the Table 3.5 that the linear growth rate of area under

gram has a negative growth of 58.75 per cent while production decreased

by 18.63 per cent during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95. Like arhar,

gram is also sensitive to frost during flowering time and therefore needs

special attention.

Peas : Peas is an important crop as compared to other pulses in

Uttarakhand because it uses as pulse and sell in the market as cash crop.

The area and production has continuously increased from 0.85 thousand hectares and 0.56 thousand tonnes respectively in 1979-80 to 1.34 thousand hectares and 1.33 thousand tonnes in 1985-85 to 1.43 thousand hectare and 1.34 thousand tonnes in 1989-90 and 2.32 thousand hectares and 1.78 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. As against this the yield increased from 6.60 quintal per hectare in 1979-80 to 9.91 quintal per hectare in

1984-85. But it declined to 9.33 quintal per hectare in 1989-90 and 7.70 quintal per hectare in 1994-95, due to bad weather condition in the region.

The trend lines of area and production as plotted in Fig. 3.3 shows a rising trend. It may be seen from the Table 3.5 that peas has registered a 121

UTTARAKHAND TRENDS OF GROWTH IN AREA AND PRODUCTION OF MAJOR PULSES (1979 - 94) 6RAM 4r PEAS 4r ARHAR

/ \ / /

0' • I 1 1 1— Ol I I L. 199^ 1979 8/, 89 199i 1979 89 199-i

520, MASOOR lOr URD o e

O KO

i.1 "'i—r—I—I—1_ 1979 8A 89 1994 1979 84 89 199^

FIG. 3-3 122

gradual linear growth in area and production in the region. The area under

peas increased by 172.53 per cent while production increased by 217.58

per cent during the period studied.

Arhar : Arhar is one of the most important crop in this region, there has

been fluctuation in its area, production as well as yield. The area under

arhar was 1.19 thousand hectares in 1979-80, which increased to 1.73

thousand hectares in 1984-85 but it declined to 1.64 thousand hectares in

1994-95.Similarly the production and yield also followed the same trend

as area.

The linear growth rate of Arhar given in Table 3.5 shows that area

under arhar increased by 38.15 per cent while production increased by

22.13 per cent during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95.

Masoor : Masoor is a leading crop among the other pulses in this region.

The area under the masoor was 15.54 thousand hectares during 1979-80

and increased to 16.33 thousand hectares in 1984-85. But during the

remaining period it declined to 15.84 thousand hectares in 1989-90 to

15.22 thousand hectares in 1994-95. As against this, the production continuously rose from 8.67 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 8.73 thousand tonnes in 1984-85, 9.61 thousand tonnes in 1998-90 and 11.63 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. But the yield has gradually declined from 5.58 quintal per hectare in 1979-80 to 5.35 quintal per hectare in 1984-85 but it further rose to 6.06 quintal per hectare in 1989-90 to 7.63 quintal per hectare in 1994-95.

The trend lines of area and production in Fig. 3.3 shows different pattern. The area shows downward while production shows an upward trend. 123

The linear growth rate of both area and production of masoor has been

given in Table 3.5, the area under masoor decreased by 2.02 per cent while

the production and yield increased by 34.10 per cent and 36.74 per cent

respectively during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95.

Urd : Urd ranked second after masoor in terms of area. The area under urd

was 5.32 thousand hectares during 1979-80 but it recorded an insignificant

increased to 8.34 thousand hectares in 1994-95. But the production and

yield followed the same patterns. The production and yield decreased from

2.36 thousand tonnes, and 4.45 quintal per hectare in 1979-80, to 2.33

thousand tonnes, and 2.80 quintal per hectare in 1984-85, but it further

expand to 3.13 thousand tonnes, and 3.08 quintal per hectare in 1989-90,

and 3.67 thousand tonnes, and 3.92 quintal per hectare in 1994-95.

The trend lines of area and production as plotted in Fig. 3.3 show

an elevated trend. Table 3.5 clears that the area under urad increased by

76.08 per cent while the production increased by 55.09 per cent during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95.

Sesamum : The area under sesamum enhanced from 1.87 thousand hectares in 1979-80 to 2.91 thousand hectares in 1984-85 and 3.0 thousand hectares during 1989-90 but it declined to 2.59 thouand hectares in 1994-95. Conversely the fluctuation occurs both in terms of production and yield. The trend lines of area and production shown in Fig.3.4, the area shows a rising trend but the trend lines of production depict a straight line.

The linear growth rate of area and production of sesamum given in Table

3.5 shows that area under seasmum increased by 38.06 per cent. As against 124

UTTARAKHAND TRENDS OF GROWTH IN AREA AND PRODUCTION OF MAJOR OILSEEDS (1979 - 94)

SESAMUM 60 RAPESEED & MUSTARD

3 45 z o o a 30 o q:

Q. 15 LU

1979 8/, 89 199A 1979 84 89 1994

40 SOYABEAN

o o o 30

o AREA IN HECTARES d 20 PRODUCTION IN METRIC o TONNES. o a.q: REGRESSION LINE N < 10 u

19 79 84 89 1994

FIG.3.^ 125 this the production decreased by 12.34 per cent during the year from

1979-80 to 1994-95.

Rapeseed and Mustard : Among oilseeds, rapeseed and mustard have a leading position as they cover greater area than any other oilseeds. The area under mustard was 11.41 thousand hectares in 1979-80 increased to

15.25 thousand hectares in 1984-85. Later on t declined to 12.59 thousand hectare in 1989-90 but it further arose to 12.88 thousand hectares in

1994-95. The production and yield under rapeseeds and mustard significantly increasing from 5.11 thousand tonnes and 4.48 quintal per hectare respectively in 1979-80 to 10.27 thousand tonnes and yield 6.74 quintal per hectare in 1984-85 but it declined to 8.38 thousand tonnes and yield 6.66 quintal per hectare in 1989-90 and it further increased to 10.41 thousand tonnes and yield 8.08 quintal per hectare in 1994-95, due to favourable climatic conditions.

The trend lines of area and production plotted in Fig. 3.4 show upward movement. The area and production under rapeseed and mustard increased by 12.93 per cent and 103.67 per cent respectively during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95.

Soyabean : Soyaban is the main source of protein and hence it occupied an important position in Uttarakhand. Soyabean shows a significant increase both in terms of area and production, the area under soyabean increased from 8.45 thousand hectares in 1979-80 to 11.04 thousand hectares in 1984-85, it further increased to 13.22 thousand hectares in

1989-90 and 18.68 thousand hectares in 1994-95. The production of 126

soyabean increased from 12.35 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 15.93

thousand tonnes in 1984-85, it further increased to 23.0 thousand tonnes

in 1989-90 and 25.0 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. Conversely the yield has

shown meagre decrease from 14.62 quintal per hectare in 1979-80 to

14.42 quintal per hectare in 1984-85 but it again increased to 17.39

quintal per hectare in 1989-90 but it further decline to 13.43 quintal per

hectare in 1994-95.

The trend lines of area and production as plotted in Fig.3.4 shows

an upward movement. It may be seen from the Table 3.5 that soyabean has

registered a linear growth in area and production in the reigon, the area

under soyabean increased by 103.02 , it further increased to during the

session 1979-80 to 1994-95.

Sugarcane : Uttarakhand is not an important producer of sugarcane as

compared to the sugarcane belt of western and eastern U.P. The area and production has increased in the first three subsequent year, later on

declines during the last session. The area under sugarcane was increased from 38.49 thousand hectares in 1979-80 to 49.79 thousand hectares in

1989-90 but it gradually declined to 47.91 thousand hectares in 1994-95, but the quantum of production and yield rose from 1,508.0 thousand tonnes and 391.88 quintal per hectare respectively in 1979-80 to 1,841.0 thousand tonnes and 480.0 quintal per hectare in 1984-85 to 3,135.0 thousand tonnes and 629.0 quintal per hectare in 1989-90. But declined to

2925.0 thousand tonnes and 610.0 quintal per hectare during 1994-95.

In Fig. 3.5 the trend lines of area shows a downward pattern but the trend lines of production shows an elevated trend. 127

UTTARAKHAND TRENDS OF GROWTH IN AREA AND PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CASHCROPS (1979-94)

400 ^ooor SUGARCANE POTATO o po z 3000 300 o o 3 ' J--' § 2000 200 ct .-• / Q. <

3: 89 199^ 1579 8A 89 199^ 1979

20r ONION

o o o 15 AREA IN HECTARES PRODUCTION INMETRIC o —I TONNES u REGRESSION LINE o 10 o cc a < u q: <

T . 1979 89 1994

FIG.3-5 128

Potato : Potato is the most famous and evergreen crops in the world and named as the "KING OF VEGETABLES". In 1979-80 the area under potato was 6.90 thousand hectares but in 1984-85 it rose to 11.40 thousand hectares in 1989-90 to 13.03 thousand hectares and 14.41 thousand hectares in 1994-95. Similarly the production has attained a continuous rise from 90.28 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 193.02 thousand tonnes in

1984-85, 237.68 thousand tonnes in 1989-90 and 260.49 thousand tonnes in 1994-95, and the yield also increased from 130.84 quintal per hectare in 1979-80 to 169.21 quintal per hectare in 1984-85, 182.39 quintal per hectare in 1989-90 but it gradually declined to 180.75 quintal per hectare during 1994-95.

The trend lines of area and production plotted in Fig. 3.5 shows an elevated trend. It may be obvious from the Table 3.5 that potato has recorded a positive linear growth in area and production, the area under potato expands by 108.95 per cent while the production increased by

188.54 per cent during the study period.

Onion : The area occupied by onion was 0.87 thousand hectares in

1979-80 and increased to 0.99 thousand hectares in 1984-85 but it delcined to 0:98 thousand hectares in 1989-90, it further expand to 1.23 thousand hectares in 1994-95. Similarly the production and yields also followed the same trend as area.

The trend lines of area and production shows a rising trend. The linear growth rate of area and production of onion shown in Table 3.5, the 129 V area under onion increased by 41.25 per cent wile the production increased by 20.99 per cent during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95.

District-wise Growth Rate in Area, Production and Yield of Major Food Crops in Uttarakhand

Nainital

The change in area, production and yield of major crops are shown in Table 3.6. The table reveals that Nainital district depicts an increasing trend in the area of cereals in one period i.e. by 13,586 hectares (5.60 percent) in 1979-84 but in the remaining period, the area under cereals shows a decreasing trend i.e. by 13,300 hectares (5.91 per cent) in 1984-89 and by 6,728 hectares (2.77 per cent) in 1989-94. The overall decrease in area between 1979-80 to 1994-95 under cereals area is 6,442 hectares or 2.65 per cent.

The area under pulses shows a decreasing trend in all the three quinquennial periods. The highest decrease in area was recorded in

1979-84 i.e. by 4,157 hectares (34.51 per cent)) but the lowest decrease recorded in 1989-94 i.e. 38.0 hectares (0.52 per cent). The overall decrease in area under pulse is 4,815 hectares (39.97 per cent).

The area under oilseeds also shows an increasing trend except in second quinquennial periods. It increased by 3,736 hectares (20.95 per cent) in 1979-84 but it decreased by 1,233 hectares (5.71 per cent) in

1984-89 but it again increased to 3,354 hectares (16.50 per cent) in

1989-94. The overall increase in area under oilseeds from 1979-80 to

1994-95 is about 5,857 hectares (32.85 per cent). The area under cash 130 cd (U 00 NO ON o NO CO (N o m ON CO o CO 00 ON ON (N •-H AOn 00 ^ ro ^ 00 JC? ^ o tt o I ^ o S 9 00 fn oo CO O Ti- ro 00 m m CO f'i cs (N ^ > ^ fS-g I CS NO rf cm' 1 o u c® -C 7 7? 1 1 + + + + Q. H w < <0 0 a O) o (U o (N -H O O CO ^ (N L. o r^ lO u-1 (N 00 CS OJ A c 00 9 ON CQ ON ON o O ON CO <». Tf- d u CO TT + + + 77? + + + + + + o 00 U I ON s ^ t^ o „ to 0) NO NO NO » ID ON N O -O — W) 00 CO NO o NO O r-- (Tt o >n CO m >o (N CO i> ON (N ON £ -4«J C5J CO ONM D r^ CO CO —I I ^ o —I CO 03 w, c® NO CO l> r- O H « + + + t 7 + + + + + + + C/D ji P ^ 3 o O c op 3 < J VI cd (U CO 1) (U to •o a o H

crops shows an elevated trend in first two quinquennial period. It increased

by 1,329 hectares (3.82 per cent) in 1979-84, by 10,970 hectares (30.36

per cent)in 1984-89 but it decrease in area by 2,345 hectares (4.98 per

cent) in 1989-94. The overall increase in area under cash crops fi-om

1979-80 to 1994-95 is 9,954 hectares (28.60 per cent).

On the other side, the production of cereals shows a fluctuating

trend, it increased by 1,93,361 metric tonnes (47.70 pe rcent) in the first

quenquennial period, but it declined by 11,572 metric tonnes (1.92 per

cent) in 1984-89 and it again rose by 1,02,229 metric tonnes or 17.32 per

cent in 1989-94. The overall increase of production under cereals is

2,84,018 metric tonnes (69.55 per cent).

As far as pulses is concern, the production trend shows downward

in the first two quinquennial period i.e. by 105 metric tonnes (1.98 per

cent) and 1,564 metric tonnes (30.10 per cent) but in the last period it

rose by 2,828 metric tonnes (77.84 per cent). However the overall

increase under pulses is about 1,159 metric tonnes (21.86 per cent). The

production of oilseeds shows an increasing trend throughout the period,

because of the shifting of areas of cereals and pulses to oilseed and cash

crops respectively, it is increased by 7,374 metric tonnes (49.40 per cent)

in 1979-84, 4,602 metric tonnes (20.63 per cent) in 1984-89 and 380

metric tonnes (1.41 per cent) in 1989-94. The overall increase in

production of oilseeds is 12,356 metric tonnes (82.77 per cent). But the

production trend of cashcrops also shows an increasing trend except in

last quinquennial period, it increased by 3,19,160 metric tonnes (24.81 percent), 11,67,897 metric tonnes (72.74 per cent) during the period 132

1979-84 and 1984-89 respectively but it reduced by 2,00,130 metric tonnes (7.21 per cent) in 1989-94. The overall increase in production of cashcrops is 12,86,927 metric tonnes (100.00 pe rcent).

The yield of cereals shows a positive trend in all quinquennial period. The overall increase in yield under cereals is 12.50 quintal per hectare (74.18 per cent) in 1979-84. The yield of pulses shows fluctuating trend, the maximum increase in yield in pulses i.e. 3.93 quintal per hectare was recorded in 1989-94, the maximum decrease in yield of 1.60 quintal per hectare (24.24 per cent) under pulses are seen in the period of

1984-89. But the overall shows an increase in yield by 4.53 quintal per hectare (102.95 per cent), the yield of oilseeds shows a mixed trend synonyms to pulses, but on the whole there is an increase in its yield by

3.15 quintal per hectare (37.63 per cent). The yield of cash crops shows an increasing trend except in 1989-94, when it decreased by 14.34 quintal per hectare (2.43 per cent). The highest increase in yield of 144.92 quintal per hectare under cash crops was observed in 1984-89. The overall increase in yield is about 205.33 quintal per hectare (55.54 per cent) in

1979-80 to 1994-95.

Almora

The patterns of area, production and yield of different crops during 1979-80 to 1994-95 are shown in Table 3.7. Table demonstrates that the district of Almora shows fluctuating trend in terms of area of cereals, it decreased by 9,723 hectares (8.31 per cent) but it enhanced by

13,000 hectares (12.13 per cent) in the next quinquennial period and it 133 CSc CO o > O) ri- >o o fN o m rj- Kj IT) OX) r-- CO c ch Tj- oo o o »—H OS pa I es 00 (N OS O K O (N o a\ so (N so 00 O) so so O 00 o OS OS o tT so o c OS n 1-H Tt I rsi Tt r—1 t-H I—1 cn 0 D. 73 -f + + + + -f + + + -f + + f2 G o\ a 00 "r u c I 00 ri m ^ O os" 00 cn (U o i a^ n O -O _ OX) cn- 9 •r: cs o oo ^ so o OS - ^ u « s «J -a P ^ " ^ o o3 c op 3 < J ed cn

1984-89 but it reduced by 533 hectares (12.94 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas the overall increase of area under pulses is 1,511 hectares (72.85 per cent).

The area under oilseeds and cashcrops enjoys an increasing trend throughout. In case of olseeds, the highest increase of area was recorded in 1979-84 and the lowest in 1984-89, while in cashcrops the maximum increase was recorded in 1989-94 and the lowest in 1984-89. The expansion in areas during these years are a witness to constant impact of developing technology which help in recalamation of waste land. As against this the production of cereals also shows fluctuating trend, it decreased by

20,022 metric tonnes (19.56 per cent) in 1979-84, and it rose by 47,808 metric tonnes (58.10 per cent) in 1984-89 but it again decline by 11,473 metric tonnes (8.82 perc ent)in 1989-94. On the whole, the increase in production of cereals is about 16313 metric tonnes (15.94 per cent), while the production of pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops shows an elevated trend, the production of pulses, oilseeds and cash crops has increased by 136 metric tonnes (8.70 per cent), 289 metric tonnes (138.94 per cent) and cashcrops 6,944 metric tons (43.47 per cent) in the year 1979-84. During the year 1984-89, the production of these three crops have increased by

694 metric tons (40.77 per cent), 201 metric tonnes (40.44 per cent) and

3,238 metric tonnes (14.13 per cent). In 1989-94, the production of pulses have increased by 251 metric tonnes (10.47 per cent), oilseeds 517 135

/ metric tonnes per cent) and cash crops 6,956 metric tonnes (26.60 per cent), whereas on the whole the production of pulses have increased by 1,081 metric tonnes (69 per cent), oilseeds 1007 metric tonnes

(484.13 per cent) and 17,138 metric tonne (107.30 per cent).

The yield of cereals, pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops exhibits an increasing trend. The highest increase of yield was recorded in cashcrops during the period 1979-84, i.e. 30.65 quintal per hectare (22.35 per cent) and the lowest was 0.12 quintal per hectares in cereals during 1989-94, but the yield of pulses decreased by 2.65 quintal per hectare (35.10 per cent). However on the whole, the maximum increase was recorded in cash crops i.e. 37.53 quintal per hectare (27.34 per cent), during the same period.

Pithoragarh

The performance of various crops with respect to area, production and yield can be examined from the Table 3.8. It is evident from the table that the area under cereals increased by 13,393 hectares

(14.27 per cent) in 1979-84 but it reduced by 6,044 hectares (5.63 per cent) in 1984-89 and again increased by 9,447 hectares (2.42 per cent) in last quinquennial period, whereas the overall increase in area under cereals is about 9,796 hectares (10.44 per cent). In case of pulses the areal extent shows a fluctuating trend, the area under pulses increased by 1,038 hectares (18.07 per cent) and it declined by 512 hectares (7.55 per cent) in 1984-89, but it again increased by 858 hectare (13.70 per cent) in

1989-94, the overall increase is 1,384 hectares (24.10 per cent), while 136

a o o at a> Tj- «n (N ^ as ir, D£ ro (N • — 0\ _ W) ^ ^ «o NO ON 00 io g (N O IJ ro NO o « S o NO mo. in r- . (N o ro • 2 fN fS 00 o ^ (N NO I—I H w + + + + + + + + + + + rV .S B C c 00 «U o O as o M3 W) 0) 00 o r^ o (N (N 3 c CS C^ CO c^ o r- '-I im m m N N ^ O o i ^ m (N IT) in in Tt ON O O (N •o (N NO r^ 00 d Tt l2 I + + + + + + + + c o\ 0 a- S3 00 c -»-o> 00 O) o\ _ DX) •rt. 00 O a cs r- ®® ® ^ fS 00 3 « 5 u^ CO (N CN O T—I as •o >n ^ (N (N O n d "—I fW NO 00 ^ vO JS 1-H m O TT + + + + 1 + + + + (U a 00 I w x; r- VI n o -a — W) ON

B ^ <:CIH>^ ^ <;OH>^ = c .HU- OM op D C hJ in es (U on

238 hectares (250.33 per cent) and 22 hectares (0.97 per cent) in

1984-89, 1,522 hectares (250.33 per cent) and 623 hectares (27.25 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas the overall increase in area under these crops are 1,975 hectares (1274.00 per cent) and 1532 hectares (111.25 per cent) respectively.

As against this, the production of cereals, pulses oilseeds and cashcrops exhibits an increasing trend. In case of cereals, the production increased by 18,815 metric tonnes (20.29 per cent) in 1979-84, 17,381 metric tonnes (15.58 per cent) in 1984-89 and 20,632 metric tonnes

(16.00 per cent) in 1989-94. While the production of pulses decreased by

768 metric tonnes (17.86 per cent) in first quinquennial period, but it expand by 557 metric tonnes (15.77 per cent) in 1984-89 and it further rose by 1,051 metric tonnes (25.70 per cent) in 1989-94. The production of oilseeds and cash crops has increased by 143 metric tonnes (106.71 per cent) and 17,502 metric tonnes (81.8 per cent) in 1979-84, 220 metric tonnes (79.42 per cent) and 2,020 metric tonnes (5.20 per cent) in

1984-89 and 1,702 metric tonnes (342.45 per cent) and 10,755 metric tonnes (26.30 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas on the whole, the production of cereals, pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops has enhanced by 56,828 metric tonnes (56.85 per cent), 840 metric tonnes (19.54 per cent), 2,065 metric tonnes (1541.00 per cent) and 30,277 metric tonnes (141.50 per cent) during the period 1979-80 to 1994-95. 138

The yield of cereals shows an increasing trend throughout the

periods it increased by 0.52 quintal per hectare (5.26 per cent) in

1979-84, 2.34 quintal per hectare (22.50 per cent) in 1984-89, and 1.69

quintal per hectare (13.26 per cent) in 1989-94. The overall increase in

yield of cereal is 4.56 quintal per hectare (46.65 per cent) while the yeild

of pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops depicts a mixed trend. On the whole the yield of oilseeds and cashcrops has increased by 1.68 quintal per hectare

(19.44 per cent) and 22.24 quintal per hectare (14.31 per cent), whereas in case of pulses itis diminish by 0.29 quintal per hectare (3.86 per cent).

