Cognitive Neuroscience of Second Language Acquisition the Department of Defense Research Landscape

UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND CENTER FOR ADVANCED STUDY OF LANGUAGE

Cognitive neuroscience of second language acquisition The Department of Defense research landscape

Joseph Dien, PhD Amy Weinberg, PhD PURPOSE—To evaluate the potential use of cognitive neuroscience methods Sergey Blok, PhD in second language acquisition research within the Department of Defense and describe current such studies. Polly O’Rourke, PhD CONCLUSIONS—The Department of Defense can leverage cognitive Kristina Kayton, MS neuroscience of second language acquisition research conducted by civilian Nina Hamedani, MS agencies. RELEVANCE—To aid Department of Defense managers in making better use of research on the cognitive neuroscience of second language acquisition. Executive summary TTO 84601 E.4.3 | CDRL A017 | DID DI-MISC 80508B | Contract No. H98230-07-D-0175

PURPOSE access to language-enabled recruits. successful completion. CNS suggests that it is not necessary CNS has helped to develop and The University of Maryland Center for for foreign language learning to occur evaluate strategies that can improve Advanced Study of Language (CASL) during childhood, but that it can be training at every level of language set out to evaluate how the cognitive beneficial. For this reason, it is in the comprehension. neuroscience (CNS) approach might DoD’s interest to help K–12 schools benefit Department of Defense (DoD) promote foreign language learning. Culture research on second language acquisi- 4 Some types of DoD personnel, Aptitude tion (SLA), to what extent it currently such as attachés, military analysts, is being utilized, and how it might be 2 Training recruits in a new language and officers negotiating with the local better utilized. is extremely expensive, so improving authorities, require high levels of CASL did this by conducting a the identification of those likely to proficiency. literature review and in-depth inter- complete such training successfully CNS methods have helped to views with approximately two dozen could save the DoD substantial sums. clarify how members of other cultures program managers and researchers. CNS research has helped to separate may have different cognitive styles and distinguish the many cognitive and make different assumptions. CONCLUSIONS abilities that contribute to language Incorporating these cultural insights aptitude, such as perceptual acuity, into advanced language training could CASL research supports the following speed of processing, working memory, help DoD students reach these higher conclusions: long-term memory, and induction. levels of proficiency. Bilingualism Training DoD research landscape 1 Whether developing bilingualism 3 Beyond screening for aptitude, 5 CNS of SLA research currently during childhood is necessary, merely improved language training could pro- is being supported primarily by the beneficial, or possibly even a burden vide further DoD savings by accelerat- Office of Naval Research, the Defense is important to DoD efforts to improve ing training and improving the rate of Advanced Research Projects Agency,

and the Defense Language Institute civilian and DoD program offices. Corresponding Author and Reprints: Joseph Dien, PhD, Foreign Language Center. • Organize an annual forum for University of Maryland Center for the Advanced Study of Language, (301) 226-8848, [email protected], www. program managers, scientists, and casl.umd.edu. Gap assessment other relevant individuals. Funding/Support: This material is based upon work 6 supported, in whole or in part, with funding from the United Civilian funding agencies are not • Establish programs to trans- States Government. Any opinions, findings and conclu- late research findings into the sions, or recommendations expressed in this material are addressing DoD training needs in the those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the areas of adult students, intensive train- classroom. views of the University of Maryland, College Park and/ • Balance long-term as well as or any agency or entity of the United States Government. ing, aptitude, retention, pressure, and Nothing in this report is intended to be and shall not be short-term research. treated or construed as an endorsement or recommenda- cross training. tion by the University of Maryland, United States Govern- • Integrate existing language and ment, or the authors of the product, process, or service that Recommendations include the culture efforts to bridge the gap is the subject of this report. No one may use any informa- following: tion contained or based on this report in advertisements between the two. or promotional materials related to any company product, • For the proposed R-Space website process, or service or in support of other commercial purposes. This report is not Releasable to the Defense for facilitating researcher interac- Technical Information Center per DoD Directive 3200.12. tions: support a dedicated staff for The Contracting Officer’s Representative for this project is RELEVANCE David Cox, Government Technical Director at CASL, (301) populating it, ensure that it has a 226-8970, [email protected]. critical mass of users, and make it Foreign language preparedness is a easy to find researchers interested major priority of the DoD. Since CNS in a particular topic. is playing an increasing role in civilian • Leverage current DoD research research on language processes, there on related topics to supplement is a need to determine what solutions it second language research. can provide for DoD second language • Improve communication between needs.

