DOCSLIB.ORG

Ideas About Naturalness in Public and Political Debates About Science, Technology and Medicine

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Ideas About Naturalness in Public and Political Debates About Science, Technology and Medicine Ideas about naturalness in public and political debates about science, technology and medicine ANALYSIS PAPER November 2015 Contents Foreword ............................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................. 4 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 5 1. Approach and method ..................................................................................................... 10 2. Ideas about naturalness .................................................................................................. 14 2.1 Associating value with naturalness ............................................................................ 14 2.2 Different language used to express ideas about naturalness ..................................... 17 2.3 Natural versus unnatural ............................................................................................ 18 2.4 The challenge of distinguishing between the natural and unnatural ........................... 20 2.5 Different meanings to different people ....................................................................... 22 2.6 Changes to meaning over time .................................................................................. 26 2.7 Speaking at cross-purposes ...................................................................................... 29 3. The role of naturalness in debates about science, technology and medicine .................. 30 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 30 3.2 Media ........................................................................................................................ 33 3.3 Parliament and policy ................................................................................................ 36 3.4 Civil society organisations.......................................................................................... 39 3.5 Science organisations ................................................................................................ 42 3.6 Commercial sector ..................................................................................................... 46 4. Accounts of naturalness .................................................................................................. 53 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 53 4.2 Neutral/sceptical ........................................................................................................ 55 4.3 Wisdom of nature ...................................................................................................... 58 4.4 Natural purpose ......................................................................................................... 78 4.5 Disgust and monstrosity ............................................................................................ 88 4.6 God and religious belief ............................................................................................. 95 5. Conclusions and recommendations .............................................................................. 105 1 Foreword This year ideas about naturalness seem to be everywhere: “How dare you refer to my beautiful children as ‘synthetic’?” tweeted Elton John in March 2015 in an argument with Dolce and Gabbana. Bishop Keenan of Paisley argued that a technique to prevent mitochondrial DNA disorders “distorts the natural process of fertility” when it was being debated in Parliament in February. The concept often arises in debates about the ethics of science and medicine. You only have to look at the discussion around genetic modification, cloning, assisted reproduction and food and farming, for example, to see how widespread this rhetorical device has become. And food and drink manufacturers are forever promoting their products by claiming they are natural and better or healthier than synthetic ones. In some cases – such as genetic modification – ideas of unnaturalness may be used to argue against the use of new technologies. In others – such as pre-implantation genetic diagnosis of embryos – the recourse to what would already exist in nature may be deployed in support of novel medical techniques. With a myriad of ‘unnatural’ scientific advances on the horizon, it was time for us to explore how public and political debates are affected by ideas about naturalness. Not least because if people say that something should or should not be done on the basis of their ideas about naturalness or unnaturalness, that can have a major impact on the development and uptake of technologies, and on our society and culture more widely. In an attempt to create a window into recent public and political debates where ideas about naturalness have been deployed, we analysed media articles, Parliamentary debates, research on the views of the public, and the work of relevant organisations (including ourselves). We consulted both people professionally engaged in public and political debate, such as journalists, scientists and campaigners, and people who previously had little reason to give the issue any thought. This work has provided us with, we believe, some unique insights. Two findings stand out for me. The first is that there are noticeable differences between the ways the idea of naturalness is invoked by scientific organisations compared to the other groups we looked at. The second is that the terms natural, unnatural and nature are often used as placeholders for a range of different values or concerns that are meaningful and important to people. As a consequence, there is danger that when we discuss novel science and technology using these terms we are not fully understanding one other and so fail to make progress in debating these difficult issues. We offer here a description and analysis of the way these ideas are used in public discourse, to aid our mutual understanding and to enable more constructive debate – beyond the surface rhetoric – about issues that speak to our deepest values and beliefs. On behalf of the Steering Group I should like to add our thanks to three people in particular at the