Chamoli

Viewed over a period of Fifteen years( 1979-80 - 1994-95) the relative changes in area, production and yield can be examined from the

Table 3.9. It can be seen from the table that the area under cereals has decreased by 2,928 hectares (6.92 per cent) in first quinquennial period butit increased by 7,253 hectares ( 18.41 per cent) in 1984-79 and it again decline by 2,690 hectares (5.76 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas the overall increase under cereal is 1,635 hectares (3.86 per cent), while the area under pulses and oilseeds shows an increasing trend during all quinquennial period. The overall increase of area under pulses and oilseeds is 413 hectares (187.72 per cent) and 528 hectares (320.0 per cent) respectively. The area of cashcrops shows a mixed trend, it increased by

926 hectares (136.17 per cent) and 208 hectares (12.95 percent) in

1979-84 and 1984-89 respectively, but it declined by 1,121 hectares

(61.90 per cent) in 1979-94. The overall increase of area under cashcrops is 13.0 hectares (1.91 per cent). 139

a >a (N m O ?N cn C3 V)

ON o O I 00 (U O ON m ON I OX) m (N O ON 0\ m —' FO T^ O 00 o ^ so • -H ON £ _ OX) O g so so •rt ^ 00 (N so I o « s ON 2 ^ R- CO CO R^ SO ^ 00 « ^ Xt Q ^ (N ^ -^H rf B CO ir> ON O r-- « ® « n CO «o ^ O 'O U •o + + + + + I + + + + (N + c 0\ C9 00 c "«T o 00 so eS o ON _ DC CO CO 00 so o (N CO r-- so 00 lo 3 « « (N so ON CO (N CO Tt rt 00 O lO "3 •o 00 CO F-; ^ —I O CN O o M CQ 'C L. + + + + + 9 + + + + + + 00 a. HL® u < as 0) SO (N r-- so o V. r- rf O (N ^ r-l so « o (N so" (N SO co" 1u3 ® i ON T«3 00 00 SO (N r- C/3 Ui o fS ^ CO - CO or--. ^ "o3 c 'C Jtio Ct) 3 < J tn «3 (U

As against this, the production of cereals, pulses and oilseed shows an increasing trend, on the whole the production under these crops increased by 18,120 metric tonnes (42.44 per cent), 207 metric tonnes

(166.95 per cent) and 580 metric tonnes (644.44 per cent) respectively.

While the production of cashcrops show a mixed trend whereas the overall increase in production of cashcrops is 23,409 metric tonnes (260.42 pe rcent).

The yield of cereals, oilseeds and cashcrops shows an increasing trend except in pulses. The overall increase of yield under cereals 3.74 quintal per hectare (37.06 per cent), oilseeds 4.22 quintal per hectares

(77.43 per cent) and 335.30 quintal per hectare (253.63 per cent). The yield of pulses increased by 0.27 quintal per hectare (4.80 per cent) in first quinquennial period, but it declined by 0.33 quintal per hectare in

1984-89 and further reduce by 0.34 quintal per hectare (6.10 per cent) in

1989-94, but the overall decrease was also recorded in case of pulses i.e.

0.40 quintal per hectare (7.10 per cent).

Uttarkashi

Crop-wise area, production and yield in Uttarkashi district is shown in Table 3.10. It is obvious from the table that the area under cereals and pulses shows a mixed trend, the area under cereals has decreased by

890 hectares (3.48 per cent) in first quinquennial period but it increased by 2,353 hectares (9.53 per cent) in the next period and it further increased by 1,870 hectares (6.9 per cent) in 1989-94. However the overall increase of area under cereals is about 3,333 hectares (13.03 per 141

c CS a m NO 00 Tl- Tl- O CO NO (N ON --I ta 0£ O CN 00 cn o\ TJ- FM c^ od M O ^ FO ON O o m o •RL- CO >O R^ >o Tt < IS OV .O J= 00 cn (N m o-i OS u + + + + + + + + + + +

O\ o I 00 NO Tf o o N (N -a ^ a ® cs oo" r-' NO 00 NO - D o o- ON (N --H CO- ^ (N (N CO r^ •a sO J= CO o JV (J + + + I I + + + + + + + f2 c o\ 05 00 S a o 4 -«-> 00 n o NO (N o r- CS o Tl" 00 o LU NO CO (N 00 d ^ "o d 9 CO ® i R--' FSI ON O ON (N ON ON U (N CO \0 I ^ ^ CN| o vP J= CO + + + •4-t lA O o\ 0) O T3 _ OX) o -H NO 00 RR 5 i O CO >O S 2 ^ o NO 00 ^ CN ON (N O. 00 ^ CO CO V, O . + +T? ? + + + + + + OO jTOj lo P V-I 3 O 3 O c

00 3 1/5 lA (U cn

1984-89 and it again enhanced by 211 hectares (17.71 per cent) in

1989-94. The overall increase in area under pulses is 625 hectares (80.44 per cent). On the other hand, in case of oilseeds and cashcrops, there was an increasing trend in respect of area, on the whole, the increase in area of oilseeds and cashcrops is 1,026 hectare (144.30 per cent) and 1492 hectares (232.76 per cent) respectively. On the other side, the production of cereals and pulses shows a fluctuating trend, the overall increase in production of these two crops are 14,318 metric tonne (59.26 per cent) and 516 metric tonnes (155.42 per cent) while the production of oilseeds and cashcrops shows an increasing trend, the overall increase in production of oilseeds and cashcrops is 815 metric tonnes (332.65 per cent) and

30,301 metric tonnes (358.97 per cent) respectively. As against this, the yield of cereals shows a fluctuating trend, it increased by 3.05 quintal per hectares (32.30 percent) in 1979-84, 2.15 quintal per hectare (17.21 per cent) in 1984-89, but it reduced by 1.34 quintal per hectare (9.15 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas the overall increase in yield is 3.86 quintal per hectare (40.88 per cent), but in case of pulses, the yield decreased by

0.58 quintal per hectare (13.50 per cent) in first quinquennial period but it expand by 2.01 quintal per hectare (54.03 per cent) in 1984-89 and further rose by 0.32 quintal per hectare (5.60 per cent) in 1989-94.

As far as oilseeds is concerned, the yield of this crops shows an increasing trend throughout. It increased by 0.66 quintal per hectare

(19.20 per cent) in 1979-84, 1.10 quintal per hectare (26.82 per cent) in 143

1984-89 and 0.90 quintal per hectare (17.30 per cent) in 1989-94,

whereas the overall increase in yield of oilseeds is 2.66 quintal per

hectare (77.32 per cent). The cashcrops show as synonyms to cereals in

respect of yield.

Tehri-Garhwal

The trend of change in area, production and yield can be seen

from the Table 3.11 that except the cash crops the pattern of area of

cereals, pulses and oilseeds follows a fluctuating trend. From the table,

the area under cereals increased by 599 hectares (0.97 per cent), pulses

2,024 hectares (113.90 per cent), and oilseeds 593 hectares (72.40 per

cent) in 1979-84 but it decline by 3643 hectares (5.85 per cent), 562

hectares (14.80 per cent) and 390 hectares (27.62 per cent) in each crop

during 1984-89 and it again delcine in area of cereals by 8,059 hectares

(13.74 per cent), while in case of pulse and oilseeds, the area increased by

286 hectares (8.90 per cent) and 627 hectares (61.35 per cent)

respectively in 1989-94, whereas on the whole there is an increase in area

under pulses and oilseeds except in case of cereals (1,103 hectares or

1.78 per cent). While the area under cash crops shows an increasing trend.

The overall increase of area under cashcrops is about 955 hectares (158.11 per cent).

As against this, the production of cereals, pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops shows an increasing trend in all quiunquennial period. On the whole there was an increase in production of cereal by 32,394 metric tonnes (70.53 per cent), pulses 1,374 metric tonnes (159.40 per cent), 144 c n>J O o NO ro NO TT o T3 X cn t rr —1 -*-O> s.© j; o 1—1 ON 1 1 (N o ^0 ) W + + + + + + + + + + + + (U cs 00 u ON Q ^ r- c/l (U x: OS 0) cn o -a FH OX) 00 Tl- (N NO (N On M cn m 1 On o o e o O rs tr, « ON 00 o o On o I—I o NO 1 ^ II op o3 lyi 1/5

oilseeds 957 metric tonnes (310.71 per cent) and cash crops 19,663

metric tonnes (235.66 per cent). The yield of cereals, pulses and

cashcrops shows an increasing trend throughout except in case of oilseeds.

The overall increase in yield of these crops are 5.49 quintal per hectare

(73.79 per cent), 1.49 quintal per hectare (30.72 per cent) and 41.50

quintal per hectare (30.00 per cent), while the yield of oilseeds increased

by 0.55 quintal per hectares (14.62 per cent) in 1979-84 and 3.39 quintal per hectares (78.65 per cent) in 1984-94 but it deduct by less than one percent in 1989-94. However, on the whole there was an increase in yield of oilseeds by 3.91 quintal per hectare (104.00 per cent).

Pauri-Garhwal

In the district Pauri-Garhwal the cereals has a declining trend in areal extent throughout the period (Table 3.12). The area under cereals has decreased by 6,983 hectares (7.96 per cent) in 1979-84, 1,893 hectares

(2.34 per cent) in 1984-89 and 3,708 hectares (4.70 per cent) in 1989-94.

Whereas the overall area under cereals has also declined by 12,584 hectares (14.35 per cent), while the areal extent of pulses and oilseeds have a fluctuating trend. The areal extent of pulses has increased by 2,470 hectares (189.85 per cent) in 1979-84 and 1,311 hectares (34.76 per cent) in 1984-89, but it has declined by 399 hectares (7.85 per cent) in the last quinquennial period, whereas on the whole, the areal extent under pulses has increased by 3,382 hectares (259.95 per cent). The area under oilseeds also shows a fluctuating trend, it has increased by 12.00 hectares (1.54 per cent) in 1979-84, 220 hectares (27.92 per cent) in 1984-79 but it has declined by 190 hectares (18.85 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas the overall 146

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1979-84, 77 hectares (15.52 per cent) in 1985-90 and 107 hectares

(18.67 per cent) in 1989-94. The overall increase of area under cashcrops is about 3,44 hectares (94.00 per cent). As against the production of pulses, oilseed and cashcrops show an increasing trend in all quinquennial periods except in case of cereals. The production of cereals has decreased by 7,193 metric tonnes (10.13 per cent) in 1979-84 and it increased by

21,295 metric tonnes (33.40 per cent) in 1984-89 but it again declined by

2,905 metric tonnes (3.4 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas the overall production under cereal has increased by 11,197 metric tonnes (15.78 per cent). On the whole the production of pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops have increased by 1,150 metric tonnes (91.05 per cent), 325 metric tonnes

(101.24 per cent) and 5,733 metric tonnes (111.90 per cent) respectively.

The yield of cereals and oilseed exhibits an increasing trends in all quinquennial periods, while the yield of pulses and cashcrops shows a fluctuating trend. The yield of cereals and oilseeds have increased by 0.19 quintal per hectare (2.34 per cent) and 0.73 quintal per hectare (36.58 per cent) and 0.78 quintal per hectare (16.05 per cent) in 1984-89 and 0.15 quintal per hectare (1.39 per cent) and 2.26 quintal per hectare (40.07 per cent) in 1989-94. The overall yield of these crops have also increased by

2.85 quintal per hectare (35.22 per cent) and 3.77 quintal per hectare

(91.30 per cent) resepectively. The yield of pulses has decreased by 4.06 quintal per hectare (41.85 per cent) in 1979-84, 1.14 quintal per hectare 148

(20.12 per cent) in 1984-89 but it expanded by 0.65 quintal per hectare

(14.44 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas the overall yield of pulses has

decreased by 4.55 quintal per hectare (46.90 per cent), while the yield of

cashcrops has increased by 16.19 quintal per hectare (10.62 per cent) in first quinquennial period but it declined by 8.54 quintal per hectare (5.06 per cent) and 0.47 quintal per hectare (0.30 per cent) in remaining periods.

The overall yield of cash crops has increased by 7.18 quintal per hectares

(4.70 per cent).

Dehradun

In the districts Dehradun, the trend of change in area, production and yield can be seen from the Table 3.13. The table indicate that the area under cereals has increased by 507 hectares (0.89 per cent) in 1979-84 and 2,957 hectares (5.19 per cent) in 1984-89 but it reduced by 4,838 hectares (8.07 per cent) in last quinquennial period, whereas the overall area of cereals has also decreased by 1,374 hectares (2.43 per cent), while the area under pulses shows a decreasing trend throughout. The overall area has also decreased by 1,105 hectares (33.17 per cent). The area under oilseeds has increased by 1,433 hectares (107.44 per cent) in 1979-84, but it declined by 199 hectares (7.20 per cent) and it further reduced by

412 hectares (16.07 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas the overall area under oilseeds has increased by 822 hectares (61.80 per cent). The area under cashcrops has decreased by 534 hectares (8.02 per cent) in first quinquennial period, but it increased by 1,139 hectares (18.60 per cent) in

1984-89 and further increased by 591 hectares (8.13 per cent) in 149

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1989-94. The overall area of cashcrops has also increased by 1,196 hectares (17.95 per cent).

On the other hand, the production of all reported major crops show a fluctuating trend. The production of cereal has increased by 12,090 metric tonnes (18.72 per cent) in 1979-84 and 16,658 metric tonnes

(21.73 percent) in 1984-89, but it reduced by 9,968 metric tonnes (10.68 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas on the whole the production of cereal has increased by 18,780 metric tonnes (29.09 per cent). The production of pulses and cashcrops follow the same patterns of cereals. The overall area of pulses has increased by 86.00 metric tonnes (6.02 per cent) and cashcrops 1,75,655 metric tonnes (67.87 per cent), while the production of oilseeds has increased by 1310 metric tonnes (318.73 per cent) in

1979-84, but it reduced by 374 metric tonnes (21.73 per cent) in 1984-89 and it again increased by 212 metric tonnes (15.74 per cent) in last period, whereas on the whole, the production has increased by 1,148 metric tonnes

(279.32 per cent).

The yield of cereals, pulses and cashcrops shows an increasing trend in first two quinquinnial period but it decline in last period. The yield of cereals, pulses and cashcrops have increased by 2.04 quintal per hectares (17.88 per cent), 0.85 quintal per hectare (19.76 per cent), and

101.59 quintal per hectares (26.14 per cent) respectively in 1979-84 and further increased by 2.11 quintal per hectare (15.68 per cent), 2.25 quintal per hectare (43.70 per cent) and 120.28 quintal per hectare (24.54 per cent) in 1984-89, but it decreased by 0.44 quintal per hectare (2.82 per cent), 0.60 quintal per hectare (8.10 per cent) and 57.43 quintal per 151

hectare (9.40 per cent) in 1989-94 whereas the yield of oilseed have

increased by 3.13 quintal per hectare (100.96 per cent) in 1979-84, but it

declined to 0.98 quintal per hectare (15.73 per cent) in 1984-89 and in

again rose to 1.99 quintal per hectare (37.90 per cent) in 1989-94. The

overall yield of all the above crops viz cereals, pulses oilseed and

cashcrops have increased by 3.71 quintal per hectare (32.51 per cent) 2.50

quintal per hectare (58.14 per cent), 4.14 quintal per hectare (133.55%)

and 164.44 quintal per hectare (42.32 per cent) respectively.

Area under Irrigation

The development and expansion of irrigation facilities have

enhanced the irrigated area of various food crops. Table 3.14 indicates that

irrigated area under different crops were 3.00 lakh hectares in 1979-80

which increased to Rs. 3.36 lakh hectares in 1984-85, 3.68 lakh hectares

in 1989-90 and 3.78 lakh hectares in 1994-95. The extent of irrigation for

each crop varies according to water requirements of individual crop and

therefore, attempts were made to find out actual cropwise irrigated area in

Uttarakhand. It will also help to introduce new cropping pattern in the

region, due to existing irrigation facilities. Table also indicates the

irrigated area under each crops and their percentage to the total cropped

area for four period at five years interval viz. 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90

and 1994-95. Table indicates that during 1994-95 3.78 lakh hectares of

land under all food crops in the region, acquired irrigation which acocunted for 44.98 per cent of the total cropped area of the region.

Among all the food crops, sugarcane was heavily irrigated and covered more than 90.0 per cent of the total area under irrigation, other crops such 152

cd a o "9 _ 5I" o — t- cs so o o >n S so S CQ n OS OS .Sf « _ _ r) t Tf « r-ON- ON O00 00 Tf- Q. Q fsi r- lo 00 m o. as" a 55 q p 55 oo -H r^ 2 1 2 s 2 ^ § u « •o 00 c o TIt CC 00 OS OS v 00 so fS u n 00 o O) CJ o. CO ot-. o so 00 oo o (D •o r- r- — t- r- 00 >n >o - . n £ •o o 't ^ L. ro r^ Q OS OSj s OS "A "2 "o re d w re y s s ^ 6 re re 2 c £ S1) o 03) re .2 re 3 u D CO CO C/3 O cu O H C/0 153 as gram, rice, onion, mustard and wheat with 60.22 per cent 57.05 per cent,

54.61 per cent, .47.53 per cent and 43.17 per cent area respectively, comes under irrigation, and peas and potato with 35.65 per cent and 17.60 per cent area under irrigation. There are other crops like maize, barley, masoor, urd, soyabean and sesamum which were irrigated but their area was less than 10 per cent of the total area under irrigation. Arhar remained an unirrigated crop because it received only a negligible amount of irrigation i.e. 0.46 per cent of the total area. It can also be visualize from table that rice, wheat, gram, rapeseed and mustard, sugarcane, and onion have recorded continuous increase in the irrigated area from 1979-80 to

1994-95. The irrigated area under rice was 45.76 per cent in 1979-80,

49.97 per cent in 1984-85, 53.50 per cent in 1989-90 and 57.05 per cent in 1994-95. The irrigated area under wheat was 37.78 per cent in 1979-80,

41.0 pe rcent in 1984-85, 53.50 per cent in 1989-90 and 57.04 per cent in

1994-95. The irrigated area under gram is gradually increasing in the region. The percentage of irrigated area under gram was 18.78 per cent in

1979-80, rose up to 29.22 per cent in 1984-85, 40.24 per cent in

1989-90 and 60.22 per cent in 1994-95. The irrigated area under sugarcane was 48.11 per cent in 1979-80, rising to 64.45 per cent in 1984-85, 85.0 per cent in 1989-90 and 90.76 per cent in 1994-95. The irrigated area under gram and sugarcane has increased much faster than any other crops in the region, mainly due to the diffusion of new variety of concern crops which is grown with the help of irrigation. The irrigated area under peas was 58.80 per cent in 1979-80 and rose to 62.27 per cent in 1984-85, later on it declined to 42.94 per cent in 1989-90 and 36.65 per cent in 154

1994-95. The total area of rapeseed and mustard under irrigation was

49.71 per cent in 1979-80 and it increased to 48.35 percent in 1984-85, but slightly diminished to 45.87 per cent in 1989-90 and further increased to 47.53 per cent in 1994-95.

During 1979-80, only 36.90 per cent of the total area under food- crops were irrigated in the region. But afterwards with support of governmental agencies and expansion of irrigation facilities, extensive area of food crops came under irrigation. In the year 1979-80 irrigated area of food crops was 36.90 per cent which expands to 40.33 per cent in

1984-85, 42.46 per cent in 1989-90 and 44.98 per cent in 1994-95. The increase in the irrigated area under various crops may be seen as a consciousness and awakening among farmers and the begining of revolution which is highly diffused in the agricultural development of

Uttarakhand. 155

References

1. Chand, K.P. and Swarup, R. (1988) : Development of Agriculture in Himachal Pradesh, some issues, Agricultural Situation in India, vol. XLII, No. 11, p. 951.

2. Coutinho, O. and Shara, T.C. (1992) : Cropping intensity in Uttar Pradesh, in Noor Mohammad (eds.) : Spatial dimension in Agriculture, Concept publishing company, New Delhi, pp. 237-244.

3. Hayami, Y. and Ruttan, Vernon (1971) : Agricultural Development: An International perspective, the John Hopkins, University Press, Baltimore.

4. Kharkwal, S.C. and Teli, B.C. (1987) : Landuse and cropping pattern in Garhwal Himalaya, in U.P.S. Pangtey and S.C. Joshi (eds). Western Himalaya : Problem and Development, vol. II, Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, pp. 463-475.

5. Mohammad, Noor and Bamdooni, S.K. (1992) : Monitoring of landuse and Agriculture in a Hilly Region : A Case Study of Pauri- Garhwal District, The Geographer, vol. 39, No. 2, July, pp. 7-19.

6. Mohammad, Noor (1978) : Agricultural landuse in India, Inter-India Publication, Delhi, pp. 75-76.

7. Munir, A. & Siddiqui, S.H. (1994) : Agricultural modernization in Uttar Pradesh, The Geographer, vol. XLI, No. 1, January.

8. Pant, B.R., R.C. Joshi and Jalal, D.S. (1992): Agricultural Panorama of Uttarakhand in Noor Mohammad (ed), Spatial dimension in Agriculture, Concept publishing Company, New Delhi, pp. 81-94.