tive training (a possibility that future learn a second language during child- research may clarify).This discovery hood to achieve full proficiency, if Executive report indicates that CNS methods may be it were true that there was a critical used to assess an individual’s L2 capa- period during childhood after which PURPOSE bilities and/or training needs. adults would not be able to learn a Additionally, CNS research has second language in the same manner The War on Terror initiated by the 9/11 found neural correlates of aptitude (Lenneberg, 1967; Penfield & Roberts, attack made it clear that there would for second language acquisition. Xue 1959), then one would expect to see a be an increasing need for the analysts et al. (2006) found that activity in a difference in CNS measures between and warfighters of the Department of specific brain area predicted partici- the brain activity of those who learned Defense (DoD) to engage with regions pants’ success in learning a new script. the second language in childhood and of the world through speaking lan- CNS research in SLA thus has the those who learned it as an adult. If guages not commonly taught in the potential to improve testing for both so, then it would suggest that adult United States. Furthermore, it became proficiency and aptitude. Each of these learners have, in a sense, missed the clear that the relevant languages could findings, summarized in our literature boat and that while they can still learn change quickly as threats arose in dif- review, provides direct application to a second language, it can never be ferent parts of the world. and impact on DoD language needs, as the same as if they had learned it as a The University of Maryland Center expanded on in the next section. child. for Advanced Study of Language In both brainwave measures (see (CASL) set out to evaluate how CONCLUSIONS Kotz, 2009; van Hell & Tokowicz, the cognitive neuroscience (CNS) 2010 for reviews; van Heuven & approach might benefit DoD research CASL research supports the following Dijkstra, 2010) and brain imaging on second language acquisition (SLA), conclusions: measures (see Abutalebi, 2008; Kotz, to what extent CNS currently is being 2009; van Heuven & Dijkstra, 2010 for Bilingualism – Enriching the utilized, and how it might better be review), what is seen is that in gen- recruitment pool used. CASL did this by conducting a 1 eral the patterns of activity are quite literature review and in-depth inter- On the one hand adults seem to have similar, so it is not necessary to learn views with approximately two dozen much more difficulty learning a second as a child. There are nonetheless some program managers and researchers. language than children. On the other differences however, which underscore In the same way that CNS has hand, there is concern that overloading observations that those who learn a informed the study of psycholinguis- children with multiple languages could second language during childhood do tics, it can contribute significantly harm their learning process. Whether have advantages in certain domains, to research in SLA. In addition to developing bilingualism during child- particularly with respect to discrimi- showing that language processing hood is necessary, merely beneficial, nating between language-specific and representation in second lan- or possibly even a burden is important speech sounds and mastering gram- guage (L2) becomes more native- to DoD efforts to improve access to matical systems. like with increased proficiency (see language-enabled recruits and even to Bilingualism – DoD significance Abutalebi, 2008; Kotz, 2009; van enhance the cognitive performance of Hell & Tokowicz, 2010 for review; its personnel. 2 Taken together, the body of van Heuven & Dijkstra, 2010), as Research by Ellen Bialystok sug- research on second language acquisi- might be expected based on behav- gests that not only is second language tion in early childhood and child- ioral performance, CNS data can help learning not harmful to children, hood bilingualism indicates that adult account for individual differences in she has found that bilingual children learning programs such as at DLIFLC L2 acquisition. show improved problem solving skills should indeed be able to provide grad- Chee et al. (2004) found that indi- (Bialystok & Majumder, 1998) and uates proficient in second languages to vidual differences in L2 proficiency, greater executive control (specifi- even high levels and able to perform despite similar instructional experience cally, the ability to inhibit distracting under demanding circumstances. and motivation to learn, may be due to information and maintain attention It appears to be never too late to learn the fact that highly proficient and less to a task; Bialystok and Martin, a new language. proficient learners rely on different 2004; Bialystok and Feng, 2009; see That said, it does appear to be harder neural mechanisms for L2 processing. Bialystok, 2009 for review). This to learn as an adult (whether or not It is possible that those less profi- finding also raises the possibility that due to a critical period or just due to cient learners will never achieve more such learning could also benefit adult general aging effects) and there are than limited attainment in L2, or could learners. indications that some aspects, such benefit from some form of cogni- As for whether it is necessary to as perception of sound contrasts and