Nuffield Council on Bioethics Secretariat who have put such time and effort into the project: Catherine Joynson, Programme Manager, who directed it; 2 Anna Wilkinson, Programme Officer, who did the bulk of the research and writing; and Tom Burton, Temporary Researcher, who helped carry out the reviews of media and Parliamentary sources and research on public perspectives on naturalness. Roland Jackson Chair of the Steering Group 3 Acknowledgments Many people have contributed to this project. We would like to thank Dr Anna Smajdor of the University of East Anglia, who wrote the Council’s background paper on naturalness which comprehensively set out the relevant issues and helped to shape the Steering Group’s approach to the project. We are indebted to Professor Tim Lewens of the University of Cambridge and Dr Darian Meacham of the University of the West of England who have provided invaluable guidance, advice and feedback on the research and drafting involved in preparing this paper, for which we are very grateful. We also thank Dr Ken Taylor of Newcastle University who provided useful input on methodological aspects of the review of media, Parliamentary, civil society and science sources. We would also like to thank those who took part in our expert and non-expert meetings held in September and October 2015, respectively. Discussions at these meetings were important in shaping the Steering Group’s thinking on the topic and in formulating our recommendations. The project was greatly enriched by the contribution of our resident poet Kayo Chingonyi and by the three winners of, and over 150 entrants to, the Council’s Naturalness poetry competition. 4 Summary Ideas about naturalness can inform or underlie people’s opinions about science, technology and medicine. Views about what is natural or unnatural may influence the degree to which technologies aiming to treat disease, aid fertility or support food production, for example, are embraced or opposed. Over the past nine months, the Nuffield Council on Bioethics has explored different ideas about naturalness and identified some of the ways that these feature in and affect public discussions about the ethics of science, technology, and medicine. The outcomes of our work are presented in this paper. We conclude with recommendations for those involved in public debate that aim to improve communication and understanding between people with different views about naturalness. Approach and method Evidence on the ways that ideas about naturalness feature in public debates was collected in seven ways: 1. A review of how the terms natural, unnatural and nature have been used in media articles, Parliamentary debates, and the reports of civil society and science organisations from the last 20 years. 2. A short summary of how the terms natural and nature are used and regulated in the commercial sector. 3. A literature review of research into public perspectives on nature and naturalness published in the past 15 years. 4. A review of how the concept of naturalness has been used and discussed within
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Repugnance” Lens of Gonzales V
    The “Repugnance” Lens of Gonzales v. Carhart and Other Theories of Reproductive Rights: Evaluating Advanced Reproductive Technologies Sonia M. Suter* Introduction .................................................... 1515 I. Constitutional Theories of Reproductive Rights ........ 1520 A. Procreative Liberty and Personal Autonomy........ 1520 1. IVF............................................. 1523 2. Disposition of Embryos ......................... 1527 3. Prenatal Testing................................. 1530 4. PIGD ........................................... 1537 5. Fetal or Embryonic Genetic Modification ...... 1537 B. Nation’s History and Tradition—An Assault on Autonomy-Based Reproductive Rights ............. 1540 C. Privacy of Person and Bodily Integrity ............. 1544 D. Familial and Parental Privacy ....................... 1548 E. Equality Theory .................................... 1556 1. IVF............................................. 1561 2. Testing for and Treating Disease ................ 1562 3. Trait Selection and Genetic Modification ....... 1564 II. Gonzales v. Carhart ..................................... 1566 A. Interpreting Reproductive Rights Through the Lens of “Repugnance” ................................... 1569 1. Lack of Health Exception ...................... 1569 2. State Interests .................................. 1576 a. Protecting the Mother’s Health ............. 1576 b. Protecting Potential Life .................... 1579 * Associate Professor, The George Washington University Law School. B.A., Michigan
    [Show full text]
  • 10 Fallacies and Examples Pdf
    10 fallacies and examples pdf Continue A: It is imperative that we promote adequate means to prevent degradation that would jeopardize the project. Man B: Do you think that just because you use big words makes you sound smart? Shut up, loser; You don't know what you're talking about. #2: Ad Populum: Ad Populum tries to prove the argument as correct simply because many people believe it is. Example: 80% of people are in favor of the death penalty, so the death penalty is moral. #3. Appeal to the body: In this erroneous argument, the author argues that his argument is correct because someone known or powerful supports it. Example: We need to change the age of drinking because Einstein believed that 18 was the right age of drinking. #4. Begging question: This happens when the author's premise and conclusion say the same thing. Example: Fashion magazines do not harm women's self-esteem because women's trust is not damaged after reading the magazine. #5. False dichotomy: This misconception is based on the assumption that there are only two possible solutions, so refuting one decision means that another solution should be used. It ignores other alternative solutions. Example: If you want better public schools, you should raise taxes. If you don't want to raise taxes, you can't have the best schools #6. Hasty Generalization: Hasty Generalization occurs when the initiator uses too small a sample size to support a broad generalization. Example: Sally couldn't find any cute clothes in the boutique and couldn't Maura, so there are no cute clothes in the boutique.