9. Shafi, M. (1983) : Trends in Area, and production of foodgrains in India, The Geographer, vol. 30, No. 2. 156

10. Singh, Jasbir et al. (1988) : Agro-Environmental Units and Agri- cultural Landuse Planning.

11. Shukla, S.P. (1983) : Agricultural Potential and planning, Hill Regions in India, with special Reference to Arunachal Pradesh, Chugh Publication, Allahabad.

12. Singh, G. (1979) : Agricultural Development in the Hills, Case Study of Operaitonal Research Project, Fakat (Tehri-Garhwal), Journal of Himalayan Studies and Regional Development, pp. 27-31.

13. Swarup, R. et al. (1983) : Agricultural Development in Himachal Pradesh, Agricale Publishing Academy, New Delhi.

14. Siddiqui, S.H. (1990) : Trends of Agricultural Development in the North Bihar Plain, The Geographer, vol. 38, NO. 2, July, pp. 46-57.

15. Siddiqui, S.H. (1994) : The Pattern of Irrigation in the North Bihar plain. Geographical Review of India, vol. 51, pp. 55-64.

16. Siddiqui, F.M. (1990) : Agriculture in Bundelkhand (U.R) : A Study of Post-independence Changes, The Geographer, vol. 38, No. 1, Jan. pp. 50-56.

17. Tewari, R.T. (1983) : District-wise Pattern of Development in Uttar Pradesh, Giri Institute of Development Studies, Lucknow.

18. Rao, V.L.S. Prakash (1986) : Landuse Survey of India, in RS. Tewari (ed). Agricultural Geography, vol. VIII, Herotage Publication, New Delhi, pp. 28-43.

19. Verma, K.K. (1982) : Agricultural Growth of Major Oilseeds Crops in India, Agricultural Situation in India, vol. 35, No. 5.

157

The development of irrigation affects agriculture in several ways, first it makes the outcome of crops more certain than its absence.

Instability of yield should decline with the advent of irrigation, it immediately leads to change in croping pattern. The crop that remain under dry cultivation in the concerned region may not enjoy this benefit of reduced instability. Thus the immediate impact is on cropping pattern leading to a shift from less remunerative to more remunerative crops such as paddy, and sugarcane which required an assured water supply. Irrigation is also expected to increase overall agricultural productivity, having low yielding crops and unstable yields,enjoys the privilege of a more stable and higher value of output with the introduction of irrigation.

Irrigation

Irrigation in hilly region in general depends on precipitation for agricultural crops. Rainwater and snow both get soaked into the soil and then percolates into the ground through pores and crevices and reappear in the form of spring. Spring water may be collected in tanks, and stored for irrigation during the periods of scarcity and it can be used for irrigation at almost all altitudes. The water is carried through surface channels called gools in to the fields located at lower levels. Besides, irrigation in

Uttarakhand is also achieved through two different sources, firstly by channelising surface water from rivers, wells and other sources and secondly, by taping subsoil water through wells, tube wells and pumpsets.

The main sources of irrigation in the region are canals, tubewells and other sources i.e. wells, ponds, lake and tanks. 158

The substantial increase of the net area irrigated by various

sources in the Uttarakhand is given in Table 4.1. The data in table refers to

four periods i.e. 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95. It may be

concluded from the table that tubewell alone irrigates 40.31 percent of the

total irrigated area whereas canal irrigation occupy second position with

33.42 percent of the total irrigated area.

There has been significant increase in areas irrigated by tubewells

and other sources during the same periods. It may be seen from the Table

4.1 that 0.34 lakh hectares of irrigated area was added between 1979-80

and 1989-90 and 0.16 lakh hectares from 1989-90 to 1994-95. It is also

noticeable that there was an increase in net irrigated area of about 0.51

lakh hectares between the periods 1979-80 to 1994-95.

Table 4.2 shows the district wise irrigated area under three major

sources viz. proportion of area irrigated by canals, tubewells and other

sources. The table also shows intensity of irrigation with respect to the

net irrigated area in each of the districts of Uttarakhand region. The overall

intensity of irrigation on the basis of percentage share of the net irrigated area to the district-wise net cropped area have been grouped into high, medium and low grade. It can be seen from the Fig. 4.2 in which the share of all the eight districts with respect to different sources of irrigation is presented. It is quite clear from the table 4.2 that the districts having more than 30 per cent of the net cropped area under irrigation fall under high extent of irrigation availability. The districts having an irrigated area between 15 to 20 per cent of the net cropped area was considered as medium grade while the areas less than 15 per cent of the net cropped area under irrigation are place under low grade of irrigation. 159

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There are two districts, namely Nainital and Dehradun which have high extent of irrigated area. The irrigated area in these districts varies from 90.8 to 38.38 per cent of the net cropped area. The high extent of irrigation is seen in south eastern and south-western part of the

Uttarakhand. The area with medium extent of irrigation is covers only two districts, namely Uttarkashi and Tehri Garhwal, whereas the low extent of irrigation is found in large areas, lying east-central, north-eastern, north- central, and south-central part of the region. It includes the district of

Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli and Pauri-Garhwal (Fig. 4.1).

Table 4.2

District-wise distribution of irrigated area by different sources in Uttarakhand (1994-95)

(Figures in percentage)

Name of the Canals Tube-wells Other Net Irrigated Districts Sources area to net cropped area

Nainital 31.53 53.56 14.91 90.08

Almora 39.85 - 60.15 9.73

Pithoragarh 21.27 - 78.73 7.57

Chamoli 62.06 - 37.94 5.60

Uttarkashi 60.60 - 39.40 17.35

Tehri-Garhwal 13.21 - 87.79 15.04 Pauri-Garhwal 37.31 5.58 57.11 9.63 Dehradun 47.96 10.46 41.58 38.38 Total 33.42 40.31 26.27 35.40 Uttarkhand Sources : Agricultural Statistics (1994-95) Directorate of Agriculture and Crop Insurance, Krishi Bhawan, Lucknow, Uttar-Pradesh. 161

UTTARAKHAND PERCENTAGE OF CROPPED AREA IRRIGATED 1994- 95

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 30

MUDIUM 15-30

LOW BELOW 15 20 0 20 40 60 Urn I I I Km$

nG.4.10 162

Canals

It is evident from Table 4.1 that the area irrigated by canal in

1994-95 was 0.82 lakh hectares or 33.42 per cent of the net irrigated area in the region. Canal irrigation is extensive in Chamoli and Uttarkashi district, where more than 60 per cent of the net irrigated area receives water through this source. Inspite of it, there are four more district viz.

Nainital, Almora, Pauri-Garhwal and Dehradun where canal irrigates 31.53 to 47.96 per cent of the net irrigated area while the remaining two districts namely Pithoragarh and Tehri-Garhwal have a lower share with less than 30 per cent of their cultivated area under canal irrigation (Fig. 4.2).

Tube wells

Tube well irrigation is of recent origin in India and the rate of its adoption to every parts of the country has been very fast. It has changed the cropping pattern of many parts of the country, which were earlier beyond the reach of irrigation water.

The net irrigated area by tube-wells in Uttarakhand was 0.98 lakh hectares or 40.31 per cent of the total irrigated area in 1994-95. The tubewells irrigation is the most extensive in Nainital districts, where more than 50 per cent of the net irrigated area covered under this source, while there are two more districts namely, Pauri-Garhwal and Dehradun, comprising 6.0 per cent and 10 per cent of the net irrigated area respectively, irrigated by tubewells. The tube well irrigation is absent in

Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri-

Garhwal (Fig. 4.1). 163

UTTARAKHAND SOURCES OF IRRIGATION 199A- 95

'-S C f V I- i r> i < t \ \ \ V

s / c 5 / r : * V .A h • •y - m± • m J" ^ > \ / -1 / -••J

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FIG.A.2 Ih4

Other Sources

In the areas where irrigation from canal and tube wells are not appropriate, irrigation from other sources acts as a good supplement. The other sources includes tanks, lakes, ponds and wells, irrigated 0.64 lakh hectares or 26.27 per cent of the net irrigated area in 1994-95 in

Uttarakhand. Table indicates that there are only three districts namely

Pithoragarh, Tehri-Garhwal and Almora district which occupies more than

60 per cent of the net area irrigated from other sources. While the districts of Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Dehradun and Pauri Garhwal, where irrigation from other sources irrigate 37.94 per cent to 57.11 per cent of the net irrigated area. The remaining districts namely, Nainital has a least share with less than 30 per cent of their cropped area under irrigation by other sources (Fig. 4.2).

Fertilizers

The finding of first and second five year plan pointed out that under conditions prevalent in India, fertilizers are responsible for an increase of about 45 per cent in the agricultural production. In the new strategy, fertilizer has been regarded as kingpin, because when soil fertility is low, better performance of crop productivity failed to achieve. The continuous deteriorating soil fertility on account of regular cultivation can also be replenished to a great extent by re-supplying nitrogen in the soil through the use of fertilizer, and subsequently enhance the agricultural productivity per unit area. Recent studies and FAO's reports have pointed out that the use of fertilizers is the most important component of agricultural development, because wherever efforts are being made to 165

increase agricultural efficiency and productivity to meet the demand of

rising population; more fertilizers and manures have been invariably used.

Application of fertilizers normally have positive effect to increase crop

yield per hectare. Generally, it is observed that application of fertilizer

with irrigation can ensure an increase in the quantum of production. It has

also been experienced that even during abnormal rainfall, fertilized crops give higher yields, than unfertilized crops. The reason is that fertilized

crops get a good initial start and better development of both root and

shoot, which enable them to endure drought to a greater extent than

unfertilized crops. The Indian farmers became fertilizer minded and is ready to invest in the field, if its supply is assured to him at prices within their reach. The researches reveal that continuous use of chemical fertilizers reduce the humus content of the soil. In the absence of the humus, the physical structure of soil undergoes vast changes and the texture of fertile soil is lost and ultimately soil may lose its water retaining and absorbing capacity. Substitution by organic manures, therefore is necessary to save the fertility of soil.

In view of its overwhelming impact on agricultural production, it seems necessary to study the consumption level of fertilizers in

Uttarakhand. Table 4.4 shows that the consumption of fertilizers has substantially increased in the region from 1979-80 to 1989-90 but it declined in 1994-95. Nutrient-wise consumption indicates that the application of nitrogen was 24,924 metric tonnes in 1979-80 but its quantity rose one and half times to 37,490 metric tonnes in 1984-85, it further rose VA times to 54,049 in 1989-90 and it again increased to 166

57,373 metric tonnes in 1994-95. The other nutrients, like potassium has

shown a similar pattern of increased in region. In the year 1979-80, 3,247

metric tonnes of potassium was distributed to the farmers but in

subsequent year it increased to 4,869 metric tonnes in 1984-85, 5,019

metric tonnes in 1989-90 and 5,663 metric tonnes in 1994-95. But the

phosphate application has not shown similar pattern of increased

utilization during the year 1979-80 but it went upto 12.486 metric tonnes

in 1984-85, and 19,465 metric tonnes in 1989-90 but it decreased to

13,947 metric tonnes in the subsequent year i.e. 1994-95. The overall

consumption of fertilizers (NPK) has considerably increased in ten years

period from 35,580 metric tonnes in 1979-80 to 78,533 metric tonnes in

1989-90, but it declined to 76,983 metric tonnes in 1994-95 (Table 4.3).

Table 4.3

Nutrient-wise availablity of fertilizers in Uttarakhand

(in metric tonnes)

Year PzO. K,0 Total

1979-80 24,924 7,409 3,247 35,580 1984-85 37,490 12,486 4,869 54,845 1989-90 54,049 19,465 5,019 78,533 1994-95 57,373 13,947 5,663 76,983

Sources : Agricultural Statistics, Directorate of Agriculture and Crop Insurance, Krishi Bhawan, Lucknow, Uttar-Pradesh.

The total consumption of fertilizers in kilogram per hectare of

cropped land is given in Table 4.4. It is obvious from the table, that the farmer has gradually become aware of the benefit of fertilizer application 167

and has therefore progressively increased its per hectare consumption in the region. The actual quantity of fertilizers applied in 1979-80 was 31.26 kg per hectare but it rose upto 67.43 kg per hectare in 1994-95.

Table 4.4

Levels of fertilizers consumption in Uttarakhand

(Kg per hectare)

Year P.O, K,0 Total

1979-80 21.90 6.51 2.85 31.26 1984-85 32.53 10.83 4.22 48.58 1989-90 48.80 17.57 4.53 70.90 1994-95 50.25 12.22 4.96 67.43

Sources : Agricultural Statistics, Directorate of Agriculture and Crop Insurance, Krishi Bhawan, Lucknow, Uttar-Pradesh.

There are however local variations in the extent of fertilizer consumption in the region. Table 4.5 shows that the district-wise consump- tion level of fertilizers in Uttarakhand. It reveals that in 1979-80, the application of fertilizers ranged from 1.76 kg per hectare in district Tehri-

Garhwal to 94.60 kg per hectare in district Nainital, but in 1994-95 the use of fertilizers varied from 2.91 kg per hectare in district Pauri Garhwal to 206.09 kg per hectare in Nainital. The distribution of fertilizers consumption has depicted in Fig. 4.3 for the year 1994-95 shows that

Nainital and Dehradun districts have high doses of fertilizer consumption with 206.09 kg per hectare and 46.37 kg per hectare respectively.

Table 4.5 reveals that with the exception of a few pockets of high consumption of fertilizer, the overall consumption of fertilizers are 168

UTTARAKHAND FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION 1994 - 95

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 30

MEDIUM 5-30

LOW BELOW 5 20 0 20 40 60 u. 1 I I I Km$

nG.4.10 169

recorded low in Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal

and Pauri-Garhwal, where the rate of consumption of fertilizer varies from

2.91 to 5.69 kg per hectare. However, two districts namely Almora and

Uttarkashi have decreased in their fertilizer consumption as compared to

previous years.

Table 4.5

District-wise levels of fertilizers consumption in Uttarakhand (Kg per hectares)

Name of 1979-80 1994-95 the Districts Metric NPKkg Metric NPKkg tonnes per hectares tonnes per hectares

Nainital 31913 94.60 70534 206.09 Almora 803 4.30 717 3.81 Pithoragarh 239 1.88 505 3.43 Chamoli 221 3.40 281 3.87 Uttarkashi 288 6.10 291 5.69 Tehri-Garhwal 205 1.76 340 2.95 Pauri-Garhwal 282 1.90 408 2.91 Dehradun 1629 18.26 3904 46.37 Total Uttarakhand 35580 31.26 76983 67.43

Sources : Agricultural statistics, Directorate of Agriculture and Crop Insurance, Krishi Bhavan, Lucknow, Uttar-Pradesh.

Agricultural Implements and Machinery

All agricultural operations, particularly those concerning cultiva- tion of plants necessitates the use of some implements or machine. Most of the tools and implements that are in use today in our country is ] 70

undergoing through continuous and gradual changes based on farmers experience and technological innovations. Therefore, these are in consonance with the local conditions of soil, climate, cropping practices, working capacity of men and animals, availability and use of power. In order to create favourable soil conditions for the germination of seeds and for a proper growth of crop plants, land needs to be tilled. It is generally done with the help of various types of ploughs, of which the wooden one is the most common. In hilly area where the fields are stony and sometimes so narrow as not to allow turning of the bullocks, spade and pick-axe, are the only options employed for this purpose. Therefore agricultural implements and machinery are strong inputs for better productivity of land, because their use increases farm efficiency, save time and minimize production cost. The kind of machinery is changing fast, the older ones are replaced by better performing new ones leading to further increases in farm efficiency. It is better to know the position of agricultural implements and machinery in two periods for assessing the nature of agricultural development.

Tractors

It is estimated that in India about one million farmers have their own tractors and another three million farmers depend on hiring facilities.

Tractors have helped them to raise agricultural production, enhancing their returns and saving. It is also a means of transportation of agricultural 171

inputs and agricultural produce from rural area to market for sale, It is

also used in operating other machines like irrigaiton pumps, winnowers

and threshing.

Table 4.6 reveals that the average number of tractors was 5 per thousand hectares of cultivated land in the period 1979-80 which rose up to 15 tractors per thousand hectares of cultivated land in 1994-95. Table

4.6 also shows that during 1979-80, the high concentration of tractors per thousand hectares of cultivated land is found in Nainital districts i.e. 17 tractors, while in Dehradun it is 5 tractors but the remaining districts of the region is having negligible number of tractors, due to the stony hill areas that creates an obstacles in the process of land tilling, which required improved tools such as harrow and cultivator being used extensively in the hill districts of Uttarakhand.

In 1994-95, the number of tractors have increased to 47 and 19 tractors per thousand hectares of cultivated land in Nainital and Dehradun respectively, whereas the remaining districts of Uttarakhand have less than

1 tractors per thousand of cultivated land. 172

Table 4.12

District-wise distribution of tractors in Uttarakhand

1979-80 1994 -95 Name of Total Number of Total Number of the Districts Number tractor per number tractor per '000' hectare '000' hectarc cultivated cultivated land land

Nainital 3715 17.44 7464 46.76 Almora 2 0.02 11 0.09

Pithoragarh - - 1 0.06

Chamoli - - - -

Uttarkashi - - 2 0.06

Tehri-Garhwal - - - - Pauri-Garhwal 4 0.03 50 0.56 Dehradun 304 5.10 1031 18.74 Total Uttarakhand 4025 5.53 10559 15.08

Sources : Statistical Abstract, Economics and Statistics Division, State Planning Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.

Pumpsets

Pumpsets (diesel and electric both) plays a vital role in the development of agriculture. The use of pumpsets for irrigation registered a sharp increase during the period between 1979-80 and 1994-95. In 1979-

80, the total number of pumpsets was 8,418 which rose up to 23,464 in

1994-95. Their intensity of use in relation to the cultivated land on an average stands at 12 pumpsets per thousand hectare of cultivated land in

1979-80 which increased to 33 pumpsets per thousand hectares of cultivated land in 1994-95. The distribution of pumpsets, used in each 173

districts of Uttarakhand is shown in Table 4.7. Table reveals that

concentration of pumpsets are found in two districts namely, Nainital and

Dehradun in session 1979-80 and 1994-95. Whereas the rest of district is

having negligible number of pumpsets viz. less than 1 pumpsets per

thousand hectares of cultivated land.

Table 4.7

District-wise distribution of pumpsets in Uttarakhand

1979-80 1994-95 Name of Total Number of Total Number of the Districts mumber pumpset per number pumpset per '000' hectare '000' hectare cultivated cultivated land land

Nainital 8169 38.36 23172 114.50 Almora 9 0.08 14 0.12 Pithoragarh 2 0.02 5 0.06

Chamoli - - - -

Uttarkashi - - 2 0.06 Tehri-Garhwal 3 0.03 7 0.10 Pauri-Garhwal 4 0.03 10 0.11 Dehradun 231 2.86 5.50 Total Uttarakhand 8418 11.56 23464 33.51

Sources : Statistical Abstract, Economics and Statistics Division, State Planning Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.

Wooden plough

Table 4.8 shows the distribution of wooden plough per thousand hectare of cultivated land in Uttarakhand. The number of wooden plough per thousand hectare of cultivated land has increased during the year 1979- 174

80 to 1994-95. There is only one district namely, Chamoli which placed

under high concentration of wooden plough with index range above 1000

whereas the medium level of concentration of wooden plough exists in

extensive areas of Uttarakhand. It includes the districts of Almora,

Pithoragarh, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal, with index

ranges between 500 to 1000. The remaining two districts viz. Nainital and

Dehradun placed under low level of wooden plough concentration with

index below 500 (Fig. 4.4).

Table 4.8

District-wise distribution of wooden plough in Uttarakhand

(Area in hectares)

1979-80 1994-95 Name of Total Number of Total Number of the Districts Number wooden plough number wooden plough '000 hectares •000 hectares cultivated cultivated land land

Nainital 44552 209.24 36614 180.91 Almora 105014 915.60 113459 988.90 Pithoragarh 67053 854.74 87946 1033.67 Chamoli 53377 1175.26 62636 1303.00 Uttarkashi 30410 931.10 32830 955.11 Tehri-Garhwal 67000 884.93 85487 1196.40 Pauri-Garhwal 70587 652.70 88252 990.81 Dehradun 28642 479.30 24266 441.14 Total Uttarakhand 4466635 641.16 531490 759.10 Sources : Statistical Abstract, Economic & Statistics Division, State Planning Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. 175

UTTARAKHAND DISTRIBUTION OF ^^'OODEN PLOUGH (1979-80)

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 1000

MEDIUM 500 - 1000

LOW BELOW 500 20 20 40 60 u. I I I Kms

FIG. 4.4 176

UTTARAKHAND DISTRIBUTION OF WOODEN PLOUGH (1994 95)

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 1000

MEDIUM 500 - 1000

LOW BELOW 500 20• • 0• 20 40 60 Kstii

nG.4.10 177

During 1994-95, three district namely Pithoragarh, Chamoli and

Tehri-Garhwal have occupied the place of high concentration of wooden plough, while the medium range of concentration of wooden plough also covered in three district namely, Almora, Uttarkashi and Pauri-Garhwal.

The low level of wooden plough concentration is almost the same as in previous year (Fig. 4.5).

Iron plough

Table 4.9 indicates that the concentration of Iron plough per thousand hectare of cultivated land in Uttarakhand. The trend of use of iron plough in all the districts has increased during the year 1979-80 to 1994-

95. The substantial increase during above period is due to technological breakthrough in the region. The highest use of iron plough was recorded in only two districts namely, Nainital and Dehradun, with index range above

60. The medium concentration of the number of iron plough ranging between 30 to 60 per thousand hectares of cultivated land is found in

Pauri-Garhwal district, while the low concentration of iron plough per thousand hectares of cultivated land has been found in the remaining districts like Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli, Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal.