© 2012 University of Maryland. All rights reserved. November 2011 iii COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION grammar, may generally not achieve ical sensitivity, and inductive language ences between college-age and elderly the same levels in adult learners as learning ability. participants. in childhood learners, and so K–12 Phonetic coding refers to the ability Other evidence from native-lan- efforts in DoDEA and in public educa- to remember and process unfamiliar guage comprehension suggests an tion should be supported. sounds, especially those in a foreign important role for general processing In the long run, cultivating child- language. Associative memory is the speed. For instance, slow processing hood bilingualism in these Americans ability to form a connection between speed has been linked to language would lead to reductions in the costs of the sound of a word and its meaning. disability (Tallal, 2004; Tallal & Gaab, training DoD language professionals Grammatical sensitivity refers to the 2006) and comprehension deficiencies and an increase in their communica- ability to identify grammatical func- in Parkinson patients (Lee, Grossman, tive effectiveness, thus enhancing their tions of words in sentences. Morris, Stern, & Hurtig, 2003). ability to protect and defend the nation. Finally, inductive language learn- Because speeded reaction time is an ing ability is the capacity to extract element of a variety of cognitive tests, Aptitude – Improving achievement patterns and regularities from previ- individual variability can be attributed 3 rates through better selection ously experienced streams of spoken to overall processing speed for many Training recruits in a new language is or written foreign language. Although of these tests. extremely expensive, so improving the the MLAT showed impressive correla- The human memory system is com- identification of those likely to com- tions with achievement in the foreign posed of working memory (WM) and plete training successfully could save language classroom, this research pro- long-term storage components. WM the DoD substantial sums. gram was not successful in explaining itself is a complex system composed CNS research has helped to separate why these components were important of several parts, including a short-term and distinguish the many cognitive for SLA. memory store and a host of execu- abilities that contribute to language Specifically, more research was tive processes that allocate attention aptitude, such as perceptual acuity, needed to determine whether the between items in short-term memory speed of processing, working memory, MLAT components corresponded to (Baddeley, 2002; Baddeley & Hitch, long-term memory, and induction. true language-specific abilities, such 1974). as sensitivity to grammar, or were In short, WM is a space for tem- What is aptitude? explained more plausibly by the role of porary storage and processing of Some individuals appear to “get” general abilities, such as IQ (Carroll, information and supports a variety of languages more easily than others. 1993). processes, including learning, reason- Part of the source of this belief is the ing, and conceptual behavior. It serves prevalence of anecdotes documenting Cognitive components of aptitude as the main processing point between the striking range of language achieve- Perceptual acuity is the ability to per- the senses and the long-term memory ment among individuals. ceive and remember important cues in store. Stories of polyglots who appear to visual or sound information. Auditory Aptitude – DoD significance acquire new languages with humbling perceptual acuity is the capacity to ease are contrasted with those of “hear” important differences between 4 A critical question is how to select friends who never got a college degree sounds. In the context of foreign the best candidates for DoD’s language because a required foreign language language learning, it is the ability to training, since (1) it is clear that only class kept them from graduating. detect a difference between a sound a small number of military person- Thus, language aptitude is the not important for one’s native language nel can be admitted, and (2) training specific talent for acquiring a foreign but important for the foreign language is expensive and the DoD would like language. being learned. to maximize its return on investment Speed of processing is the pace of by limiting attrition in its language Overview of aptitude research performance of successive mental schools and maximizing candidates’ The pioneering research on language operations. Mislevy and colleagues output proficiency. aptitude is widely credited to the 1960s (2008) proposed that faster processing From the 1960s on, the DoD has era work of J.B. Carroll. He and his can lead to an advantage in learning a used the Defense Language Aptitude collaborators devised the first aptitude language, as it can for other complex Battery (DLAB) to select candidates test for foreign language learning activities involving a variety of time- for the Defense Language Institute (Modern Language Aptitude Test, consuming subprocesses. Waters & Foreign Language Center (DLIFLC). MLAT Carroll & Sapon, 1959). Carroll Caplan (2005) showed the specific role The test is designed to predict suc- defined aptitude as consisting of four of speed of processing in language, cessful completion of the DLIFLC distinct cognitive abilities: phonetic presenting evidence of its contributions program and provide predictive infor- coding, associative memory, grammat- to paragraph comprehension differ- mation about attrition.