    [Show full text]
  • Inquiry Into the Scientific, Ethical and Regulatory Considerations Relevant to Cloning of Human Beings
    Inquiry into the Scientific, Ethical and Regulatory Considerations Relevant to Cloning of Human Beings Submission to theHouse of RepresentativesStanding Committee on Legal & Constitutional AffairsInquiry into Cloning: xiv.iii.2000 by the Research Department of theAustralian Catholic Bishops Conference Executive Summary 1. Human dignity must be accorded to all members of the human family, from the creation of the first cell (through which stage all of us have travelled), until natural death. 2. Human dignity must be the principal touchstone against which policy and law are measured. 3. Human life, of whatever age, and especially the most vulnerable (e.g. those with a voice still to be recognised completely in law - conceptus, embryos and foetuses) must be protected from exploitation. No member of the human family may be exploited, for economic or other gain, so as to become a field for harvesting embryonic stem cells or embryonic germ cells. 4. Human life, of whatever age, and especially the most vulnerable (e.g. those with a voice still to be recognised completely in law - conceptus, embryos and foetuses) must be protected from being produced in order to be sacrificed for the purpose of gaining “scientific information" or otherwise sacrificed `for the benefit of others.’ 5. Law, and the public policy which it purports to reflect, has an educative dimension, a protective dimension, and a regulative dimension, all of which are for the common good of the community. The legislative regulation of artificial reproductive technology must attend to all such dimensions. 6. Medical and scientific research is to be encouraged and supported - but not at all costs.
    [Show full text]
  • On Appeals to Nature and Their Use in the Public Controversy Over Genetically Modified Organisms Andrei Moldovan
    Document generated on 09/25/2021 12:45 a.m. Informal Logic On Appeals to Nature and their Use in the Public Controversy over Genetically Modified Organisms Andrei Moldovan Volume 38, Number 3, 2018 Article abstract In this paper I discuss appeals to nature, a particular kind of argument that has URI: https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/1057048ar received little attention in argumentation theory. After a quick review of the DOI: https://doi.org/10.22329/il.v38i3.5050 existing literature, I focus on the use of such arguments in the public controversy over the acceptabil-ity of genetically-modified organisms in the See table of contents food industry. Those who reject this biotechnology invoke its unnatural character. Such arguments have re-ceived attention in bioethics, where they have been analyzed by distinguishing different meanings that “nature” and Publisher(s) “natural” might have. I argue that in many such appeals to nature the main deficiency of these arguments is semantic, in particular, that these words Informal Logic cannot be assigned a determi-nate meaning at all. In doing so, I rely on semantic externalism, a widely accepted theory of linguistic meaning. ISSN 0824-2577 (print) 2293-734X (digital) Explore this journal Cite this article Moldovan, A. (2018). On Appeals to Nature and their Use in the Public Controversy over Genetically Modified Organisms. Informal Logic, 38(3), 409–437. https://doi.org/10.22329/il.v38i3.5050 Copyright (c), 2018 Andrei Moldovan This document is protected by copyright law. Use of the services of Érudit (including reproduction) is subject to its terms and conditions, which can be viewed online.