In these districts number of iron plough was below 30 (Fig. 4.6). 178

Table 4.12

District-wise distribution of iron plough in Uttarakhand

1979-80 1994-95 Name of Total Number of Total Number of the districts number iron plough number iron plough '000' hectare '000' hectare cultivated cultivated land land

Nainital 43662 205.00 46009 227.33 Almora 383 3.34 1304 11.36 Pithoragarh 914 11.65 1415 16.63 Chamoli 1169 25.75 2114 43.97 Uttarkashi 55 1.70 657 19.11 Tehri-Garhwal 66 0.90 4 0.05

Pauri-Garhwal 3470 32.10 2849 32.00

Dehradun 5611 93.10 8729 158.70

Total Uttarakhand 55330 74.41 63.081 90.10

Sources : Statistical Abstract, Economic & Statistics Division, State Planning Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.

During 1994-95, there are two districts namely, Nainital and

Dehradun which remained same as in the previous year. The medium concentration of iron plough is shown in Chamoli and Pauri-Garhwal district and the remaining all districts occupies the low level of concentration of iron plough. They includes the district of Almora,

Pithoragarh, Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal. In the above districts, the concentration of iron plough per thousands hectare of cultivated land is recorded below 30 (Fig. 4.7). 179

UTTAR.4KHAND DISTRIBUTION OF IRON PLOUGH (1979-80)

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 60

MEDIUM 30 - 611

LOW BELOW 3U 20 2'0 4•0 6•0 Kms

nG.4.10 180

UTTARAKHAND DISTRIBUTION OF IRON PLOUGH (1994-95)

HIGH

MEDIUM

LOW

nG.4.10 181

Area under high yielding varieties of seeds

The Green Revolution in mid sixties, which emphasized the

research & development and use of high-yielding varieties of seeds throw

new rays of hope and confidence towards increasing the agricultural

productivity in India to assured the food security for the growing

population of India. The HYV of seeds is an important inputs of

agricultural production under the green revolution. They help in double

cropping, their short stem can easily carry a heavy fertilizers load and

resists wind damage and their larger leaf surface helps in the process of

photosynthesis. A number of high yielding varieties of seeds of major

cereals have developed at various agricultural institute since 1966-67 and

released by various agricultural department to the farmers for use. Table

4.10 shows the district-wise area covered by HYV of rice, wheat and maize

in the year 1979-80 and 1994-95 in Uttarakhand and their percentage to

the total cropped area are shown in Figs. 4.8 and 4.9.

The coverage of area under high yielding variety in 1994-95 was

6,83,543 hectares in the region. The adoption has phenomenally increased

from 27.73 per cent in 1979-80 to 59.87 percent in 1994-95. It can be

seen from Table 4.10 and Fig. 4.8 that in 1979-80, only one district namely

Nainital was under high category with more than 50 per cent of gross

cropped area under HYV seeds. The medium category of adoption was seen

in two district namely, Uttarkashi and Dehradun where the total area under

HYV of seeds ranges between 20 to 40 per cent of the gross cropped area.

The remaining districts were placed under low category where the area

under HYV of seed lying below 20 per cent of the gross cropped area. 182

The performance of cereals under this programme was better in

1994-95, in comparison to that of 1979-80. The district of Nainital and

Dehradun was placed under high category with more than 60 per cent of

the gross cropped area under high yielding varieties of seeds. The medium

range of utilization was seen in four district viz. Almora, Pithoragarh,

Chamoli and Uttarkashi where the total area under HYV of seeds range between 50 to 60 per cent of the gross cropped area. All the remaining districts lying in the west-central and south central part of Uttarakhand also improved their areas and yet they placed in low range as in previous year. The high yielding varieties of seeds under this category occupies below 50 per cent of the gross cropped area in the study region (Fig. 4.9).

Table 4.10

Percentage of area under high yielding varieties of seeds from gross cropped area in Uttarakhand

1979-80 1994-95 Name of Area in Percentage to Are in Percentage to the districts hectares gross cropped hectares gross croped area area

Nainital 172221 50.75 234911 68.64 Almora 30255 16.06 103424 55.02 Pithoragarh 20680 15.40 96885 54.60 Chamoli 10565 15.30 42443 57.69 Uttarkashi 15225 32.22 28470 55.08 Tehri-Garhwal 20906 18.00 56642 49.14 Pauri-Garhwal 19875 12.64 67295 47.98 Dehradun 25749 29.93 53473 63.52 Total Uttarakhand 315476 27.73 683543 59.87 Sources : Statistical Abstract, Economics and Statistics Division, State Planning Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. 183

UTTARAKHAND AREA UNDER HIGH YIELDING VARIETIES OF SEEDS 1979 - 80

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 40

MEDIUM 20-40

LOW BELOW 2U 20 20 40 60 I— I I I Km:

nG.4.10 184

UTTARAKHAND AREA UNDER fflGH YIELDING VARIETIES OF SEEDS 1994- 95

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 6(1

MEDIUM 5i.>. 60

LOW BELOW 5f) 20 0 20 40 60 u- • • • • Kms

nG.4i> 185 Agricultural credit societies

The role of agricultural credit is of immense importance in the process of agricultural development. Farming as a business, need a large amount of capital, therefore farmers requires agricultural credit for various purposes such as to meet the cultivation expenses, purchase of agricultural implements and other materials, to purchase new land for cultivation, to acquire irigation facilities. Hence co-operative banks are regarded as one of the best agencis to povide productive loans to the farmers for purchasing different agricultural inputs. The loan is sanctioned to farmers according to the expenditure incurred in production in various crops. Table 4.11 indicates that the total number of agricultural credit societies has slightly increased from 738 to 747 during period 1979-80 to

1994-95. As against this," the number of agricultural credit societies per lakh of population was 19.30 in 1979-80 but it declined to 12.60 in

1994-95.

Table 4.11 also shows district wise availability of agricultural credit societies per lakh of population for the period 1979-80 and 1994-

95. The distribution of agricultural co-operative societies for the period

1979-80 is shown in Fig. 4.10. It can be seen from the figures that only two districts namely, Pithoragarh and Uttarkashi was placed under high category with more than 30 agricultural credit societies per lakh of population. The district which falls under medium category with 15 to 30 co-operative societies per lakh of population are Chamoli, Tehri-Garhwal, and Pauri-Garhwal. The remaining all districts namely, Nainital, Almora and Dehradun with below 15 agricultural co-operative societies were 186

placed under low category. During 1994-95, there were recorded decrease

in the number of agricultural credit co-operative societies in each district

as compared to earlier session (1979-80). It may be seen from the Figure

4.11 that the district Pithoragarh and Uttarkashi retain in the high category

with more than 20 agricultural co-operative societies per lakh of

population, while the medium category occupying four district namely,

Almora, Chamoli, Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal, ranges between 10 to

20. The district of Nainital and Dehradun having less than 10 agricultural

co-operative society and falls under low category.

Table 4.11

District-wise number of agricultural credit societies per lakh of population in Uttarakhand

1979-80 1994-95 Name of Total Number of Total Number of the districts number agricultural number agricultural credit societies credit societies per lakh of per lakh of population population

Nainital 84 10.75 89 5.77 Almora 106 14.13 107 12.78 Pithoragarh 137 43.66 138 24.36 Chamoli 76 25.96 77 16.92 Uttarkashi 51 34.50 51 21.27 Tehri-Garhwal 105 26.42 106 18.27 Pauri-Garhwal 138 24.95 136 19.92 Dehradun 41 7.10 43 4.19 Total Uttarakhand 738 19.30 747 12.60 Sources : Statistical Abstract, Directorate of Economics and Statistics Division, State Planning Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. 187

UTTARAKHAND AGRICULTURAL CREDIT SOCIETIES ( PER LAKH OF POPULATION ) 1979 80

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 30

MEDIUM 15 - 30

LOW BELOW 15 20 G 20 40 60 I I I Kms

nG.4.10 188

UTTARAKHAND AGRICULTURAL CREDIT SOCIETIES ( PER LAKH OF POPULATION ) 1994-95

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 20

MEDIUM 10-20

LO\X BELOW 10 20 0 20 40 60 III I I I Kms

nG.4.10 189

Agricultural Workers

The agricultural workers directly or indirectly plays an important

role in numerous activities such as preparation of field, showing of seeds,

application of fertilizers, irrigation and threshing, specially in traditional

agricultural economy. On the other hand, its expands, is explained regional

disparities in rural economic development in general and agricultural

growth in particular. The total number of agricultural workers are

increasing gradually but the percentage of agricultural workers to the main

workers are decreasing year after year. Table 4.12 illustrates that the

number of agricultural workers were 12,05,618 lakhs in the year 1971 in

the region but it rose upto 13,90,495 lakhs workers in 1991. The total

increase in the number over the base year (1971) was of 1,84,877 lakhs workers (15.33 per cent). As against this, the share of agricultural workers to the main workers was 75.23 per cent in 1971, but it declined to 64.53 per cent agricultural workers in 1991. The total decrease in percentage over the previous year was 10.7 (-14.22 per cent). The district-wise distribution of agricultural workers and their percentage to the main workers are shown in Table 4.13 and their concentration focussed in Figs.

4.12 & 4.13. Table reveals that the percentage of agricultural workers to the main workers are decreasing in each districts during 1971 to 1991 census year. 190 Table 4.12

Number of agricultural workers in Uttarakhand

Year Total agricultural workers Percentage of agricultural (Cultivator + Ag.labourers) workers to the main workers

1971 12,05,618 75.23

1981 12,13,136 69.31

1991 13,90,495 64.53

Sources : Census of India, Series-1, part II B(l), New Delhi, 1971, 1981 and 1991.

Table 4.13

District-wise distribution of agricultural workers in Uttarakhand

1971 1991 Name of Total Percentage of Total Percentage of the districts agri. agri.workers agri. agri.workers workers to the main workers to the main workers workers

Nainital 1,69,579 64.01 2,97,175 59.63

Almora 2,45,148 84.14 2,60,482 77.42 Pithoragarh 1,01,787 80.82 1,72,533 74.23

Chamoli 1,47,604 86.95 1,42,267 73.93

Uttarkashi 81,621 86.90 90,693 78.87

Tehri-Garhwal 1,87,210 91.50 1,81,314 78.93

Pauri-Garhwal 1,99,143 79.31 1,39,856 64.20 Dehradun 73,526 36.57 1,06,175 31.92

Total 12,05,618 75.23 13,90,495 64.53 Uttarakhand

Sources : Census of India, Series-1, part II B(l), New Delhi, 1971 and 1991. 191

UTTARAKHAND DISTRIBUTION OF AGRICULTURAL WORIOERS 1971

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 70

MEDIUM 35-70

LOW BELOW 35 20 0 20 40 50 I I I Kms

nG.4.10 192

UTTARAKHAND DISTRIBUTION OF AGRIC11LTIIR.4L WORKERS 1991

INDEX V.\LUE

HIGH 70

MEDIUM 35 - 70

LOW BELOW 35 20 0 20 40 60 til I I I Km;

nG.4.10 193

Figures 4.13 emphasized that, according to census year 1991, the

high concentration of Agricultural workers to the main workers localised

in the district of Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli, Uttarkashi and Tehri

Garhwal, where the number of workers to the main workers are above 70

per cent. Afterwards the number of agricultural workers are decline

gradually. Th emedium concentration of agricultural workers are found in

south-eastern and south-central part of the study region. It includes the

district of Nainital and Pauri-Garhwal, the percentage of agricultural

workers ranges between 35 to 70 per cent. Further away on the district of

south-west namely Dehradun, where the percentage of agricultural workers

to the main workers was recorded below 35 per cent.

Literacy

Literacy plays a very important role in the understanding of social problem. It enhance our ability to develop solutions for these problems.

'The education of the workers, whether they are working in agriculture or industry, helps them to do their work with skill, efficiency and hence they produce more" (Phillips, 1971).

The role of education in agricultural development although fundamental but not a direct one - can't be analysed systematically. But it is important to note that education plays a vital role in the building up of knowledge and the diffusion of agricultural innovations. It has been observed during the green revolution that educated farmers were the first to adopt research and innovation in agricultural technology, because they know its use and benefits in agricultural production. Hence literacy has been selected as one of the indicators to measure agricultural development 194 because new ideas and technique are adopted by educated farmers, which lead towards the progress of agriculture. The rate of adoption of new ideas and practices is higher among the literate farmers than their illiterate counterparts. In order to assess the literacy pattern in Uttarakhand region, a district-wise distribution of literate person and their percentage to total population is given in Table 4.15and their high, medium and low concentration is shown in Figures 4.14 & 4.15. Table 4.14 reveals that there were 11,85,547 lakhs literate person in the region, accounting for

31.02 per cent of the total population in 1971. The total number of literate person has increased to 18,99,799 lakhs or 39.28 per cent of the total population in the census year 1981. Efforts of the government for expansion of literacy i.e. National literacy mission, and adoption of adult education programmes further increased the number of educated person to

28,90,672 lakhs or 48.78 per cent of the total population in the census year 1991.

It is clear from the Fig. 4.14 that in 1971, the high concentration with literacy above 40 per cent was seen in only one district, Dehradun, whereas the medium concentration of literates person was recorded in south-eastern, north-eastern and south-central portion of Uttarakhand. It includes the district of Nainital, Pithoragarh and Pauri Garhwal. The percentage of literate person to the total population in the above districts ranges between 30 and 40 per cent. The remaining four district namely,

Almora, Chamoli, Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal falls under low concentration of literate person where the number of literate person lies below 30 per cent of the total population. 195

Table 4.12

Number of literate persons in Uttarakhand

Year Total no. of literates Percentage of literate persons to total population

1971 11,85,547 31.02

1981 18,99,799 39.28

1991 28,90,672 48.78

Sources : Census of India, Series-1, part II B(l), New Delhi, 1971, 1981 and 1991.

Table 4.15

District-wise distribution of literate persons In Uttarakhand

1971 1991 Name of Total Percentage of Total Percentage of the districts no. of literates to no. of literates literates total literates to total population population

Nainital 2,52,370 31.94 7,04,252 45.72

Almora 2,10,584 28.08 3,99,659 47.80 Pithoragarh 99,987 31.87 2,73,119 48.22

Chamoli 83,884 28.67 2,25,280 49.52 Uttarkashi 32,577 22.04 91,999 38.38

Tehri-Garhwal 76,642 19.29 2,27,431 39.20 Pauri-Garhwal 1,76,971 32.00 3,71,544 54.43 Dehradun 2,52,532 43.74 5,97,388 58.24

Total 11,85,547 31.02 28,90,672 48.78 Uttarakhand

Sources : Census of India, Series-1, part II B(l), New Delhi, 1971and 1991. 196

UTTARAKHAND DISTRIBUTION OF LITERATE PERSONS 1971

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 40

MEDIUM 30-40

LOW BELOW 30 20 0 20 40 60 III III Kms

nG.4.10 197

UTTARAKHAND DISTRIBUTION OF LITERATE PERSONS 1991

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 50

MEDIUM - 50

LOW BELOW 4U 20 0 2•0 40 50 Kms

nG.4.10 198

During 1991, the percentage of literate to total population has

increased in each district Uttarakhand over the base year 1971. Fig. 4.15

demonstrates that high concentration of literate person was found in Pauri-

Garhwal and Dehradun district with more than 50 per cent literate person

to the total population, while the medium concentration of literates person

was recorded in Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh and Chamoli district where

the percentage of literate person ranges between 40 to 50 per cent. The

low concentration of literate perosn are recorded below 40 per cent to the

total population in remaining two districts namely Uttarkashi and Tehri-

Garhwal.

Land holdings

Operational holding is the fundamental unit of decision making in

Agriculture. Therefore, for all development programmes aimed at

improving the lot of individual cultivators, information of operational

holdings such as their number, size and area, assumed special importance.

The efficiency of Agricultural production, the margin of profit and the

scope of its developments are strongly influenced by the size of individual

holdings. The optimum size of holding is decided by factors like fertility

of soil, climate and economic condition of the farmers. Hence we can say

that land holdings also play an important role in the agrarian economy of

our countiy In India, operational holdings are very small, comprising with

size of less than 1 hectare. The number of land holdings is 30.7 million

and constitute more than 50 per cent of the total operational holding in the country. The agricultural statistics department has recognised five main

classes of holdings as given in Table 4.16. For this purpose we have taken two periods viz. 1976-77 and 1990-91 for the study. 199

Table 4.12

Number of land holdings under different categories in Uttarakhand

1976-77 1990-91 Size class Number of Percentage Number of Percentage holdings from the holdings from the (•000) total ('000) total

Marginal Holdings 527.52 71.50 537.5 71.20 (Below 1.0 ha)

Small holding 115.20 15.61 127.00 16.82 (1.0-2.0 ha)

Semi-medium 66.20 8.97 68.00 9.01 holding (2.0-4.0 ha)

Medium holding 26.00 3.52 20.50 2.72 (4.0-10.0 ha)

Large holdings 2.90 0.40 1.90 0.25 (10.0 ha & above)

Total 737.82 100.00 754.90 100.00

Source : Statistical Abstract, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, State Planning Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.

Table 4.16 shows that during 1976-77, there were 737.92 thousand operational holdings in the region, of which 71.50 percent were marginal or less than 1 hectare in size. But owing to increasing population, a little bit of land holdings increased to 754.5 thousand in 1990-91, but the percentage from the total, reduced to 71.24 in a one and half decade.

The number of small holdings of the size 1 to 2 hectares increased from

115.20 thousand to 127.00 thousand from 1976-77 to 1990-91, they shared 15.61 percent of the total holdings, rose up to 16.83 percent in the 200 same decade. Semi-medium size holdings accounted for 66.20 thousand hectares in 1976-77 and 68.00 thousand in 1990-91 and their share increased from 8.97 to 9.01 per cent during the period 1976-77 to

1990-91.

The number of medium holdings of the size 4 to 10 hectares were greatly affected, their percentage from the total holdings decreased from

3.52 to 2.72 percent from the period 1976-77 to 1990-91. However, the large holdings were small in number. It was 0.40 per cent in 1976-77 and further declined to 0.25 per cent in 1990-91. It is obvious from the above analysis that only two categories of holdings viz. those below one hectare and those with 1 to 2 hectares in size constitutes about more than 88 per cent of the total holdings in Uttarakhand. The other three categories contributes only 12 per cent of the total number of holdings. It is clear from the above study that the majority of the farmers in the study region have marginal and small agricultural land holdings for their livelihood

(Table 4.17 & 4.18). 201

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References

1. Chourasia and Singh (1972) : Economics of Local and High Yielding Varieties of Paddy and Wheat in Panagar village of M.P. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics.

2. Choudhari, A.K. and A.S. Serohi (1974) : Allocation of Fertilizers among crops and Regions in U.P., Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol. 27, No. 3, p. 47.

J. Gauny (1977) ; Agricultural Mechanisation, in C.L.A. Leaky and J.B. Wilk (ed.) - Food Crops of the low land tropics, Oxford University Press, p. 273.

4. Hanumantha Rao, C.H. (1979): Farm Mechanisation in CH. Shah (ed.)

- Agricultural Development of India, Policy and Problems, Bombay

p. 292.

5. Jain, H. (1988) : Contribution of New Teaching in Agriculture,

Kurukshetra, October.

6. Kadekodi, Gopal, K. (2000) : Towards sustainable water Resource

Management, in Gopal K. Kadekodi, et al. (eds.), Water in Kumaun,

pp. 81-126.

7. Muthiah, C. (1970): The Agricultural Labour problem in Tanjavar and

the New Agricultural Strategy, Indian Journal of Agricultural

Economics, Vol. 25, No. 3, p. 20.

8. Minhas and Vaidyanath (1976) : Spread of Area under High yielding

varieties in Punjab and Haryana and Factors Behind it, M.Phil.

Dissertation, JNU.

9. Nair, N.K. (1974) ; Education in Production, the Case of Indian

Agriculture, Productivity, Oct.-Dec. 204

10. Singh, S.K. (1981) : Electricity operated sources of Irrigation in Eastern uttar Pradesh in Noor Mohammad (eds.) Perspective in Agricultural Geography, vol. II, p. 485.

11. Singh, K.P. (1987) : Groundwater and Environment in R.K. Sapru (ed.). Environmental Management in India, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi.

12. Shah, S.L. (1997) : A sustainable and Replicable Model of Eco- development in Uttarakhand/Uttaranchal : Methodologies and Strategies in S.L. Shah (ed), Sustainable and Replicable, pp. 1-86.

13. Siddiqui, S.H. (1989) : The pattern of Irrigation in the North Bihar plain. Geographical Review of India, Vol. 51, No. 4, Dec. pp. 55-64.

205

The measurement of agricultural productivity is not a simple task,

as it involves a relationship between inputs and outputs in agricultural

production. Productivity is not a synonyms of fertility, it is generally used

to express the power of agriculture in a particular region to produce crops

without regards to whether that power is due to the bounty of nature or the

efforts of man (Jonhson, 1926). The term productivity has been used in

different meanings and has aroused many conflicting interpretation,

sometimes it is considered as the overall efficiency with which a production system work, while in other words it may be defined as the ratio of output to input in relation to land and overall resources employed in Agriculture.

Thompson (1926) while measuring the relative productivity of

"British and Danish farming" emphasized and expressed it in terms of gross output of crops and livestock. He considered the following seven parameters : (i) the yield per acre of crops, (ii) the livestock per 100 acres, (iii) the gross production or output per 100 acres, (iv) the proportion of arable land, (v) the no. of person employed, (vi) the cost of production expressed in terms of wages and labour costs, rent or interest and (vii) prices relative profitability and general economic conditions.

Buck (1937) assessed the agricultural progress in China by adopting the approach of grain equivalent. For this purpose he converted all the agricultural products into kilograms of grain equivalent in order to select as a unit of measure a kilogram, with whatever kind of grain was predominant in the region. A modification in this method was attempted by 206

Clark and Haswell (1967) by expressing the output in terms of Kilograms of 'wheat equivalent' per head of population.