Training – Accelerating second include drug treatments that boost Proficiency Test (DLPT). Further 5 language acquisition molecular memory mechanisms research is needed to reveal whether (Lynch, Granger et al. 1997) and cognitive training of other abilities will Beyond screening for aptitude, transcranial direct current stimulation result in the same proficiency gains. improved language training could (Floel, Rosser et al. 2008). People differ in their WM capacity, provide further DoD savings by accel- Initial results have been promising and this difference is tied closely to erating training and improving the rate but much more work will be required variations in general intellectual ability of successful completion. CNS has to determine efficacy and safety. (Conway, Kane, & Engle, 2003). For helped to develop and evaluate strate- example, Kyllonen et al. (1990) show gies that can improve training at every Syntactic high correlations between WM capac- level of language comprehension. There also have been important devel- ity and standard tests of reasoning The latest research, informed by opments at the ability. CNS methods, has identified a number level of syntax Furthermore, of domains in which improved meth- (grammar). At the lexical level (the individual dif- ods can yield more effective language Inductive ferences in WM training, including (1) lexical, (2) perceptual word form), learning can be capacity have semantic, (3) syntactic, and (4) work- either explicit or research suggests that been tied to dif- ing memory. implicit. Under one’s upbringing (including ferent levels of Lexical explicit condi- native language) affects activity in the At the lexical level (the perceptual tions, a learner learning a new language. intraparietal and word form), research suggests that actively generates prefrontal areas one’s upbringing (including native hypotheses and rules to make sense of of the cortex, with some models sug- language) affects learning a new data. gesting that the density of connections language. Learning in a classroom setting often in the specific cortical areas explains It has been observed, for example, takes the form of explicit induction, in capacity differences (Edin, et al., that brain imaging studies of native which the student is presented with a 2009). speakers reading Chinese compared to rule to be learned and applied to some If connections in these cortical net- native speakers reading English tend to future situation. works could be strengthened through show more activity in motor areas; it By contrast, implicit learning occurs training, it can be hypothesized that has been suggested that this reflects the through passive observation or as a WM capacity could be increased. byproduct of unrelated activities. instruction in brush stroke order tradi- Training – DoD significance tionally involved in learning Chinese The debate about which second lan- characters (Tan, Laird, Li, & Fox, guage style of teaching is best (implicit 6 While to our knowledge none of 2005), to the extent that when Chinese vs. explicit) is one of the oldest in the these findings has yet been imported are trying to clarify an ambiguous field (Dörnyei & Skehan 2003). into active DoD learning environ- spoken word, they will write out the Using artificial grammar learning ments, they have clear relevance character on their palm. and ERP measures, one recent study for improving classroom practices. showed the most native-like ERPs For example, CASL’s WM training Semantic under implicit learning conditions, program already has yielded promising Research has shown the importance of lending further support to implicit results on tests and is being prepared using teaching methods that involve induction superiority for gram- for broader testing. not just rote memorization (which is matical rule learning (Morgan-Short, The finding that semantic context also important) but also the use of con- Steinhauer et al. 2011). provides more robust learning of semantic meaning has direct impli- text (Adams, 2004; Rayner, Foorman, Working memory Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg, 2002) cations for instructional practices, to enrich the memory representations. A cognitive domain, WM, discussed especially drills. For example, neural measures revealed earlier under Aptitude, potentially can Unfortunately, it will be difficult for improvements from learning words in lead to improvements in performance the DoD to obtain full value from such context (Frishkoff, Perfetti, & Collins- at all three levels of language just advances until it has implemented an Thompson, 2010) or for Chinese reviewed. experimental classroom setting at a characters in combination with writing This section outlines research facility such as DLIFLC, where new (Guan, Liu, Chan, Ye, & Perfetti, indicating that WM can be improved instructional techniques based on these 2011). through training, which in turn can findings could be tested in a scientifi- Additional CNS strategies for improve output language proficiency cally rigorous fashion. enhancing the learning of new words as measured by the Defense Language Some types of DoD personnel, such