    [Show full text]
  • The Wisdom of Repugnance: Why We Should Ban the Cloning of Humans
    Valparaiso University Law Review Volume 32 Number 2 Spring 1998 pp.679-705 Spring 1998 The Wisdom of Repugnance: Why We Should Ban the Cloning of Humans Leon R. Kass Follow this and additional works at: https://scholar.valpo.edu/vulr Part of the Law Commons Recommended Citation Leon R. Kass, The Wisdom of Repugnance: Why We Should Ban the Cloning of Humans, 32 Val. U. L. Rev. 679 (1998). Available at: https://scholar.valpo.edu/vulr/vol32/iss2/12 This Symposium is brought to you for free and open access by the Valparaiso University Law School at ValpoScholar. It has been accepted for inclusion in Valparaiso University Law Review by an authorized administrator of ValpoScholar. For more information, please contact a ValpoScholar staff member at [email protected]. Kass: The Wisdom of Repugnance: Why We Should Ban the Cloning of Humans THE WISDOM OF REPUGNANCE: WHY WE SHOULD BAN THE CLONING OF HUMANS LEON R. KASS" I. INTRODUCTION Our habit of delighting in news of scientific and technological breakthroughs has been sorely challenged by the birth announcement of a sheep named Dolly. Though Dolly shares with previous sheep the "softest clothing, woolly, bright," William Blake's question, "Little Lamb, who made thee?"' has for her a radically different answer: Dolly was, quite literally, made. She is the work not of nature or nature's God but of man, an Englishman, Ian Wilmut, and his fellow scientists. What's more, Dolly came into being not only asexually-ironically, just like "He [who] calls Himself a Lamb" 2-but also as the genetically identical copy (and the perfect incarnation of the form or blueprint) of a mature ewe, of whom she is a clone.
    [Show full text]
  • Naturalness and Unnaturalness in Contemporary Bioethics Anna Smajdor 57 Artikkel Samtale & Kritikk Spalter Brev
    ARTIKKEL SAMTALE & KRITIKK SPALTER BREV Meta-ethical and methodological considerations The is/ought distinction and the naturalistic fallacy FRA FORSKNINGSFRONTEN Nature appears in bioethics in a number of guises and con- There is no great invention, from fire to flying, which has texts. At the most basic level, people may feel that it is mo- not been hailed as an insult to some god. But if every rally wrong to alter, distort or subvert natural processes. physical and chemical invention is a blasphemy, every NATURALNESS AND Leon Kass, for example, argues that an intuitive recoiling biological invention is a perversion. There is hardly one from interventions such as cloning that distort or frag- which, on first being brought to the notice of an observer ment the natural processes of reproduction, is a powerful from any nation which had not previously heard of their UNNATURALNESS IN indicator that such interventions are unethical (1998:3– existence, would not appear to him as indecent and un- 61). These are perhaps the most obvious occasions when natural. (Haldane 1924) nature plays an explicit role in informing moral reaso- CONTEMPORARY ning in bioethics. However, there are many other ways in Peter Singer and Deane Wells state categorically that “… which nature colours the concepts and themes employed there is no valid argument from ‘unnatural’ to ‘wrong’ in bioethical deliberation. For example, bioethicists may (2006:9-26). Similar views can be found in the work of BIOETHICS be concerned with the natural world, or nature, especially many bioethicists. A report on the ethics of grafting hu- in terms of our moral responsibility to the environment.
    [Show full text]
  • Is There a Constitutional Right to Clone?
    Is There a Constitutional Right to Clone? The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Cass R. Sunstein, Is There a Constitutional Right to Clone? (Public Law & Legal Theory Working Papers No. 22, 2002). Published Version http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/ public_law_and_legal_theory/168/ Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:12921750 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA University of Chicago Law School Chicago Unbound Public Law and Legal Theory Working Papers Working Papers 2002 Is There a Constitutional Right to Clone? Cass R. Sunstein Follow this and additional works at: http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/ public_law_and_legal_theory Part of the Law Commons Recommended Citation Cass R. Sunstein, "Is There a Constitutional Right to Clone?" (Public Law & Legal Theory Working Papers No. 22, 2002). This Working Paper is brought to you for free and open access by the Working Papers at Chicago Unbound. It has been accepted for inclusion in Public Law and Legal Theory Working Papers by an authorized administrator of Chicago Unbound. For more information, please contact [email protected]. CHICAGO PUBLIC LAW AND LEGAL THEORY WORKING PAPER NO. 22 IS THERE A CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHT TO CLONE? Cass R. Sunstein THE LAW SCHOOL THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO This paper can be downloaded without charge at: The Social Science Research Network Electronic Paper Collection: http://papers.ssrn.com/paper.taf?abstract_id=XXXXXX Preliminary draft 4/5/02 All rights reserved Is There a Constitutional Right to Clone? Cass R.