Ganguli (1938) in his study of Ganges valley presented a theoretical discussion for computing productivity in agriculture. Firstly, he took in to account the area under any crop "A" in a particular unit are belonging to a certain region. This area is expressed as a proportion of the total cropped area under all the selected crops. Secondly, Ganguly tried to obtain the index number of yield. Thirdly, the proportion of the area under

A and the corresponding index number of yield were multiplied. There are two advantages which are apparent by using this method i.e. a) the relative importance of the crop A in that unit of study is assessed as indicated by the proportion of the cropped area which is under A and b) the yield of the crop A in comparison to the regional standard. The product thus obtained indicates actually an index of the contribution of the crop A to the productivity of the unit considered.

Kendall (1939) treated it as a mathematical problem and interrelated a system of four coefficient a) Productivity coefficient, b) ranking coefficient, c) money value coefficiency and d) starch coefficient or energy coefficient. According to him the productivity coefficient and the ranking coefficient are concerned only with the yield per unit area, but are not in any way weighted according to the volume of the production.

Kendall therefore evolved a measure of crop productivity by using index number technique. In this technique the yield of different crops should be expressed in terms of some common units, for this purpose he pointedout 207

two common units i) money value as expressed in price, ii) energy as

expressed in starch equivalent.

Kendall's money value index poses one major difficulty, that data

for certain crops are not available, for exmaple, there are many vegetables

and beans which are grown mostly for the consumption on the farms and

their price data are not recorded in contrast to cereal crops whose data are

adequate. While determining the money value coefficient, another

difficulty arises with regard to the prices - for example, the prices

prevailing in the area should be adopted, or those prevailing in the region

or in the country as a whole, in addition to the local variaitons in the prices

which depend on circumstances like proximity to the market or the

relative nutritive character of the product. Significant differences in prices

per tonne between the crop affect the final result heavily in favour of the

higher priced commodity. In this method, the crop production of each unit

area is valued by multiplying the volume of production of a particular crop

by the price, and then adds the results for the selected number of crops

together. The total is divided by the total acreage in the unit area a figure

of money value per acre per hectare under the crops considered so far as

energy coefficient is concerned, an index based on nutritional factor ignores local variation because of the absence of data. Kendall therefore

suggests starch equivalent as the most suitable unit. While calculating a coefficient based on starch equivalent it should be decided : (a) Whether a gross or net digestable energy figure is to be taken, (b) whether any allowance is to be made for by-products such as wheat and barley straws or the green stalks of maize, jowar and bajra and (c) whether any acocunt 208 should be taken of the fact that the energy in certain foods has first to be fed to livestock and then wheat and milk is used for human consumption.

The basic question that arises in this technique is whether the gross starch equivalent of the various crops should be considered or the net equivalent.

Net energy refers to the amount of energy for work and body building whereas a gross figure includes the energy employed in the digestive process of the consuming animal and similar non-realisable forms. Kendall suggested, that production of energy be preferred as the gross figures.

Hirsch (1943) has suggested, crop yield index as the basis of productivity measurement, it expressed the average of the yields of various crops on another farm in a second locality. Zobel (1950) has attempted to determine the labour productivity. He considered the productivity of labour as the ratio of the total output to the total man-hours consumed in the production of that output resulting in output per man hours. This has been expressed by the following equations

71= f(P, L) where % - Productivity of labour

P = Production, and

L = Labour utilized.

Huntengton and Valkenburg (1952) considered land productivity on the basis of acre yields of eight crops raised very widely in Europe. For each crop, the average yield per acre for Europe as a whole was taken as an index of 100, and specify yield in each country was calculated. Stamp

(1958)has choosen calorific value of farm production in measuring 209

agricultural productivity. He calculated the standard Nutrition Unit (SNU)

by converting all the food production per acre in calories. Taking into

consideration, the age structure of the population, the range of occupation,

the weight and height of the people living under climatic condition of north western Europe, the average is 2.460 calories a day or about

9,00,000 calories per year". "The Nutrition Expert Group of Indian Council of Medical Research has recommended the daily allowance of Nutrients for Indians. They published a table show the caloric intake among adults from 1900 a day for a women in sedentary work to 3900 for a man engaged in heavy work. For children it was recommended 110 calories per kg weight of the body per day for infants under one year to 3000 for teenage boy.

Shafi (1960) has determined the agricultural efficiency in Uttar

Pradesh taking into consideration, eight food crops grown in each of the

48 districts of the state. Mackenzie (1962) has measured the efficiency of production in Canadian agriculture by rising the coefficient of output relative to input. He mentions, that the concept of productivity measurement is difficult to define and even more difficult to quantify.

Commen (1962)while working out the trends of productivity in agriculture of the state of Kerala (India) has measured productivity on the basis of yield per acre.

Chatterji and Maitreya (1964) has calculated the levels of agriculture development and productivity during 1950-51 to 1957-58 in the states of West Bengal, taking two crops (Rice and Jute) in to consideration they utilized the acre yield figure for this purpose". Enyedi 210

(1964) while describing geographical types of agriculture in Hungary

applied the following formula for calculating agricultural productivity

Y/Yn : T/Tn where Y = is the yield of crop in the unit area

Yn = is the yield of respective crop at the National level

T = is the total cropped area of the unit

Tn = is the total cropped area at the National level

Dhondyal (1964) has measured variations in agriculture development and productivity by selecting three representative district from the three regions of Uttar Pradesh, while assessing the rate of credit, intensive crop enterprises and the infuence of irrigation water during

1962-63. Gopalkrishna and Ramakrishna (1964) have taken Andhra

Pradesh (1) to measure the degree of variations with respect to a) agricultural output per acre (Rs) (b) output per head of agricultural production (Rs) and (2) to account the causes of variations in each of the twenty districts of the state during 1959-60. The variables relating to the level of output per acres are selected as follows : i) normal level of rainfall ii) percentage of current and old fallows, iii) percentage of area under irrigation, iv) percentage of literacy, v) percentage of population in agriculture, vi) intensity of cropping, vii) percentage of gross value other than foodgrains and fodder, viii) the percentage of area under all crops excluding fodder and foodgrains, ix) density of agricultural population per acre and x) percentage of total area under commercial crops including rice. 211

The Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics, organised a

symposium on the topic, 'Measurement of Agricultural Productivity' at the

17th Annual Conference of the society held at Jaipur in 1964. The

research papers contributed by different scholars appeared in the society's

journal, viz.. Journal of the Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics in

the succeeding issue of 1965.

Horring (1964) has suggested that the concept of productivity is

based not only on the single relationship i.e. differences in the same

agricultural region or sub-region as between successive period and

between similar agricultural region in different countries or regions during

the same period.

Agarwal (1965) has suggested : Factorial Approach' while

measuring agricultural productivity in Bastar districts of M.P. In this

approach, a number of human controlled factors relating to agricultural

production as : crop superiority, crop commercialisation, crop security,

landuse, intensity and power inputs have been selected, excluding the

environmental factors.

Khusro(1965) has linked assessment of productivity with the output per unit of a single input and output per unit of cost of all inputs in the agricultural production. Pandit (1965) has expressed the connotation of productivity in these words "Productivity is defined in economics as the output per units of input the art of securing an increase in output from the same input or of getting the same output from a smaller input. 2] 2

Sharma (1965) while defining the concept of agricultural

productivity has suggested various parameters on which it can be

measured. According to him, productivity can be considered in relation to

labour, land and capital, it can also be considered in terms of overall

resources employed in agriculture. In case of commodities like

foodgrains, fruits and vegetable, sugarcane and edible seeds, he suggests

that the output of these commodities be converted into calories. While

considering the other non-food crops such as cotton and other fibres the

only common measure being the value which involves the pricing of

different products. For evaluating value of production, farm harvest or

wholesale prices have the definite significance. He also emphasized

agricultural work force as the basis of productivity measurement e.g. the total no.of labour employed (in order to acocunt the interest of labour) or the number of man hours worked in agriculture per unit of area.

Saran (1965) has applied Cobb-Douglass 'Production Function' approach for the measurement of productivity. The common purpose of this function is to express input output relationship between several inputs and one output in the agricultural systems. The function takes the following form :

Y = AX^^X^'X^^X^' X/ where n denotne various inputslike land, labour, capital assets and other working expenses. The values of b,c,d,...y represents elasticities of the respective units. 213

Shafi (1965) has assessed the productivity on the basis of labour

population engaged in Agriculture. According to him, it can be calculated

by dividing the gross production in any unit area by the number of man-

hours or less precisely by the number employed in agriculture.

Dewett (1966) explains it as productivity expresses the varying

relationship between agricultural output and are of the major inputs like

land, labour or capita, other complementary factors remaining the same, it

may be borne in mind that productivity is physical rather than a value

concepts.

Shafi (1967 & 1969) applied stamps standard nutrition unit

technique for measuring the efficiency of agriculture in India. He has

considered the district as the areal unit and has selected all the food crops

grown in India. Noort (1967) considered net total productivity (being the

relationship between the net products and factor inputs) as a method for

the measurement of field productivity and also to assess comparison in

lime or in space. The purpose of this measure is to changes in labour and

capital inputs in Agriculture.

Sinha (1968) has adopted a standard deviation formula to

determine agricultural efficiency in India. He has selected twenty five

crops grown in the country, were categorised into cereals, pulses, oilseeds

and cash crops and specific yields of that's were taken. In case of cash

crops, their monetary values were calculated in (Rs.) per hectare by

incorporating wholesale market prices. Finally the standard scores were

computed and to give them weightage, these values were multiplied by the acreage figures i.e. the area of cutivation under the crops. 214

The Indian society of Agricultural Statistics in its 30th Annual

Conference held at Bhubaneshwar (Orissa) India, discussed some aspects

on agricultural productivity in the Indian context. Singh (1972) has applied

to measure the agricultural efficiency of Haryana in terms of nutrition

units per unit area. He has tried to measure the carrying capacity per

square mile in the area unit which can be expressed as

C o Co = —

where C^^ = Cariying capacity

C^j = Caloric output per square mile

S,^ = Standard nutrition for ingestion in calories person per

aimum

He also give a measure of the agricultural efficiency of the areal unit

relative to the entire region in percentage and expressed as

Cp. L.e = " '00 Cpr

where L^ = the index number of agricultural efficiency

Cpg = is the carrying capacity in terms of population in the

component enumeration unit

Cpj. = the carrying capacity in the entire region.

Raheja et al. (1977) have measured the impact of high-yielding varieties based on data collected under the scheme 'Sample Surveys for 21'3

Assessment of High yielding varieties programme' during 1973-74 and

regional variations in productivity on the basis of yield per hectare in

India.

Besides there are various social scientist who have applied

different methods for the assessment of agricultural productivity but W.Y.

Yang (1965) has based his analysis by computing the yield of different

crops in a farm and comparing it with the average corp yield of the entire

region, later on, a value in percentage is obtained by dividing the yield per

hectare of a crop in a particular farm by the average yield of the crop in

the entire region. The obtained value is multiplied by 100 and gives the

index number, by taking the area, devoted to each crop as a weight and

multiplying this by percentage index, the products are obtained. By adding the products and dividing the sum of the products by the total cropped area in the district, the average index obtained is the desired crop index for the particular district, using crop area as weight.

All these researches are aimed to find ways and means for increasing agricultural efficiency. The main objective of agriculture planning in India is to achieve self sufficiency in agricultural production.

Therefore, for researchers it is necessary to measure the pattern of agricultural productivity on a micro-level in various regions of the country and to study as to how for the objectives of agricultural planning for the production of different crops has been achieved. In the present study the productivity indices of crops considered for each districts were computed according to methodology as given by "Yang's", for the two periods i.e. 216

1979-80 and 1994-95. All the major crops grown in the region are classified into four major groups. a) Cereals which includes rice, wheat, maize and barley.

B) Pulses includes gram, peas, arhar, masoor (lentil) and urd.

C) Oilseeds includes sesamum, soyabean and rapeseeds & mustard

D) Cashcrops includes sugarcane, potato and onion.

The data has been collected from the published records of the

Directorate of Agricultural Statistics and crop insurance, Krishi Bhavan and Institute of State Planning, jawahar Bhavan Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh for the year 1979-80 and 1994-95, taking district as a unit of study. The district-wise indices of crop-productivity were computed according to the methodology given by Yang's crop yield index method (Appendix A & B).

For calculating the crop yield index for a district, the average yield of each crop grown in the region must be known. The percentage value of the crop yield in the district is then calculated by dividing the yield per hectare of the crops in whole Uttarakhand region. This value gives the index number of the crop yield in the district is multiplied by the area under the crops in the district. The product which come were added and divided by the sum of total area under different crops in a district. The average index is thus obtained which is the desired crop index of a district, using crop as a weight. 217

Table 4.12 Method for calculating crop productivity index for district Dehradun

Name of Area of Yield in c uintal/hectare Crop Percentage crops crops in Average Average yield in multiplied the distt. yield in yield in the distt. by area in (in hect.) the distt. the region as % to hectare the region 1 2 3 4 5= Col.3/ 6 = Col.5x Cal.4xl00 Cal.2 Rice 16784 8.57 11.5 74.52 1250743.68 Wheat 25955 12.72 12.01 105.91 2748894.05

Maize 11425 13.08 11.48 113.93 1301650.25

Barley 2300 9.68 11.74 82.45 189635.00 Total 56464 5490922.98

Crop index for the District Dehradun

= 5490922.98 / 56464

= 97.24 per cent

On the basis of productivity index, ail the district of Uttarakhand

region have been grouped in to three categories (high, medium and low)

for cereals, pulses, olseeds and cashcrops as shown in Table 5.2.

The productivity of different section of crops viz. cereals, pulses,

oilseeds and cashcrops for the year 1979-80 has been described below :

Productivity region - Cereals (1979-80)

Cereals occupy an important place in the agriculture of

Uttarakhand region. They occupy 7,26,758 hectares area, which account for about 88,37 per cent of the total cropped area of the region. About

36.63 per cent of the area comes under low productivity of cereals, while 218

I U o 1 • Wi o S o o o IT) CO CQ I o a> 3 •o !a o Cm O L. o -C (2 On -t-j (N (N V5 d c > u o o C5 o o C JS c3 00 CQ 00 « E o 3 T3 z

UTTAR.4KHAND PRODUCTIMTY REGION

CERE.4LS (1979-SO)

INDEX VALUE

HIGH .^OVE I2U

MEDIUM SO - 12(1

LOW BELOW St I 20 20 40 60 I— I I I Km;

nG.5.1 220

medium productivity regions are contributed by 30.02 per cent. The high

productivity region covers an area of 33.34 per cent of the region.

Productivity region of cereals have been depicted in Fig. 5.1

whereas the number of districts in each category is given in Table 5.2. The

region of high productivity of cereals lies in the south eastern part of the

study area. The productivity indices of this region is above 120. The high

productivity in this region is due to the assured availability of irrigation

facilities, sufficient amount of fertilizers consumption, high yielding

varieties of seeds and agricultural implements and machinery. The

concentration of medium productivity spread in north-eastern north-

central, north-western and south-western part of the study region, it includes the districts of Pithoragarh, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, and Dehradun, with the crop indices ranges between 80 to 120. Altogether they covers an area of 2,18,169 hectares. The areas under low productivity of cereals lies in east-central, west-central and south-central part of the Uttarakhand region, it is surrounded by a belt of high and medium productivity region, which includes the districts of Almora, Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri Garhwal, with an area of 2,66,250 hectares. The low productivity may be attributed to rugged topography, hard compact rocks and landslides and soil leaching which causes the damage of crops. The productivity indices in this region is below 80.

Productivity Region - Pulses

In our predominantly starchy vegetarian diet, pulses form a very important part as they provide us rich amount of protein. In this study region, only five major crops (gram, peas, arhar, masoor and urd) are 221

UTTARAKHAND PRODUCTmXY REGION PULSES (19^9 SO)

INDEX VALUE

HIGH .-^EOVE 120 MEDIUM 100 - 120

LOW BELOW 100 20 0 20 40 50 i- • Kms

nG.4.10 222

cultivated and taken into account.The high productivity region contributes

about 28.67 per cent of the total area under pulses. Of the study region,

whereas the medium and low productivity region comprises 5.58 per cent

and 65.75 per cent respectively. Productivity regions of pulses are shown

in Fig. 5.2. It may be seen from the figure that high concentration of

pulses are concentrated in two districts namely, Almora (east-central part

of the region) and Pithoragarh (north-eastern part of the Uttarakhand).

These covers an area of 7,816 hectares with crop indices of above 120.

The medium productivity region of pulses, occupies an area of Chamoli

and Pauri Garhwal (south-central part of the Uttarakhand region), with crop

indices ranging between 100 to 120, they constitutes an area of 1521

hectares, while low productivity region covers an area of 17,929 hectares,

it spread in four remaining districts namely, Nainital, (south-eastern part),

uttarkashi (north-western part), Tehri-Garhwal (west-central) and Dehradun

(south-western) of the study region. Here the crop indices is below 100.

Productivity Region - Oilseeds

Oilseeds occupy 22120 hectare of cropped area of the study

region. The high productivity area is covered by 7.62 per cent to the total

area under oilseeds, while the medium productivity areas constitute about

86.37 per cent and 6.01 per cent area comes under the category of low productivity region. There are three districts of Uttarakhand namely,

Pithoragarh, Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal showing high concentration of oilseeds, with crop indices is above 110. It may be seen from the Fig. 5.3 the medium productivity of oilseeds lies in four districts namely, Nainital,

Almora, Uttarkashi and Pauri-Garhwal. Altogether they covers an area of 223

UTTARAKHAND PRODUCTmXY REGION OILSEEDS (1979 80)

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE llU

MEDIUM 100- 110

LOW BELOW KW 20 0 2'0 40 60 Kms

nG.4.10 224

19105 hectares with the productivity indices ranging between 100 to 110.

About 1130 hectares area comes under low productivity region, which is

located only in the Nainital district. Here crop indices is below 100.

Productivity region - Cashcrops

Cashcrops are the most improtant group of crops grown in the

Uttarakhand region. Among cashcrops, sugarcane, potatoes and onion have

been taken into account covered an area of 46,259 hectares, which

contribute to 4.06 per cent of the total cropped area of the study region.

The high productivity region of cash crops share 14.40 per cent area,

whereas more than three fourth area comes under low productivity region,

with 82.91 per cent of its share, while a small area of 2.70 per cent comes

under medium category. The high productivity region of cashcrops lies in the south-western part of the region,covering only one district namely

Dehradun, with the crop indices of above 103. Medium productivity region extending over only two region, namely Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal, but the low productivity region covers extensive area in south-eastern, east central, north-eastern, north-central and south-central part of the study region, it includes the district of Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli and Pauri-Garhwal here productivity indices is 100 (Fig. 5.4).

Productivity region based on composite index (1979-80)

A composite index has been formulated after calculating the agricultural productivity for each group of crops in Uttarakhand region.

The value of each districts are given in Table 5.2 and their spatial patterns are shown in Fig. 5.5. It will be seen from this figure that there are three district namely Nainital, Almora and Pithoragarh of high productivity 225

UTTARAKHAND PRODUCXmiY REGION CASHCROPS (1979-80)

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 105

MEDIUM 100- 105

LOW BELOW liMi 20 20 40 SO 1— I I I Kms

nG.4.10 226

UTTAR.4KHAND PRODUCTIMTY REGION COIMPOSITE INDEX (1979 80)

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 100

MEDIUM 95 - 10(1

LOW BELOW 95 20 20 40 60 I I I Kms

nG.5.5 227

region. It lies in the south-eastern, east-central and north-eastern part of

Uttarakhand region. The productivity indices is above 100, it covers an

area of 5,28,563 hectares or 64.27 per cent of the cropped area of the

region. The medium productivity region scattered over mainly in two

district namely Chamoli and Pauri-Garhwal. They spread in north-central

and south-central part of Uttarakhand, with productivity indices ranging

between 95 to 100. Altogether they covers an area of 1,33,470 hectares,

which is 16.23 per cent of the total cropped area of the study region. The

low categoiy of agricultural productivity occupies remaining area

e.xtended over the north-western, west-central and south-western part of

study region. They together occupy an area of 1,60,305 hectare which is

19.50 per cent of the total cropped area of the entire region.

On the basis of productivity indices, all the district of

Uttarakhand region have been grouped in to three categories (high, medium and low) for cereal, pulses, oilseeds and cash crops as shown in Table 5.3.

The productivity of different sections of crops viz. cereal, pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops for the year 1994-95 has been described below :

Productivity region - Cereals (1994-95)

Cereals are the most important crops grown in Uttarakhand reigon. They occupy 7,11,940 hectares of land, accounting for about 84.74 per cent of the total cropped area of the study region. The productivity region of cereals are illustrated in each category with crop indices are given in Table 5.3. The districts of high productivity region extended over only south-eastern part of Uttarakhand region i.e. Nainital, occupying 228

x: Vm O

o O "C (N

•o O Cm O s2 u O -C m

CO d c o d '•CM a, pj Z Q 2 (U u 5 OO o Vi U (U fS "bo o O CS u TS o o) o 13 o ^ 4) c 00 PQ 00 X) C! E o 3 T3 0) cd o s m

UTTARAKHAND PRODUCTR TV RJEGION CERE.\LS (1994 95)

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE 12U

MEDIUM SO - 12(1

LOW BELOW 50 20 20 40 60 u. ' Kms

nG.5.5 230

33.13 per cent of the total area under cereals in the study region here

productivity indices is above 120. Medium productivity regions scattered

over two districts of the region. These districts are Pithoragarh and

Dehradun, covering 22.29 per cent of the total area under cereals in the

study region.

The low productivity reigon of cereals occupies vast area of the region. It includes the district of Almora, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Tehri-

Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal, which have crop indices below 80. Altogether they occupy an area of 3,17,351 hectares or 44.57 per cent of the total area under cereals of the regions (Fig. 5.6).

Productivity region - Pulses (1994-95)

Pulses in Uttarakhand reigon grown over 30,409 hectares and account for 2.66 per cent of the total cropped area of the study region.