© 2012 University of Maryland. All rights reserved. November 2011 v COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION as attachés, military analysts, and offi- on dead reckoning tasks, compared to patterns of activation across both types cers negotiating with the local authori- English speakers (Majid, Bowerman, of judgments, suggesting that they ties, require high levels of proficiency. Kita, Haun, & Levinson, 2004)—their handled distracting information differ- CNS methods have helped to language inculcates a constant aware- ently in these two tasks. clarify how members of other cultures ness of their spatial orientation. In sum, these studies show that dif- may have different cognitive styles Cultural differences in cognition ferences in languages are embedded and make different assumptions. extend beyond in differences in Incorporating these cultural insights the manner in cognitive style. into advanced language training could which space is To speak a second To communi- help DoD students reach these higher conceived. language, one must master cate effectively in the language of levels of proficiency. The best stud- the cultural thinking style ied area of cul- the Pormpuraaw, Culture – Maximizing tural differences the language manifests, in one must not 7 communicative competency concerns the addition to its vocabulary only know their Cultural neuroscience, the application contrast between and grammar. vocabulary and of neuroscience methods to questions European- syntax but also about culture, has provided crucial Americans and East Asians. effectively adopt their use of the insights into these issues in two Researchers have suggested (Hofstede, cardinal directions to represent the domains: 1980; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; environment. • effects of language on cognitive Triandis, 1995) that the socioemo- Likewise, to communicate effec- style, and tional style of European-Americans is tively at a high level in East Asian lan- • effects of culture on the pragmat- predominantly individualism, empha- guages, it seems that the speaker must ics of communication. sizing values such as competitiveness adapt to the cognitive differences that and uniqueness, whereas East Asians inevitably will manifest themselves in Effects of language and culture on tend toward a socioemotional style of the content of communications, such cognitive style collectivism, highlighting values such as the tendency to rely on relational Language is fundamentally about as harmony and hierarchy (Oyserman, information. communication, and for individuals to Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002). Effects of culture on perspective-taking communicate successfully, they must These contrasting cultural styles in and communication be able not only to convert words from turn result in differing cognitive styles. one form to the other, but also be on These cultural differences affect Behavioral data alone are subject to the same page, so to speak, with the performance not only on perceptual ambiguities due to potential con- other communicator. tasks but on language tasks as well. founds, such as cultural differences in To speak a second language, one For example (Chiu, 1972; Ji, Zhang, & communication practices (pragmatics). must master the cultural thinking style Nisbett, 2004), given the triad (seagull- Neuroscience studies thus have been the language manifests, in addition to squirrel-tree) and asked to select the crucial for providing supporting evi- its vocabulary and grammar. dence that confirms the findings from two words that go together, Americans Research has demonstrated that such behavioral studies and clarifies (individualistic) tend to choose seagull language, while not the sole determi- the nature of their results. and squirrel, as these words have nant of thought, can strongly influence A wide range of evidence (Northoff individual features in common (e.g., cognitive style (Carruthers, 2002). & Bermpohl, 2004; Northoff, et al., A classic example of this is the “they’re both animals”), whereas East 2006) indicates that the midline cortex Pormpuraaw, an aboriginal community Asians (collectivistic) tend to choose along the inner surfaces of the two in Australia, whose inhabitants do not squirrel and tree, as they are function- adjoining hemispheres, the cortical use terms such as “left” and “right.” ally and thematically related (e.g., “the midline structures (CMS), plays a Instead, they rely heavily on the squirrel climbs the tree”). central role in perspective-taking and cardinal directions (e.g., “north”) that This cognitive difference is under- the related task of representing the self pervade their speech (Boroditsky, stood as being due to the differential and others. 2011). Just to ask “Where are you focus on individual features (individu- Studies illustrate that understanding going?” requires a response such as alism) and relationships (collectivism). communications from other cultures “a long way to the south-southwest” Furthermore, an fMRI study requires more than just mechanically (Boroditsky & Gaby, 2010). (Gutchess, Hedden, Ketay, Aron, & translating the words into English. It This constant practice in spatial Gabrieli, 2010) indicated that, at least also is necessary to understand the orienting has resulted in their having under some conditions, members of culture from which they originate. substantially superior performance the two cultural groups show different Furthermore, they show that culture