    [Show full text]
  • Reasons, Reflection, and Repugnance
    OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 07/18/2016, SPi 4 Reasons, Reflection, and Repugnance Doug McConnell and Jeanette Kennett 4.1 Introduction In a widely cited article, ‘The Wisdom of Repugnance’ (1997), moral conservative Leon Kass claims that, ‘in crucial cases [. .] repugnance is the emotional expression of deep wisdom, beyond reason’s power fully to articulate it’ (1997, p. 20). He argues that ‘the burden of moral argument must fall entirely on those who want to declare the wide- spread repugnances of humankind to be mere timidity or superstition’ (1997, p. 21). Kass focuses on repugnance at human cloning and IVF but presumably he would gen- eralize his view to a range of enhancement technologies. He believes that we are too readily ‘enchanted and enslaved by the glamour of technology’ (Kass 1997, p. 18) and that technology can undermine valuable aspects of our humanity. In this chapter we draw comparisons between Kass’ views on the normative authority of repugnance and social intuitionist accounts of moral judgement which are similarly sceptical about the role of reasoned reflection in moral judgement. We survey the empir- ical claims made in support of giving moral primacy to intuitions generated by emotions such as repugnance, as well as some common objections. We then examine accounts which integrate intuition and reflection, and argue that plausible accounts of wisdom are in tension with Kass’ claim that our inarticulable emotional responses can be the expres- sion of deep wisdom. We conclude that while repugnance and other emotions have a role to play in informing deliberation and judgement, we have reason to be cautious in giving them normative authority.
    [Show full text]
  • The Naturalizing Error
    Douglas Allchin & Alexander J. Werth The Naturalizing Error Douglas Allchin Minnesota Center for the Philosophy of Science University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN 55455 e-mail: [email protected] phone: 651.603.8805 Alexander J. Werth Department of Biology Hampden-Sydney College Hampden Sydney VA 23901 Abstract We describe an error type that we call the naturalizing error: an appeal to nature as a self-justified description dictating or limiting our choices in moral, economic, political, and other social contexts. Normative cultural perspectives may be subtly and subconsciously inscribed into purportedly objective descriptions of nature, often with the apparent warrant and authority of science, yet not be fully warranted by a systematic or complete consideration of the evidence. Cognitive processes may contribute further to a failure to notice the lapses in scientific reasoning and justificatory warrant. By articulating this error type at a general level, we hope to raise awareness of this pervasive error type and to facilitate critiques of claims that appeal to what is “natural” as inevitable or unchangeable. Keywords error types; naturalizing error; naturalistic fallacy; public understanding of science; social construction of science The Naturalizing Error Abstract We describe an error type that we call the naturalizing error: an appeal to nature as a self-justified description dictating or limiting our choices in moral, economic, political, and other social contexts. Normative cultural perspectives may be subtly and subconsciously inscribed into purportedly objective descriptions of nature, often with the apparent warrant and authority of science, yet not be fully warranted by a systematic or complete consideration of the evidence.