The productivity status of pulses are illustrated in Fig. 5.7 and the crop indices of numerous districts are drafted in Table 5.3. High productivity of pulses are seen on the east central part of Uttarakhand region namely,

Almora, it covers an area of 3585 hectare which is 11.90 per cent of the total area under pulses in the region. Here the productivity indices is above

110.

A segment of medium productivity is observed on the north- eastern, south-central and south-western part of the study region. They includes the district of Pithoragarh, Pauri-Garhwal, and Dehradun, with productivity indices ranges between 100 and 110. These districts together occupies an area of 14035 hectares which contributes 46.15 per cent of 231

UTTARAKHAND PRODUCTmXY REGION PULSES (1994 95)

HIGH MEDIUM lUU - IIU

LOW BELOW lUU 20 0 20 40 60 III I I I Kms

nG.5.5 232

the total area under pulses in the study region. The low productivity of

pulses is seen in four remaining districts namely, Nainital, Chamoli,

Uttarakashi and Tehri-Garhwal, where the index value range is below 100.

Altogether they covers 12789 hectares or 42.05 per cent of the total area

under pulses of the study region.

Productivity region - Oilseeds (1994-95)

Oilseeds covers an area of 34,161 hectare or 3.00 per cent of the total cropped area of the study region. The productivity region of oilseeds are shown in Fig. 5.8 and the number of district under high, medium and low productivity with their indices are tabulated and depicted in Table 5.3.

Chamoli and Dehradun district with a crop indices of above 110 fall under high productivity of oilseeds. These district lies on the north-central and south-western part of the study region, it contributes 8.32 per cent (2845 hectares) of the total area under oilseeds in the study region. Medium productivity covers an extensive area of east-central, north-western, west- central, south-central part of Uttarakhand region. It includes the district of

Almora, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal. The productivity indices ranges between 100 and 110. They cosntitute 16.10 per cent area of the oilseeds in the study reigon, while the low productivity area is seen on the south-eastern and north-eastern part of the Uttarakhand region. They includes the district of Nainital and Pithoragarh, accounts for 25737 hectares area or 75.34 per cent of the total area under oilseeds in the study region. Here crop indices is below 100. 233

UTTARAKHAND PRODUCTmXY REGION OILSEEDS (1994-95)

INDEX V.\LUE

ABOVE 110 100- 110

BELOW 100 20 20 40 60 Kms

nG.5.5 234

Producitivyt region- Cashcrops (1994-95)

Cashcrops occupy an area of 63,567 hectare of 5.57 per cent of

the total cropped area of the Uttarakhand region. The productivity region

of various cashcrops is depicted in Fig. 5.9 and the crop indices under

each category is shown in Table 5.3. It may be seen from the figure that

only two districts namely, Dehradun and Tehri-Garhwal shows high productivity. Altogether they contributes 14.81 per cent (9415 hectares) of the total area under cashcrops. The productivity indices range is above

101. The district of Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli and Uttarkashi fall under the medium productivity region. Altogether they occupy an area of

8722 hectare or 13.72 per cent of the total area under cashcrops of the study region. The productivity indices ranges between 100 and 101. The low productivity regions includes two remaining district namely, Nainital and Pauri-Garhwal, lies on the south-eastern and south-central part of the study region. These districts together occupies an area of 45430 hectares or 71.46 per cent of the area under cashcrops, the crop indices is below

100.

Productivity Region : Composite Index (1994-95)

An overall assessment of agricultural productivity by computing composite index is given in Table 5.3. It can be seen in Fig. 5.10 that there are only two district namely, Nainital and Dehradun represents high agricultural productivity. It lies on the south-eastern and south-western part of the study regions with crop indices is above 100. It covers an area of 3,78,882 hectares or 45.10 per cent of the total cropped area of the

Uttarakhand region. The medium productivity also occupy two districts 235

UTTARAKHAND PRODUCTmXV REGION CASHCROPS (1994 95)

INDEX VALUE

ABOVE 101

H lou- m BELOW 10(J 20 Q .20 40 60

Kins

nG.5.5 236

UTTARAKHAND PRODUCTIMTY REGION COIMPOSITE INDEX (1994-95)

INDEX VALUE

HIGH ABOVE UlU

MEDIUM 95 - 100

LOW BELOW 95 :o 20 40 60 L. I I I Kmc

HG.S.IO 237

namely, Alinora and Chamoli. The crop indices ranges between 95 to 100,

with an area of 1,62,670 hectares or 19.36 per cent of the total cropped

area of the study region, while the low productivity comparatively

occupying large areas, including all remaining districts namely,

Pithoragarh, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal. Altogether, they

constitute an area of 2,98,535 hectares or 35.53 per cent of the total

cropped area of the region. The crop indices is below 95. After analysing the comparative study of agricultural productivity of the Uttarakhand region, we find that the rugged topography, coarse laterite soil, severe erosion problem, scarcity of surface water and less developed irrigation facilities restrict the agricultural productivity. Hence efforts have to be made to enhance agricultural production and need special attention of the

Agricultural scientists, planner, central and state government agencies to execute further development scheme in Agriculture.

Agricultural productivity

Pattern of change between 1979-80 to 1994-95

The pattern of areal change in Agricultural productivity of

Uttarakhand region between 1979-80 to 1994-95 are depicted in Table 5.4.

This table illustrates the change in area and their percentage change of various crops. It is evident from the table that during the last one and half decades, high productivity area under cereal has recorded a significant increase of 89,101 hectares, but the medium productivity area suffered with a great loss by 1,08,882, whereas the low productivity area under cereals witnessed an increase by 4968 hectares. The increase in terms of percentage was 24.80 per cent for high productivity but it declined to 238

CC 00 (N On o c r- o 1—H (N (N (N ^ o + + + 3 ca O ON 00 oo M s CO Tf r-- NO 5 u, 00 u.s + vo + + oI TT 13 g a\ fe I ON o CM c > o (U NO On cd CO 00 Ocx ^ O § 00 (N c^S o nP J? (N 1—( m kH + + o o + + m 00 00 a\ C/2 NO 00 o c3 On ro CO ON U c £ On 'C On NO f—( S O .£ + + + + 0 CJ r) es O § 00 CO JS •T) (N in C oi 4- + + « OJ a, L. (U o ON ^ o •T) ON U Tf s ^ o ro rt (N C irj c U .£ + + + i- (N O (CUO

36.24 per cent for medium productivity while the increase in productivity

area was 7.31 per cent under low productivity. Thus the area under high and

low productivity of cereals on the whole shows a positive sign, while there

was a great loss in the medium productivity.

We can say that the reduction in the productivity of cereals

expressed that the impact of various technological and institutional factors

have not been effective in Uttarakhand region. The use of indigenous seeds,

non-use of chemical fertilizers and the expansion of many insects and

pests have reduced the productivity of cereals in the region, but if we

compare the pulses from cereals we find different scenario. There are

continuous increase in area, under high and medium category, while the

area decrease in two districts namely, Nainital and Dehradun. The high

productivity area of pulses have increased with a gain of 2311 hectares,

contributing 19.18 per cent. The medium productivity area increased by

2720 hectares or 29.97 per cent of the total area occupied by the pulses.

On the other hand the low productivity are suffered with a loss of 1888

hectares, acocunting 30.70 per cent of the total area under pulses.

Oilseeds of the region has increased its area under high and medium

productivity. The high productivity area of oilseeds has increased by

1,0059 hectares which account for 54.41 per cent of the total area under

oilseeds. The medium productivity has increased by 3351 hectares contributing 251.95 per cent of the total oilseeds area, but the low productivity area has declined to 1449 hectares, covering 48.95 per cent of the total area under oilseeds. 240

Cashcrops are the last group of crops grown in Uttarakhand

region. It has increased their area under all three category. There has been

continuous expansion of area of cashcrops from the base year 1979-80.

High productivity area of cashcrops from 1979-80 to 1994-95 has

increased by 9954 hectares, which accounts for 28.80 per cent of the total

area. The medium productivity has increased to 1,196 hectares,

constituting to 17.95 per cent of the total area, while the low productivity

area has recorded an increase of 128.21 per cent of the total area under

cashcrops.

The productivity regions based on composite index reveals that high productivity area in Uttarakhand has increased by 14380 hectares,

commanding 2.72 per cent of the total area. Medium productivity region has declined by 6847 hectares or 3.07 per cent of the area under the study region, whereas low productivity area has increased by 1774 hectares or

2.49 perc ent of the total area of the region.

On the whole in Uttarakhand, the productivity area under cereal has declined by 14813 hectares (2.04 per cent), while the productivity area of pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops has shown significant increase by 3143 hectares (11.53 per cent), 12041 hectares (54.43 per cent) and 17308 hectares (37.41 per cent) respectively. The overall productivity area of the region also increased by 17689 hectares (2.15 per cent) . It may be seen from the analysis that farmers of Uttarakhand region are highly inclined towards the cultivation of pulses, oilseeds, and cashcrops rather than cereals, because these crops gives maximum return to the farmers. 241

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245

The role of technological and institutional factors on agricultural

development in Uttarakhand has been assessed in three ways. Firstly, the

inter-relationship among the variables during the periods 1979-80 and

1994-95 has been described. Secondly, an attempt is made to determine

the precise role of various indicators of agricultural development with the

help of factor analysis, and thereby indicating the actual development of

agriculture during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95. Thirdly, the actual

levels of agricultural development through the application of composite

mean Z-score has been worked out. For this purpose the author has

selected fifteen indicators to assess the levels of agricultural development

(Table 6.1).

Inter-relationship among independent variables (1979-80)

The inter-relationship among independent variables is shown in

Table 6.2. It has observed that the correlation of agricultural productivity

with other important independent variables indicates that it is positively

high correlated with percentage of area sown more than once (0.750). It is

moderately correlated with percentage of netsown area to reported area

(0.337), consumption of fertilizers (0.341), number of agricultural credit

co-operative societies (0.255) and number of Iron plough (0.22). The

correlation of netsown area to reported area with other independent

variable shows that it is highly strong with Iron plough (0.843), followed by percentage of irrigated area to the netsown area (0.829), consumption of fertilizers (0.821) and percentage of area under high yielding varieties of seeds (0.602). The highest negative correlation is depicted by wooden 246

Table 6.1

Variables of Agricultural Development

Variables Definition

Agricultural productivity based on Yang's yield index method

Percentage of netsown area to reported area

Percentage of irrigated area to the netsown area

X. Percentage of area sown more than once to netsown area.

Percentage of area under high yielding varieties of seeds to

gross cropped area

X. Percentage of agricultural workers to the main workers.

X- Percentage of literate persons to total population.

x„ Number of agricultural credit societies per lakh of

population

X. Consumption of fertilizer (Kg per hectare)

X 10 Number of wooden plough per thousand of cultivated land

X 11 Number of iron plough per thousand of cultivated land

X 12 Percentage of rural electrification to total number of

villages.

X 13 Percentage of canal irrigation to gross irrigated area.

Percentrage of irrigated area by other soruces to gross X 14

irrigated area.

Cropping intensity (in per cent) 247

o o X o -t o NO o r-H X o NO —< d <•1 o o NO o 00 x" o ON NO ' O d 1 1 O ri 00 o o ON fo I o ON ON OS o ^ o

t^ ^ o O d OS x" 1 o m O o m f—1 ON o vo —' o o d d E x" c. o O O 00 00 00 O r- IT) ON o l>U x~ o oo in o in a» d d d d d Q 1 1

o 00 1—< m NO (N X o ON in o (N m 00 3 o ON NO in d d d d d1 d o ^

o (N CN NO ON ON o p- o o ON ON (N m o (N ^ (S (N O f2 — d d d d d d d d .C2 1 1 X o o NO

« X o 00 o NO t-- o in NO t-- o ^ d d d d d d d d d d d d im 1 1 1 O U n o ON o (N r- NO (N m fo r- NO CN o (N ON O m ON

o (N fo tr, ro vO r- 00 0\ X X X X x" X X X X x" x" x" x" x" x" 248

plough (-0.895), followed by agricultural credit co-operative societies

(-0.592) and agricultural workers (-0.547).

If irrigated area to the netsown area is correlated with other

independent variables then it is vigorous with iron plough (0.937), consumption of feritlizers (0.911), area under high yield varieties of seeds

(0.901), netsown area (0.829) and rural electrification (0.722). The highest negative correlation shown with wooden plough (-0.883), agricultural workers (-0.676) and agricultural credit co-operative societies (-0.647). If area sown more than once is correlated with other variables, then it is positively high correlation with productivity (0.750), it is moderately coirelated with cropping intensity (0.447), irrigation by other sources (0.426).The highest negative correlation shown with canal irrigation (-0.585) only. When area under high yielding varieties of seeds correlated with other important variables, then its highly positive correlation shown with irrigated area to the netsown area (0.901) followed by consumption of fertilizers (0.890), rural electrification (0.838), iron plough (0.834) and netsown area (0.602). The negative correlation represented with wooden plough (-0.727), irrigation by other soruces (-

0.607).

If agricultural workers correlated with other independent variables, then it is strong with wooden plough (0.715) and agricultural credit co-operative societies (0.676). The highly negative correlation shown with literacy (-0.890) followed by rural electrification (-0.694), iron plough (-0.643), irrigated area to the net sown area (-0.676), and netsown area (-0.547), when literacy is correlated with independent 249 variables, then it is moderatley correlated with iron plough (0.496), rural electrification (0.449), netsown area (0.436). The highest negative correlation shown with (-0.890) followed by wooden plough (-0.542) and agricultural credit co-operative societies (-0.505). Taking agricultural credit societies for correlation, then its correlation is highly positive with agricultural workers (0.676) and wooden plough (0.504). The highest negative correlation relates with irrigated area to the net sown area

(-0.647), netsown area (-0.592), rural electrification (-0.512) and literacy

(-0.505).

If consumption of fertilizers are correlated with other independent variables then it is highly strong with iron plough (0.951) followed by irrigated area to the netsown area (0.911), area under high yielding varieties of seeds (0.890), netsown area (0.821), and rural electrification (0.605). The highest negative correlation is associated with irrigation by other sources (-0.556). When wooden plough is correlated with other variables, it indicates that highly positive correlation related with agricultural workers (0.715) and agricultural credit societies (0.564) and the highly negative correlation shown with netsown area (-0.895), irrigated area to the netsown area (-0.883) iron plough (-0.870) followed by consumption of feritlizer (-0.798), area under high yielding varieties of seeds (-0.727) and irrigation by other sources (-0.556).

Taking iron plough for correlation with other independent variables, then it is strong with chemical fertilizers (0.951), irrigated area to the netsown area (0.937), netsown area (0.843), area under high yielding varieties of seeds (0.834), and rural electrification (0.655). The highest 250

negative correlation shown with wooden plough (-0.870), followed by

agricultural workers (0.643), agricultural credit societies (-0.602) and irrigation by other sources (-0.590).

Assuming rural electrification for correlation with other independent variables, it is strong with area under high yielding varieties of seeds (0.838), irrigated area to the net sown area (0.722), canal irrigation (0.690), iron plough (0.655) and consumption of feritlizers

(0.605). The negative correlation shown by agricultural workers (-0.694), irrigation by other sources (-0.699), wooden plough (-0.551) and agricultural credit societies (-0.512).

If canal irrigation is correlated with other variables, it indicates that highly positive correlation shown with rural electrification (0.690).

The highest negative correlation shown with irrigation by other soruces

(-0.950), cropping intensity (-0.686) and area sown more than once

(-0.585). When irrigation by other soruces correlated with other independent variables then its correlation is strong with cropping intensity

(0.616). The highest negative correlation shown with canal irrigation

(-0.950) followed by rural electrification (-0.699), area under high yielding varieties of seeds (-0.607), iron plough (-0.590) and consumption of fertilizers (-0.556). Lastly when cropping intensity correlated with other independent variables, it shows positive correlation with irrigation by other sources (0.616).

Inter-relationship among independent variables (1994-95)

The inter-relationship among independent variables for the year

1994-95 can be examined from the Table 6.3. The study reveals that the 2S1

V o o X o T—1 T o ON o r^ >< o (N — O O ON O x" O —' o o o O E 1 D. o m m C4 x" o (S (N O o > o ON r-- NO ^ O) ^ O o o o O Q 1 1 1

L. CN o NO ON o NO X o o ON NO rt 00 ON o NO ^ 3 o f—< O O o O o1 o1 3 o o NO o in in 00 (U o o NO f—1 ON o o o (N o — s x'r N^ f2 « o o o o o o o o — 1

o o m —' o o o o o O o o o 1 1 1 1 1

o (N o _ 00 o r- o 00 o 1—H ,—1 00 1—1 1 ON in in ON >/ o rr

'u o 00 o VO IT) ON (N o o r- •t 1—1 « o ON o m NO rf ON X o CN O ^ f^ o NO ON O O o o o O1 O o o O o c 1 1 1 ro o 00 t^ 00 NO 00 , 1 o o 00 o 00 (N m Tf NO NO cs f^ T}- TT 00 X o m 00 f) o r- ON ON ON NO o NO fO o L. o O o o o o o1 O o o o L. 1 1 O iri 00 ro in o U rj o O r^ r^ NO NO k A o 00 f—1 o 1—1 r- NO o X o 00 t^ yD

o in O NO 00 o o f—^ (N CN o o

o (S m V n 00 Os X X X X X X X X X x" X x" X x" x" 252

correlation of agricultural productivity with other independent variables is

positively storng with high-yielding varieties of seeds (0.933), iron plough

(0.930), irrigated area to the net sown area (0.927), consumption of

fertilizer (0.920), net sown area (0.825) and rural electrification (0.691).

The highest negative correlation shown with agricultural credit

coopertative societies (-0.868), wooden plough (-0.864) and irrigation by

other soruces (-0.702).

When netsown area correlated with other variables, then its

correlation strong with consumption of fertilizer (0.845), irrigated area to

the netsown area (0.835) and agricultural productivity (0.825) followed by

iron plough (0.774), area sown more than once (0.740), cropping intensity

(0.740) and area under high yielding varieties of seeds (0.637). the highest negative correlation exists with wooden plough (-0.818) and agricultural credit co-operative societies (-0.705).

When irrigated area to the netsown area is correlated with other variables, then its correlation is positively strong with consumption of feritlizewr (0.968), iron plough (0.938), agricultural productivity (0.927), netsown area (0.835), area under high yielding varieties of seeds (0.824) and rural electrification (0.641). The highest negative correlation shown with wooden plough (-0.926), agricultural credit societies (-0.764) and irrigation by other soruces (-0.640).

If area sown more than once is correlated with other variables, then it is strong with cropping intensity (0.997) and netsown area (0.740).

The negative correlation shown with canal irrigation (-0.670). Assuming 253

high yielding varieties of seeds for correlation, then its correlation with

other variables indicates that it is highly strong with agricultural

productivity (0.933) followed by iron plough (0.898), irrigated area to the

netsown area (0.824), consumption of fertilizer (0.810), rural electri-

fication (0.770) and net sown area (0.637). The highest negative

correlation shown with wooden plough (-0.811), agricultural credit

societies (-0.782) and irrigation by other soruces (-0.750).

The correlation of agricultural workers with other independent

variables are strong with agricultural credit societies (0.635), wooden

plough (0.552) but its highest negative correlation related with literacy

(-0.790), iron plough (-0.563) and rural electrification (-0.504). The

correlation of literacy rate positively low correlated with iron plough

(0.343), net sown area (0.216), area under high yielding varieties of seeds

(0.211), canal irrigation (0.115) cropping intensity (0.107) and area sown

more than once (0.106). The highest negative correlation exists with

agricultural workers (-0.790) followed by agricultural credit societies

(-0.406) and irrigation by other sources.

The correlation of agricultural credit societies with independent variables ^re strong with wooden plough (0.785), agricultural workers

(0.635), irrigation by other sources (0.614). The highest negative correlation associated with agricultural productivity (-0.868), iron plough

(-0.837), area under high yielding of seeds (-0.782), irrigated area to the net sown area (-0.764), rural electrification (-0.748), net sown area

(-0.705) and consumption of fertilizer (-0.672). 254

The correlation of consumption of fertilizer with other variables

then it is positively correlated with irrigated area to the netsown area

(0.968), agricultural productivity (0.920), iron plough (0.901), followed

by net sown area (0.845), area under high yielding varieties of seeds

(0.810) and rural electrification (0.500). The negative correlation exists

with wooden plough (-0.856), agricultural credit societies (-0.672) and irrigation by other sources (-0.660). The correlation of wooden plough with other variables is positively high with agricultural credit societies

(0.785), irrigation by other soruces (0.605) and agricultural workers

(0.552). The highest negative correlation associated with irrigated area to the netsown area (-0.926), iron plough (-0.924), agricultural productivity

(-0.864), consumption of fertilizer (-0.856), netsown area (-0.818), area under high yielding varieties of seeds (-0.811) and rural electrification

(-0.721).

The correlation of iron plough with other independent variables is strong with agricultural productivity (0.930), irrigated area to the netsown area (0.938), consumption of fertilizers (0.901) followed by area under high yielding varieties of seeds (0.898), netsown area (0.774) and rural electrification (0.664). The highest negative correlation shown with wooden plough (-0.924), agricultural credit societies (-0.856), irrigation by other sources (-0.731) and agricultural workers (-0.563). Taking rural electrification for correlation with other variables, then it is strong with area under high yielding varieties ofseeds (0.770), agricultural produc- tivity (0.691), iron plough (0.663), irrigated area to the net sown area

(0.641) and canal irrigation (0.537) and moderately correlated with 255 consumption of fertilizers (0.499) and netsown area (0.343). The negative correlation exist, with agricultural credit societies (0.748), wooden plough (-0.721), irrigation by other sources (-0.634) and agricultural workers (-0.504).

The correlation of canal irrigation with other independent variables indicates that it is positively high with rural electrification

(0.537). The negative correlation shown with irrigation by other sources

(-0.729), area sown more than once (-0.670), and cropping intensity

(-0.670). The correlation of irrigaiton by other sources with other variables illustrates that it has high positive correlation with agricultural credit societies (0.614) and wooden plough (0.665). The highest negative correlation includes area under HYV of seeds (-0.750), agricultural productivity (-0.702), canal irrigation (-0.729), iron plough (-0.731), consumption of fertilizers (-0.660), irrigated area to the netsown area

(-0.640) and rural electrification (-0.634).

At last, cropping intensity correlated with other variables, then it is positively strong with area sown more than once (0.997), and netsown area (0.740). The highest negative correlation shown with canal irrigation

(-0.670) followed by wooden plough (-0.432).

Factor analysis

Factor analysis is considered to be a sound technique in determining the role of various factors of agricultural development of the study region, because by this technique, variables can adequately be described by smaller set of factors. The relationship between each variable 256

with the factor can be calculated by dividing each variable's total

corrleaiton by the square root of the total sum of the correlation. In factor

analysis these values are known as factor loading and they represents the

correlation between the original variable and the new factor. The factor

loading can be further processed by factor rotation which gives a set of

new factor loading (rotated factor) for better explanation.

Earlier a number of social scientist like Kaiser (1958), Ahmad

(1965), Harman (1967), Morrison (1967) and others have used factor

analysis technique in their studies.

In the present analysis, fifteen variables which are given in Table

6.1 and considered to be suitable indices of agricultural development are

collapsed in to each other and are rotated further to assess the agricultural

development in Uttarakhand. The calculation have been done through factor analysis package programme (SPSS) on computer alpha system. This analysis is carried out for two separate year i.e. 1979-80 and 1994-95.

The values of fifteen variables have been computed for 8 districts and collapsed into 15x8 data matrix for both the years.

Factor-1 (1979-80)

The factor analysis of the variables for the year 1979-80 indicates that 83.86 percent of the total variance is explained by three factors (Table 6.4). Factor 1 explains 50.04 per cent of the total variance.

The positive signs of the variables are associated with the higher development of agriculture. Irrigated area to the netsown area, netsown area, iron plough, consumption of fertilizer, high yielding varities of 257

Table 6.4

Factor Structure of Agricultural Development in Uttarakhand, through Rotated Factor Matrix, 1979-80

Variables Factor loading

F2 F3

0.140 0.102 -0.830

0.894 0.243 -0.210

0.952 -0.152 -0.045

0.065 0.525 -0.706

>^5 0.811 -0.360 -0.184

>^6 -0.788 -0.090 -0.482 0.598 0.065 0.386

-0.665 0.191 -0.462

X, 0.862 -0.260 -0.387

-0.951 -0.163 -0.034

0.932 -0.253 -0.157

0.701 -0.480 0.186

0.245 -0.920 0.241

-0.380 0.920 0.004

0.382 0.796 -0.132

Variance explained 50.04 22.36 11.46 in per cent

Cumulative variance 50.04 72.40 83.86 explained in per cent 258

seeds, rural electrification and literacy, all load high and positively on this

factor.

The highest positive loading (more than ±0.50) is shown by

irrigated area to the netsown area (0.952), iron plough (0.932) followed

by netsown area (0.894), consumption of fertilizer (0.862) high yielding

varieties of seeds (0.811), rural electrification (0.701) and literacy

(0.598).

The positive relationship among these variables of agricultural

development is obvious as the use of high-yielding varieties of seeds, high

percentage of netsown area and chemical fertilizer, needs abundant

irrigation. Iron plough is also the most important factor in this hilly terrain

of Uttarakhand. Electrification has an important role in the agricultural development of the region, because farm machinary run by electricity is cheaper than that run on fuel energy. Literacy is a sign of modernization amonghst mass illiteracy in India. Irrigation and other operative system of agriculture requires technical know-how which can be easily met by educating population of the rural India. In one of such studies performed in India, Munir (1992) has also achieved the similar results.

Louis Malassis emphasizes, the role of agricultural mechani- zation in the process of development. Agricultural progress has mainly taken the form of improvement of plant and animal species, the discovery of high yielding varieties, fertilizer technology, plant protection, water technology. Mechanization constitute an essential ingredients of modern agriculture, increasing use of specialized modern agricultural tools and 259

implements, in keeping with the indigenous environment is an inseparable part of the process of modernizing agriculture. Mechanization facilitates the substitution of capital for labour which raises efficiency and productivity, which in turn reduces the cost of agricultural production and raises the incomes of farmer. Use of agricultural tools and improvement raises both the yield per hectare and cropping intensity. The highest negative factor loading is shown by wooden plough (-0.951), agricultural workers (-0.788) and agricultural credit societies (-0.665).

In order to depict the spatial variation in the region, factor scores have been calculated (Table 6.5). These scores have been divided in to three grade of high (>+4.00) medium (+4.00 to -4.00) and low (below -

4.00). The high factor scores are concentrated in the south-eastern and south-western part of the region. They includes the district of Nainital and

Dehradun. The areas having medium grade factor scores extended over the east-central, north-western and south-central part of the region, it comprises the district of Almora, Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal. The areas of low factor scores are scattered over north-eastern, north-central and west-central part of the region. It consists the district of Pithoragarh,

Chamoli and Tehri Garhwal (Fig. 6.1).

Factor-2

Factor 2 accounts for 22.36 per cent of the total variance explained. It is strongly loaded on about 26.6 per cent of the variables.

The factors which shows high positive loadings are irrigation by other sources (0.920), cropping intensity (0.796) and area sown more than once 260

Table 6.5

Standardized Factor Scores of Agricultural Development, 1979-80

Districts Fi F2 F3

Nainital 15.430 -3.447 -2.270

Almora -2.841 2.947 -1.506

Pithoragarh -4.661 5.505 -3.555

Chamoli -5.344 -4.932 1.114

Uttarkashi -3.393 -2.356 0.985

Tehri-Garhwal -5.401 3.154 -0.178

Pauri-Garhwal -2.593 1.718 1.125

Dehiadun 8.807 -2.593 4.266 261

(0.525). It is obvious fact that in the region where area sown more than once and irrigation is high, ultimately the cropping intensity will also be high. The variable which have negative loadings are canal irrigation

(-0.920).

The spatial variation based on factor scores of factor 2 are depicted in Fig. 6.2. The factor scores have been divided into three grades of high (>+3.00), medium (+3.00 to -3.00) and low (below -3.00). Figure shows that high factor scores are spread over in two districts namely,

Pithoragarh and Tehri-Garhwal. The medium factor score, consisting large areas of the region, includes the district of Almora, Uttarkashi, Pauri-

Garhwal and Dehradun, while the low grade of factor scores lies in the district of Nainital and Chamoli.

Factor-3

Factor 3 accounts for 11.46 percent of the total variance explained. It is negatively high loaded on 13.33 per cent of the variables.

The rotated factor shows highest negative loading with agricultural productivity (-0.830) and area sown more than once (-0.706).

The spatial variation based on factor scores of Factor 3 are depicted in Fig. 6.3. The factor scores have been divided into three grades of high (>+2.00), medium (+2.00 to -2.00) and low (below -2.00). Figure shows that high factor scores converge in only one district namely,

Dehradun, whereas medium factor scores extended over wide areas and form compact block in the region, these includes the district of Almora, 291

UTTARAKHAND FACTOR SCORES OF AGRICULTURAL DE\^LOPI\IENT FACTOR - 1 (1979-80 )

20 40 60 I I I Km;

nG.5.5 263

UTTARAKHAND FACTOR SCORES OF AGRICULTITR.4L DE\^LOP]\IENT FACTOR 2 ( 1979-80 )

20 40 60

Kms

nG.5.5 264

UTTARAKHAND FACTOR SCORES OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPRIENT FACTOR 3 ( 1979 80 )

HIGH

MEDIUM

LOW

Kms

nG.5.5 265

Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal and the low factor

scores located in remaining districts viz. Nainital and Chamoli.

Factor analysis (1994-95)

Factor-1

The value of 15 variables have been computed for eight districts

for the year 1994-95, resulting in 15x8 data matrix for the study region.

This data matrix collapsed into each other leads to three factor of

agricultural development. It shows that in all 90.50 percent of the total

variance is explained by these three factors as given in Table 6.6. Factor 1

accounts for 56.97 per cent of the total variance explained. The positive

sign of the variables indicates higher agricultural development. The rotated

factor indicates that the highest positive loading is shown by agricultural

productivity (0.964), irrigated area to the net sown area (0.950),

consumption of fertilizers (0.928), iron plough (0.927), rural electrification (0.927), high yielding varieties of seeds (0.925), and netsown area (0.726).

The positive relationship among these variables of agricultural development indicates that high agricultural productivity is due to high dose of fertilizer consumption, use of high yielding varieties of seeds, use of iron plough, high irrigated area, high percentage of netsown area and extensive use of electricity to run agricultural machinery. The highest negative loading is shown by wooden plough (-0.888), agricultural credit societies (-0.805) and irrigation by other sources (-0.800). In order to depict the spatial variation in the region, factor scores have been calculated and shown in Table 6.7 & Fig. 6.4. 266

Table 6.6

Factor Structure of Agricultural Development in Uttarakhand, through Rotated Factor Matrix, 1994-95

Variables Factor loading F2 F3

0.964 -0.163 0.093

0.726 -0.636 0.140

0.950 -0.216 0.016

0.245 -0.930 0.035

0.925 0.003 0.161

-0.310 -0.062 -0.909

0.048 -0.046 0.940

-0.805 0.012 -0.435

0.928 -0.270 -0.097

-0.888 0.216 -0.275

Xn 0.927 -0.110 0.295 0.770 0.324 0.192

0.298 0.890 0.092

-0.800 -0.484 -0.073

0.246 -0.930 0.036

Variance explained 56.97 22.30 11.23 in per cent

Cumulative variance 56.97 79.27 90.50 explained in per cent 267

Table 6,7

Standardized Factor Scores of Agricultural Development, 1994-95

Districts F3

Nainital 17.572 -4.838 2.414

Almora -1.584 -0.714 -0.565

Pithoragarh -5.530 -4.508 -1.472

Chamoli -3.550 4.886 -0.700

Uttarkashi -3.284 5.657 -2.615

Tehri-Garhwal -7.013 -1.676 -3.193

Pauri-Garhwal -5.814 0.856 0.158

Dehradun 9.233 0.315 5.974 268

Figure shows that high factor scores lies in two districts comprising, Nainital and Dehradun, the medium factor scores covering large areas as compared to high factor scores. It constitute the districts of

Almora, Chamoli and Uttarkashi, while the low factor scores occupying three remaining districts namely, Pithoragarh, Tehri Garhwal and Pauri-

Garhwal.

Factor-2

Factor 2 accounts for 22.30 percent of the total variance explained. It is heavily loaded on canal irrigation (0.890). The highest negative loading associated with area sown more than once (-0.930), cropping intensity (-0.930) and netsown area (-0.636). The spatial variation based on factor scores of factor-2 are illustrated in Fig. 6.5 and it shows that high factor scores concentrated in two districts namely,

Chamoli and Uttarkashi, while the medium factor scores occupied extensive areas of the region, it constitute the districts of Almora, Pauri-

Garhwal, Tehri-Garhwal and Dehradun and the low factor score lies in the district of Nainital and Pithoragarh.

Factor-3

Factor 3 which accounts for 11.23 percent of the total variance explained, has relatively high loadings on literacy (0.904). The negative loading shown with agricultural workers (-0.909). The spatial variation based on factor scores of factor-3 are demonstrated in Fig. 6.6.

It can be seen from the Figure that high factor scores are converge in two districts namely, Nainital and Dehradun, whereas the 269

UTTARAKHAND FACTOR SCORES OF AGRIC11LTUR.4L DE^^LOPIMENT FACTOR - 1 ( 1994 95 )

20 0 20 40 50 III I I I Kms

nG.5.5 270

UTTARAKHAND FACTOR SCORES OF AGRICULTUR.4L DEWLOPIVIENT FACTOR - 2 ( 1994 95 )

20 40 60 I III Km:

nG.5.5 271

UTTAR.4KHAND FACTOR SCORES OF AGRICULTURAL DE\TE:L0PMENT FACTOR - 3 ( 1994-95 )

Kms

nG.5.5 272

medium factor scores spreading over larger area. It occupies the districts

of Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli and Pauri-Garhwal. The low factor score

commanding in two remaining district of the region. These districts are

Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal.

Levels of agricultural development

In this section, all the variables which are considered as the

indicators of agricultural development are collectively and spatially

analysed with the help of composite mean Z-score statistical technique, to

delineate relatively developed and less developed regions of Uttarakhand.

As all variables selected to analyse agricultural development, don't have an

equal share, such variable has been assigned as weight. The levels of

agricultural development were measured for two periods spaced fifteen

years i.e. 1979-80 and 1994-95. The composite mean Z-score technique

which explain as :

where Z^^ = Stadard score of the ith observation of variable X^ = value of X^ variable on ith observation

X| = mean value of X^ variable

5Xj = standard deviation on the X^ variable.

After standardising the variables, its scores have been added together for each district and divided with number of variables considered, which gives the composite index of that district. The composite standard score may be algebrically expressed as 273

SZ. Composite standard score (C.S.S.) = N

where Z^^ indicates 'Z'-score of an indicator j in district i,

N refers to the number of indicators.

The composite score of the districts have been arranged in descending

order and grouped in three categories in order to measure the levels of

agricultural development in the region, it is shown in Table 6.8.

Table 6.8

Levels of Agricultural Development

Categories Score range 1979-80 1994-95 Number of Percentage Number of Percentage Districts to the total Districts to the total

High > + 0.15 2 25.00 2 25.00 Medium +0.15 to -0.15 4 50.00 2 25.00 Low <-0.15 2 25.00 4 50.00 Total 8 100.00 8 100.00

Levels of agricultural development (1979-80)

Agricultural development in true sense, implies the quality of agricultural system of a region in terms of productivity, diversification, and commercialization consistent with a desired state of agrarian relations and ecological balance. It also brings about social and cultural development as increased per capita income in rural areas, invariably results in increased levels of education which are conducive for social transformation. The primary objective of agricultural development is usually, to increase the output per hectare. 274

The composite score of the variable have a wide range of

variation among the districts of Uttarakhand, therefore, these variations

may conveniently be grouped into three grades of high, medium and low

levels of agricultural development with the help of their composite mean

Z-score (Table 6.9).

Table reveals that in Uttarakhand as a whole there a two districts

showing a high level of agricultural development, four fall under medium

levels and the remaining two have low levels of agricultural development.

Those which attaining high levels of agricultural development forms a right

angle shape, lies in the south-eastern and north-eastern part of the study

region. They includes the districts of Nainital (+0.72) and Pithoragarh

(+0.24). Medium level of agricultural development occupies the districts

of Almora (+0.003), in the east-central, Dehradun (-0.0006) in the south-

western, Uttarkashi (-0.10) in the north western and Tehri-Garhwal (-0.11)

in the west-central part of the region. In this group, the development of

agricultural technology is moderate. Therefore, agricultural development

is also moderate in this region. The low levels of agricultural development

lies in the north-central, and south-central part of the region. They

includes the district of Pauri-Garhwal (-0.27) and Chamoli (-0.31), which

forms the boundary line between Uttarkashi and rest of all districts of the

region (Fig. 6.7). The low levels of agricultural development in

Uttarakhand is due to poor techno-institutional and harsh environmental conditions. It is also to be noted that areas having low level of agricultural development suffered with poverty and low agricultural incomes for a long time. 275

m \o oo (N fO— oVO r> o\ rr) vo oo -l O o o o o O o o cn- 1 r-i E o o o O o o o o a. ON Ov as 0\ VO - 00 o X VO ^ rf ^ O > Q oo r^ 00 •rr (N fN VO C/D ON Ti- 00 o o\ —' O V-) l-l U r\ 13 CD1 CDi —' d d d d1 1 V. -o •o ^ X c o O o o o o o o c3 • ^ (N »—H >ri o m m > 3 V • ^ f2 U m o O O CD r- c

UTTARAKHAND LEVXLS OF AGRICULTURAL DEWLOPRIENT 1979 - 80

HIGH

MEDIUM

LOW 20 40 60 I I I Km^

nG.6.' 277

Levels of agricultural development (1994-95)

In the year 1994-95, the regional pattern of agricultural

development reveals that there is a two region, lying on the south-eastern

and south-western part of Uttarakhand, where the levels of Agricultural

development is high. It comprises of Nainital (+0.76) and Dehradun

(+0.16) districts. There was a significant development in agriculture in

Dehradun districts, therefore it shift from medium levels of agricultural

development in 1979-80 to high level of agricultural development in

1994-95. Its high level owes to high intensity of cropping, irrigation, high

yielding varieties of seeds, and high per hectare consumption of

fertilizers. This belt is highly mechanised as supported by large number of

tractors and pumpsets and it has excellent irrigation facilities from canal,

tubewells and other sources. They produce a variety of crops like rice,

wheat, maize, barley, pulses, oilseeds, and cash crops.

The medium category of Agricultural development extends over

two districts namely, Almora (+0.006) and Pithoragarh (+0.13). These

districts forms a T-shaped structure in the region. The regions of low level

of agricultural development cover larger area, lies in the north-eastern,

north-western, west-central and south-central part of Uttarakhand. These

includes the districts of Chamoli (-0.21), Uttarkashi (-0.26), Pauri-

Garhwal (-0.31) and Tehri-Garhwal (-0.35) (Table 6.10 & Fig. 6.8). These

forms a continuous belt in the study region. Infrastructural facilities are

not well developed here. A large number of indicators selected to assess the level of development indicates a low level in these districts, therefore the agricultural development is very poor in these region. 278

o ro >/-) O ro NO in —^ NO X r- O oi rs cn ro —' o o O o 0 cp 0 0 J=S o o o o 0 0 0 0 C/5 Ov so c- NO ON m SO (N m 0 0 X VD (N m ^ >0 —' ^ X —I 0 a o Cp 0 1 01 l-H •Ti D Cu ^ OS o o o o 0 0 0 0 o — •T) NO ISj — —• tn NO rs 10 0 ti On X o o —' •—' 0 0 a\ 1 1 1 1 0 =i ^ o o o o 0 0 0 0 J 0 •V W) ^ as 00 r-- rs m ON o 00 m NO C c X d ^ es o o o1 0 0 1 1 ^ d 0 ^ zi J C5 o o o o 0 0 0 0 a u V) rs < rs ^ r> w X — vo v£> (N 00 (N CQ ; I 1 1 1 1 t—C1 (L)

O o o o 0 0 0 0 & 1) X u rv o —' O 0 0 0 f—< C 0) 1 1 0 c *• ^TH Iq O o o o 0 0 0 0 a 00 as NO NO NO f2 3 X m o o (N t 0 "a o o o O ^ P (5 o 1 1 » ox 0 o o o o 0 0 0 0 a r- o 00 VO 0 0 0 —* X o r^ r- r^ in o o o O 0 RVI 00 '•C in ^ I 1 < cj 0 a C/2 w o o O O 0 0 0 0 0 in as t^ 0 IT) 1—1 TS X cn VO rs ro IT) 0 (N o O o 0 0 0 0 «5 « 1 1 1 1 1

UTTARAKHAND LEMELS OF AGRICULTURAL DE\nELOPIMENT 1994 - 95

HIGH

MEDIUM LOW- SO 20 40 60 L. • Kms

nG.5.5 280

The combine impact of the fifteen indicators reveals that after a

lapse of fifteen years,there is shifting of districts from high to medium,

medium to low and vice-versa. During 1979-80, the districts of

Pithoragarh was under high levels of agricultural development but in 1994-

95 it is replaced by Dehradun and comes under medium category, because the farmers living in this district enjoy better irrigation facilities, high dose of fertilizer consumption, use of high yielding varieties of seeds and others agricultural technology.

It is obvious that those areas where irrigation facilities are available in adequate measure, a new technology based on proper combination of high yielding varieties of seeds, water, fertilizers and pesticides will make fanning more dynamic. In the districts of low levels of Agricultural development, the land is mountaineous and landslides are common, so the irrigation facilities is not well developed and the fertilzier consumption are also lacking. Therefore farmers don't want to take risk in developing the agriculture of these districts. 281

References

1. Ashish, M. (1983) : Agricultural Economy of Kumaun Hills : Threat of Ecological Disaster in O.P. singh (ed.) The Himalaya, Man and Nature, Rajesh Publication, New Delhi, pp. 184-197.

2. Bagchi, K. (1979) : Agriculture in Drough Prone areas, Geographical

Review of India, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 293-96.

3. Malasis (1975): Agriculture and the Development Process, tentative

guidelines for teaching, Education and Rural Development, 3,

Unesco, Paris, pp. 197-8.

4. Malasis (1976) : The Rural World, Education and Development,

UNESCO, Paris, p. 55.

5. Mellore, J.W. (1967) : Towards a theory of Agricultural

Development and Economic Growth, Ithaca, Cornell University

Press, New York, pp. 67-97.

6. Mitra, A. (1967) : Levels of Regional development in India, Census

of India, Indian Statistical Institute, New Delhi, pp. 8-9.

7. Mohammad, Noor (1992) : Spatial variation in levels of

development in U.P. in Dynamics of Agricultural Development, vol.

7, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, pp. 175-195.

8. Munir, A. (1992) : Agricultural Productivity and Regional

Development, Manak Publication, Delhi, pp. 137-170.

9. Datt and Sundaram, Indian Economy, p. 328.

10. Srivastava, S.L. (1983) ; Regional Disparities in Agricultural

development in M.P., Indian Journal of Regional Science, Vol. 15,

No. 2, Kharagpur, pp. 17-19. 282

11. Siddiqui, S.H. (1987) : Regional variation of Agricultural Develop- ment in the North Bihar plain, Geographical Review of India, Vol. 49, No. 3, pp. 49-53.