    [Show full text]
  • Part Two: the Case Against Cloning-To-Produce-Children 1
    Number 46 ~ Summer 2015 Editor’s Note: Investigating the moral and political meaning of new technologies has been central to the mission of this journal since its founding, and few new biotechnologies raise such vex- ing questions as human cloning. With the recent creation of the first cloned human embryos, the implications of human cloning deserve more attention than they have received from policy- makers, the news media, academic bioethicists, and the public at large. And so we devote this entire issue of The New Atlantis to a report from the Witherspoon Council on Ethics and the Integrity of Science examining human cloning and making the case against it — whether for the purpose of producing children or for the pur- pose of biomedical research. Executive Summary 5 Members of the Council 7 THE THREAT OF HUMAN CLONING Ethics, Recent Developments, and the Case for Action Preface: Cloning Then and Now 9 Part 1: Scientific and Historical Background 11 What Is Cloning? 11 Early Cloning Experiments 13 Eugenics and Other Early Ethical Debates 14 Cloning and the Embryo Debates of the 1990s 16 Cloning After Dolly 17 Cloning, Fraudulent and Real 20 Alternatives to Cloning-for-Biomedical-Research 21 Background to the 2013 Cloning Breakthrough 22 Conclusion: Cloning for Science and Reproduction 25 Part 2: The Case Against Cloning-to-Produce-Children 27 Health and Safety 27 Health Problems in Cloned Animals 28 Copyright 2015. All rights reserved. See www.TheNewAtlantis.com for more information. The high death rates of cloned embryos and fetuses. 28 Birth defects and long-term problems.
    [Show full text]
  • Human Cloning and Moral Status Christopher Alexander Pynes
    Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2003 Human Cloning and Moral Status Christopher Alexander Pynes Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected] THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES HUMAN CLONING AND MORAL STATUS By CHRISTOPHER ALEXANDER PYNES A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Philosophy in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Degree Awarded: Summer Semester, 2003 Copyright © 2003 Christopher Alexander Pynes All Rights Reserved The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of Christopher Alexander Pynes defended on 19 June 2003. Michael Ruse Professor Directing Dissertation Michael Meredith Outside Committee Member Peter Dalton Committee Member The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members. To my mother, and for all mothers: past, present, and future. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation would not have been possible without the guidance of Professors Michael Ruse and Peter Dalton. Michael showed me that getting something written is more important than writing something perfectly; the former is necessary for the latter. Peter Dalton is an exceptional philosopher, and thanks to his guidance I made it through my first few years of graduate school at Florida State. This dissertation has been improved greatly thanks to his thorough comments; I cannot thank him enough, however, the mistakes that remain are all mine. Many people sacrificed so that I could write and finish this dissertation, none more than Darlene Deas. Her loving support throughout the entire dissertation writing process has been nothing less than heroic.
    [Show full text]
  • The Wisdom of Repugnance: Why We Should Ban the Cloning of Humans
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Valparaiso University Valparaiso University Law Review Volume 32 Number 2 Spring 1998 pp.679-705 Spring 1998 The Wisdom of Repugnance: Why We Should Ban the Cloning of Humans Leon R. Kass Follow this and additional works at: https://scholar.valpo.edu/vulr Part of the Law Commons Recommended Citation Leon R. Kass, The Wisdom of Repugnance: Why We Should Ban the Cloning of Humans, 32 Val. U. L. Rev. 679 (1998). Available at: https://scholar.valpo.edu/vulr/vol32/iss2/12 This Symposium is brought to you for free and open access by the Valparaiso University Law School at ValpoScholar. It has been accepted for inclusion in Valparaiso University Law Review by an authorized administrator of ValpoScholar. For more information, please contact a ValpoScholar staff member at [email protected]. Kass: The Wisdom of Repugnance: Why We Should Ban the Cloning of Humans THE WISDOM OF REPUGNANCE: WHY WE SHOULD BAN THE CLONING OF HUMANS LEON R. KASS" I. INTRODUCTION Our habit of delighting in news of scientific and technological breakthroughs has been sorely challenged by the birth announcement of a sheep named Dolly. Though Dolly shares with previous sheep the "softest clothing, woolly, bright," William Blake's question, "Little Lamb, who made thee?"' has for her a radically different answer: Dolly was, quite literally, made. She is the work not of nature or nature's God but of man, an Englishman, Ian Wilmut, and his fellow scientists. What's more, Dolly came into being not only asexually-ironically, just like "He [who] calls Himself a Lamb" 2-but also as the genetically identical copy (and the perfect incarnation of the form or blueprint) of a mature ewe, of whom she is a clone.
    [Show full text]