12. Shenoi, D.V. (1975) : Agricultural Development in India, Vikas Pub. House, New Delhi, pp. 67-78.

13. Dua Rachna and Mohammad Noor (1998) : Spatial variations in the level of Agricultural Development in Haryana, The Geographer, vol. 45, No. 1, January.

14. Shafiqullah : Levels of Agricultural Development in Gonda District, Geographical Review of India, Vol. 61, No. 4, pp. 361-71.

15. Parimala, G. and Qureshi, M.H. (1983) : Levels of Agricultural Development in Tamil Nadu, The Indian Geographical Journal, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp. 119-126.

16. Shukla, N,. and S. Dhogat (1999) : Disparities of Economic Develop- ment in India - A factor Analysis Approach, Indian Journal of Regional Science, vol. XXXI, No. 1, pp. 13-18.

283

Uttarakhand is a agriculturally backward area. Here agriculture is the main source of revenue as the bulk of population or 80 per cent of the total population survives on agriculture. Variations in altitude, soils and climate have introduced differences in agricultural practices from place to place in the study region. Agriculture was however practiced here on conservative lines in the recent past and there was no real and serious effort on the part of cultivators to adopt new methods of agriculture. A low agricultural production and rapid growth of population has been major problems of the region. To fulfil the requirements of foodgrains, special attention is being paid towards the enhancement of their agricultural output, with an increased use of irrigation, chemical fertilizers, HYV seeds and infrastructural facilities. There has now been significant increase in the available food resources. However, the distributional pattern of institutional and technological indicators are not uniform in

Uttarakhand which causes regional imbalances in agricultural development.

The net sown area in Uttarakhand during 1979-80 was 13.27 per cent (7.06 lakh hectares) of the total reported area, which decreased to

12.89 per cent (6.92 lakh hectares) in 1994-95. Similarly the area sown more than once has also decreased from 9.0 per cent (4.31 lakh hectares) in 1979-80 to 9.36 per cent (4.49 lakh hectares). The gross cropped area was 11.37 lakh hectares in 1979-80 which increased to 11.41 lakh hectares in 1994-95 but their percentage to the total reported area slightly decrease from 21.37 per cent to 21.26 per cent during the period 1979-80 to 1994-

95. The percentage decrease in gross cropped area is due to new construction of settlement and roads in the region. 284

The production obtained from the food crops recorded a steep rise from 24.96 lakh tonnes to 44.88 lakh tonnes during the period 1979-

80 to 1994-95. Steep increase in production is the result of general awakening of the farmers and the diffusion of technological and institutional inputs. The impact of these efforts was remarkable in the irrigated valleys and was negligible in other hill zones.

An analysing the growth rate in area and production of individual crops in Uttarakhand indicates that among cereals, wheat is the first ranking crop that occupied 367.71 thousand hectares in 1979-80 and

371.39 thousand hectares in 1994-95.

The production of wheat continuously increased from 441.92 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 678.76 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. The overall linear growth rate of area under wheat increased by 53.50 per cent, while production increased by 52.25 per cent during the period studied.

After wheat, rice is the second leading crop in the study area. Its areal extent has slightly decreased from 283 thousand hectares in 1979-80 to

280.41 thousand hectares in 1994-95, but its quantum of production has recorded a handsome increase from 326.38 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to

551.19 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. The linear growth rate of area under rice decreased by 0.9 per cent, while the production increased by 68.8 per cent during this period. The area under maize was 38.06 thousand hectares in 1979-80, which decreased to 31.69 thousand hectares in 1994-95.

However, the production under maize sharply declined from 43.65 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 37.86 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. The area under barley has also declined from 29.97 thousand hectares in 1979-80 285

to 28.40 thousand hectares in 1994-95, while the production has slightly

increased from 35.20 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 35.72 thousand

tonnes in 1994-95. The linear growth of area and production indicates that

the area under barley decreased by 5.23 per cent, while production

increased by 1.48 per cent from 1979-80 to 1994-95.

The area under pulses have increased in fifteen years except in

case of gram and masoor, while the production recorded an increased in

all the pulses except gram. Besides, masoor is the leading crop among

other pulses in Uttarakhand. It occupies largest area and improved its

position in production. The area under masoor was 15.54 thousand hectares

in 1979-80, and 15.22 thousand hectares in 1994-95. As against this the

production increased from 8.67 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 11.63

thousand tonnes in 1994-95. The linear growth rate of area under masoor

decreased by 2.02 per cent, while the production increased by 34.10 per

cent during the period 1979-80 to 1994-95.

Urd ranked second after masoor, the area under Urd was 5.32

thousand hectares in 1979-80, but it recorded an excellent increase to

8.34 thousand hectares in 1994-95. The production also increased from

2.36 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 3.67 thousand tonnes in 1994-95.

Arhar is another important crop whose area increased to 1.64 thousand hectares in 1994-95 from 1.19 thousand hacters in 1979-80. The production of arhar also increased during the period 1979-80 to 1994-95.

The area and production under gram decreased from 4.29 thousand hectares and 1.92 thousand tonnes respectively in 1979-80 to 1.77 thousand hectares and 1.56 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. Lastly the peas 286 covered small area i.e. 0.85 thousand hectares in 1979-80, which increased to 2.32 thousand hectares in 1994-95, and production also increased from 0.56 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 1.78 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. The trends of growth in area and production indicates that the area under peas had an excellent increase by 172.53 per cent, while the production increased by 217.58 per cent during the period studied.

Among oilseeds, soyabean, rapeseed and mustard, and sesamum have achieved leading position in Uttarakhand. The area under soyabean was

8.45 thousand hectares in 1979-80, which increased to 18.68 thousand hectares in 1994-95, and its production increased from 12.35 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 25.0 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. The growth rate of area and production under soyabean increased by 121.07 per cent and

103.02 per cent respectively during the period 1979-80 to 1994-95. The area under rapeseed and mustard has increased from 11.41 thousand hectares to 12.88 thousand hectares during the period 1979-80 to 1994-

95. Similarly the production has increased from 5.11 thousand tonnes in

1979-80 to 10.41 thousand tonne in 1994-95. The phenomenal increase is due to the favourable climatic conditions of the study area. The area under sesamum was 1.87 thousand hectares in 1979-80, which increased to 2.95 thousand hectares in 1994-95, conversely the production declined from

0.46 thousand tonnes to 0.40 thousand tonnes during the period 1979-80 to 1994-95.

Uttarakhand is not an important producer of sugarcane as compared to the sugarcane belt of western and eastern Uttar Pradesh. The area under sugarcane has increased from 38.49 thousand hectares in 1979- 287

80 to 49.91 thousand hectares in 1994-95 and the production increased

from 1508 thousand tonnes to 2925 thousand tonnes during the period

1979-80 to 1994-95. Potato and onion are getting popular in Uttarakhand

and its area and production both are gradually increasing. The area under

potatoes, was 6.90 thousand hectares in 1979-80, which rose upto 14.41

thousand hectares in 1994-95. Similarly the production has also recorded

increase from 90.28 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 260.49 thousand

tonnes in 1994-95. The area under potato increased by 108.95 per cent,

while production increased by 188.54 per cent. The area under onion has

increased from 0.87 thousand hectares to 1.23 thousand hectares during

the period 1979-80 to 1994-95. The production also significantly

increased from 13.56 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 16.40 thousand

tonnes in 1994-95. The development and expansion of irrigation facilities

have increased the irrigated area under various food crops in Uttarakhand.

The food crops area under irrigation was 3 00 lakh hectares in 1979-80,

which increased to 3.78 lakh hectares in 1994-95. Among all the food

crops, sugarcane was heavily irrigated and more than 90 per cent of its

area received irrigation. The area increase under irrigation is due to

increase in the number of tubewells, pumpsets, canals and irrigation by other sources (ponds, lake, wells and tanks) in Uttarakhand. In 1979-80, about 37 per cent of the total area was under irrigation. But after farmers awakening encouragement of governmental agencies, and expansion of irrigationn facilities, extensive area of food crops came under irrigation and about 45 per cent area was irrigated in 1994-95. 288

Gross irrigated area as a percentage to gross cropped area is large

in Dehradun and Nainital, but in other districts, it is relatively low. In

Chamoli, for instance this figure was as low as 7.32 per cent in 1994-95.

The net irrigated area by different sources was 1,94,127 hectares in 1979-

80, which increased to 2,45,041 hectares in 1994-95. The high percentage

of net irrigated area was seen in south eastern and south western part,

namely, Nainital and Dehradun district of Uttarakhand. In this districts, the

concentration of tubewells and pumpsets was quite high, owing to better

supply of electricity in the tarai-bhabar tract, but in remaining districts

these sources are completely absent owing to the stony hilly areas. The

irrigation is mainly done through canal like gools and other sources such

as ponds, lake, wells and tanks. The increase in irrigated area may be seen

as glimpse of farmers awakening and the begining of revolution, which

helps in agricultural development of Uttarakhand. The use of fertilizers

(NPK) in Uttarakhand was 35,580 metric tonnes in 1979-80, which

increased to 76,983 metric tonnes in 1994-95. The total consumption of

fertilizers has increased from 31.26 kg per hectare of cropped land in

1979-80 to 67.43 kg per hecrtare in 1994-95. The highest consumption of

fertilizers was reported in south eastern and south western part of

Uttarakhand. It includes the districts of Nainital (206.09 kg per hectares)

and Dehradun (46.37 kg per hectare). The low level of consumption was

recorded in remaining districts namely, Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli,

Uttarkashi, Tehri Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal. The number of tractors per thousand hectares of cultivatred land is very low, being of 5.53 tractors in

1979-80. This ratio however, increased to 15 tractor per thousand hectares 289 of cultivated land in 1994-95. The concentration of tractor is greater in only Nainital and Dehradun district. Use of pumpsets also follows the same pattern. The total area under HYV of seeds was 3,15,476 hectares, which rose upto 6,83,543 hectares in 1994-95. The high yielding seeds programme has been successful in tarai-bhabar tract of the study area, while in other parts of Uttarakhand, the adoption of this technology has been very slow. It is observed that the number of agricultural credit societies per lakh of population decreased during the period 1979-80 to

1994-95. The farmers of Uttarakhand therefore, are facing acute financial problem and are unable to invest in their farms. The number of agricultural workers to the main workers has also decreased from 75.23 per cent in

1979-80 to 64.53 per cent in 1994-95. This is due to the shifting of workers towards the secondary and tertiary sector. The percentage of agricultural workers to the main workers is decreasing very fast in Naintal and Dehradun districts. The percentage of literate persons to total population was 31.02 per cent in 1971, which increased to 48.78 per cent in 1991. The highest concentration of literate persons has been registered in south-western (Dehradun district) and south central (Pauri-Garhwal district) part of Uttarakhand, while the low concentration is reported in north-western (Uttarkashi district) and west central (Tehri Garhwal district) part of the area studied.

Land holding is the basic unit of decision making in agriculture.

The increase in population has resulted in the fragmentation of land holdings, making them uneconomical, more than 70 per cent of the farmers belong to the marginal class with less than one hectare of 290 cultivable land. It is obvious from the analysis that only two categories viz those below one hectare and between one to two hectares of land contribute 88 per cent of the total holdings in Uttarakhand. Subsistence type of farming is practiced in this area because majority of the farmers depend on small and marginal holding for their sustenance.

The study of spatio-temporal development of agriculture with reference to agricultural productivity for the two period of time (1979-80 and 1994-95) indicates that during one and a half decades, there was a shifting of districts of high, medium and low productivity. During 1979-

80, the area of high productivity region was concentrated in south-eastern

(Nainital district) east-central (Almora district) and north-eastern

(Pithoragarh district) part of Uttarakhand. However, in 1994-95 the high productivity region scattered over south-eastern (Nainital district) and south-western (Dehradun district) part of the area studied. It is observed that Dehradun improved its productivity and was placed under high productivity region, because the farmers of this region are more enlightened and are aware of the advantage of technological and institutional inputs. The areal change in agricultural productivity indicates that the extent of high productivity region of cereals has increased by

24.80 per cent and that of low productivity region by 7.31 per cent, while the medium productivity area of cereals decreased by 36.34 per cent. The decrease of area under medium productivity of cereals is due to the fact that most of the area has become an area of high and low productivity region. The areal extent of pulses under high productivity region icnreased by 19.18 per cent and medium productivity region by 29.97 per cent, while 291

the area under low productivity decreased by 30.70 per cent. The decrease

in low productivity area is due to the shifting of area from low to high and

medium productivity. The areal extent of oilseeds under high and medium

productivity increased by 56.41 per cent and 251.95 per cent respectively

during 1979-80 to 1994-95, while the low productivity area decreased by

48.95 per cent. The area under oilseeds has increased during one and a half

decades. The areal extent of cashcrops has increased in all productivity

regions from 1979-80 to 1994-95. The areal extent of high, medium and

low productivity region of cashcrops has increased by 28.60 per cent,

17.95 per cent and 128.21 per cent respectively in Uttarakhand. The study

indicates that the increase in area under cashcrops is due to the decrease

in area under cereals. It has been observed that there is an overall increase

in the productivity area under pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops excepting

cereals. The increase in productivity area under these crops is due to better farm management, and use of good quality seeds, which give maximum returns to the farmers. The farmers of this region are therefore taking interest in cultivation of these crops for commercial purpose.

The factor analysis of fifteen variables for the year 1979-80 indicates that 83.86 per cent of the total variance is explained by three factors. Factor 1 explains 50.04 per cent of the total variance. The variables which have positive loadings of more than 0.50 are irrigated area to the netsown area, iron plough, followed by net sown area, consumption of fertilizers, HYV of seeds, rural electrification and literacy. The positive sign of the variables indicates the higher development of agriculture. The result of the factor scores shows that high factor scores are concentrated 292

in the south-eastern (Nainital district) and south-western (Dehradun

district) part of Uttarakhand, which leads to higher development of

agriculture, while the low factor scores are scattered over north eastern

(Pithoragarh district), north-central (Chamoli district) and west-central

(Tehri-Garhwal district) part of the area studied. Factor 2 accounts for

22.36 per cent of the total variance explained. It is strongly loaded on

irrigation by other sources, cropping intensity, and area sown more than

once while Factor 3 accounts for 11.46 per cent of the total variance

explained. It is negatively loaded with agricultural productivity and area

sown more than once. The result of the factor analysis for the year

1994-95, shows that 90.50 per cent of the total variance is explained by

these three factors. Factor F, accounts for 56.97 per cent of the total

variance explained. The highest positive loading is shown by agricultural

productivity, irrigated area to the net sown area, consumption of

fertilizers, iron plough, HYV of seeds, rural electrification and net sown

area. The positive relationship among these variables of agricultural

development indicates that high agricultural productivity is due to high

dose of fertiliser consumption, use of HYV of seeds, use of iron plough, high irrigated area, high percentage of netsown area and extensive use of

electricity to run agricultural machinery. The high factor scores lies in

south-eastern and south-western part of the study region, comprising the district of Nainital and Dehradun, the medium factor scores covering the district of Almora, Chamoli and Uttarkashi while low factor scores occupying remaining districts namely, Pithoragarh, Tehri-Garhwal and

Pauri-Garhwal. Factor 2 accounts for 22.30 per cent of the total variance 293

explained. It is strongly loaded on canal irrigation. Factor 3 which

accounts for 11.23 per cent of the total variance explained has high loading

on literacy.

Based on the composite mean Z-score, Uttarakhand has been

divided into high, medium and low levels of agricultural development for

the two periods, i.e. 1979-80 and 1994-95. It has been observed that even

after a lapse of fifteen years, there is slight change in the spatial pattern of

high, medium and low levels of agricultural development. During 1979-80,

the district of Pithoragarh was under high levels of agricultural

development and Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal was under medium levels.

But in 1994-95 Pithoragarh is replaced by Dehradun and falls under medium levels of agricultural development and Uttarkashi and Tehri

Garhwal show low levels of agricultural development. The low levels of agricultural development is observed in north-central (Chamoli district), west-central (Tehri-Garhwal district), south-central (Pauri-Garhwal district) and north-western (Uttarkashi district) part of Uttarakhand. The farmers belonging to the district of high levels of agricultural development enjoy better irrigation facilities, use of fertilizers, use of HYV of seeds, and implements and machinery, while in the low levels of agricultural development, the impact of these variables are comparatively low. In subsistence farming in Uttarakhand there are no saving and therefore no capital formation takes place. There is also no will to save and invest. To earn more returns, the farmers of this region adopted the cultivation of horticulture rather than crop production. 294

Suggestions

The analysis so far made points to the fact that the use of technological and institutional facilities must be better managed and organised to attain proper improvements of agriculture. In order to achieve this goal, the author has lined in the light of earlier discussions to suggest some measures that can be adopted for agricultural development of the study area. These suggestions are : i) The consolidaiton of Land Holdings Act, which has not yet been

implemented in the region, must be enforced vigorously. The

fragmentation and scattering of land holding mitigates against the

development initiatives and the introduction of innovation by

individual farmers. It is therefore considered that redistribution of

consolidated land in the region will help in increasing agricultural

production, as small farms are in general not productive in

comparison to large farms. ii) Agricultural development in Uttarakhand has to be promoted

through the enhancement of productivity of the farms.

Technologically, traditional farmers of the region should be trained

to package of technology and plant care, which could facilitate them

to go in for double cropping and better rotation of crops. iii) Cropping pattern should be changed accoridng to the needs of the

society and to suit the capability of land. iv) Prohibition of overgrazing must be imposed in the study area. 295

v) Sheet erosion results in heavy losses of soil fertility year by year

and distruction of natural reosurces, which are of common

occurrence in the hill regions, therefore it is necessary that

afforestation work should be taken to arrest the losses of soil

caused through erosion.

vi) Terrace farming has considerable scope in Uttarakhand and an effort

should be made to raise winter corps in the study area.

vii) Irrigation facilities should be provided in mid slope and upland

areas.

viii) The government should give top priority to develop irrigation

facilities in its plan and policies in order to revitalise Indian

agricultural technology.

xi) Agricultural credit should be provided to the farmers so that they

are capable to purchase agricultural inputs like HYV seeds,

fertilizers and agricultural implements and machinery.

x) Attempt should be made to introduce and propogate new agricultural

technology particularly use of HYV seeds, chemical fertilizers,

insecticides, pesticides, ploughing means and reclamation of waste

land for cultivation. xi) Soils in Uttarakhand suffer from the lack of nitrogen content,

therefore effort should be made to convince the farmers to use

green manures. xii) All kinds of incentives should be given to the farmers in the form of 296

subsidies in cash or kind through various government and quasi-

government agencies. xiii) To ensure that only improved seeds of good quality are used by

cultivators, a seed testing laboratory should be established. xiv) For evolving a more economic and profitable cropping pattern, due

consideration should be given to the soil status, irrigation facilities

and climatic factors. xv) In order to find a satisfactory answer to this apparent insensitivity

to agricultural inputs, a systematic and continuous research is

needed. xvi) Electricity generation must be accelerated to pace with increasing

demand of power supply for both irrigation and other agricultural

purposes. xvii) Farmers should be educated about the proper and profitable use of

modern agricultural inputs. xviii) The supply of diesel oil for agricultural purpose should be at

reasonable rate, so that it helps the farmers to operate the pumping

sets at the time of irrigation, because canal donot have adequate

supply of water during the dry season owing to which crop suffer.

297

APPENDIX - A

Crop Productivity based on Yang's Yield Index Method (1979-80)

Districts Cereals Pulses Oilseeds Cashcrops Composite Index

Nainital 143.36 82.62 100.67 98.52 106.29

Almora 74.15 141.87 107.38 98.96 105.60

Pithoragarh 84.23 137.73 115.27 94.87 108.02

Chamoli 86.05 109.76 103.40 99.66 99.71

Uttarkashi 80.18 81.79 110.85 100.15 93.24

Tehii-Garhwal 63.03 81.20 112.91 102.69 89.95

Pauri-Garhwal 68.02 116.58 104.66 97.32 96.64

Dehradun 97.24 83.50 71.48 108.85 90.26 298

APPENDIX - B

Crop Productivity based on Yang's Yield Index Method (1994-95)

Districts Cereals Pulses Oilseeds Cashcrops Composite Index

Nainital 156.12 98.16 96.36 99.30 112.48

Almora 60.35 127.61 108.00 100.16 99.03

Pithoragarh 81.67 101.40 94.83 100.46 94.60

Chamoli 74.57 99.55 115.53 101.00 97.66

Uttarkashi 72.06 99.13 107.86 100.75 94.95

Tehri-Garhwal 72.13 99.60 106.58 101.07 94.84

Pauri-Garhwal 62.18 100.22 108.34 99.38 92.53

Dehiadun 89.82 101.27 121.02 103.11 103.80

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GLOSSARY

Local Names English Names

Arhar Pigeon pea

Bhabar Band of gravely deposits fringing the outer margin of the Siwaliks

Chaumas A season of rainy crops

Dun Longitudinal intermontane valley

Gad and Gadhera Numerous rivers and rivulets

Gools Irrigation cahnnels draw from streams

Hyund A seaon corresponding to cold weather crops

HYV High yielding varieties

Kankar Calcium nodules

Katil Land on forest margins

Kharif Season of summer crops i.e. mid-June to October

Kohra Fog

Masoor Lentil

Pancher Less fertile land composed of coarse detritus

Pat Little plateau with steep sides

Purior A season of hot weather crops

Rabi Season of winter crops i.e. November to April

Sera Irrigated lands with perennial supply of water and often lying on the river beds

Tal Local term given to the lakes which owe their origin to fluvial erosion

Talaon Land in the valleys bottom 319

Tarai A belt of marshy ground and vegetation on lower

parts of alluvial fan.

Torrents Streams

Upraon Land on hill sides

Urd Black gram

Usar Saline alkaline soils

Zaid An additional rabi crop, sown about April, May and harvested in June, July