© 2012 University of Maryland. All rights reserved. November 2011 vi COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION is more than just a collection of quaint DoD Research Landscape section in each branch of the military and other customs and habits. It also can involve the Technical Report for more in-depth DoD departments.1 For example, characteristic ways of thinking. coverage on information provided by DLI currently is funding work on the Servicemen engaged with the locals participants. DLAB (see Research Highlight 1. on a daily basis need to understand Predicting Language Potential) and Zone 1: Supporting DoD CNS of SLA these cultural differences, even if their brain fitness training (see Research communication needs otherwise are research Highlight 8. Brain Fitness Training to adequately served by translators. The Defense Advanced Research Grow Attentional Control). Projects Agency (DARPA) is located CASL, in College Park, MD, is a Culture – DoD significance under the Office of the Under University affiliated Research Center 8 The DoD has become acutely Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, (UARC), supported by various DoD aware of the need to consider foreign Technology, and Logistics. sources and charged with conduct- languages and cultures together in DARPA serves the needs of the ing language and culture research to fulfilling its mis- entire DoD. The support the language readiness and sion. Even simple focus is on high- capabilities of both DoD and the communications CASL is developing risk, high pay-off Intelligence Community. benefit from cul- cognitive training methods research that CASL is conducting a number of tural sensitivity. designed to speed up spans 6.1 to 6.5 research programs relevant to SLA. Military atta- language acquisition and funding to allow It has a diverse portfolio of aptitude chés assisting dip- an idea to take work, including DLAB2, an update to lomatic missions, improve the performance shape through DoD’s primary language aptitude test; field officers of language intelligence basic research, Hi-Lab, a test designed to select high- negotiating with analysts. apply the findings proficiency learners; and the Afghan local leaders, and to a DoD context, Language Aptitude Battery (ALAB), a military analysts interpreting cap- and develop and produce prototypes or test designed to predict English learn- tured insurgent communications all technology. ing aptitude in Afghan nationals learn- require higher levels of communicative DARPA is a lean organization in ing English. CASL also is developing competence. which its director provides strategic cognitive training methods designed interest areas and the project man- to speed up language acquisition and DoD Research Landscape agers field incoming proposals and improve the performance of language 9 To map out the DoD research pitch original ideas that require Broad intelligence analysts. landscape, CASL conducted intensive Agency Announcements requesting Current work includes delivering hour-long interviews of informants, proposals. DARPA accepts high- scientifically valid WM and creativ- both program officers and researchers risk projects; some are fast-burning ity training programs. Its aptitude (Appendix A). one-year contracts, but most oper- and training work draws from a This information in turn allowed us ate within two- to five-year funding variety of scientific disciplines and to classify the U.S. Government fund- streams. Examples of projects include makes a particular connection to ing sources into four zones: the Accelerated Learning program (see the latest advances in neurosci- • supporting DoD CNS of SLA Research Highlight 4. Learning Arabic ence (see Research Highlight 1. research; in Half the Time). Predicting Language Potential; • supporting DoD CNS research The Defense Language Institute Research Highlight 2. Measuring relevant to SLA; (DLI) is a major player in DoD’s High-Level Language Aptitude; • potential supporters of DoD CNS language arena. A directorate under Research Highlight 3. Different Scripts research; the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine for Different Folks; and Research • non-DoD but supporting research Command (TRADOC), DLI is the Highlight 7. Enhancing Working relevant to CNS of SLA. primary provider for foreign language Memory to Improve Language Skills). CNS of SLA research currently training to all of the service branches. The Office of Naval Research is being supported primarily by the Particularly relevant to this report (ONR) provides technological guid- Office of Naval Research, the Defense is the Defense Language Institute ance for the Navy and the Marine Advanced Research Projects Agency, Foreign Language School (DLIFLC), Corps. and the Defense Language Institute which offers courses ranging between It appears to be the biggest fund- Foreign Language Center. 26 and 64 weeks in 23 languages, ing agency for CNS work throughout Please refer to Technical Report taught mostly by native speakers. Its DoD. As noted earlier in the CNS Appendix A for a list of the individuals central school, located in Monterey, orientation section, ONR was an early CASL interviewed; also refer to the CA, can house 3,500 students from supporter of neuroscience research

© 2012 University of Maryland. All rights reserved. November 2011 vii COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION and funded a number of the seminal and industry. ARL tends to focus feedback tool, and developing methods studies. on research with short-term payoff. to explain individual differences in ONR typically solicits high-risk, Examples of research currently under- performance using EEG, eventually high-payoff research ideas. The most way include a project aimed at under- contributing to the creation of a predic- directly relevant work it currently sup- standing the dynamics of attentional tive model of an individual’s future ports is Dr. Catherine Poulsen’s study shifting and another examining how learning. on using a virtual environment to teach individual differences in brain struc- Sandia National Laboratories is a language and cultural practices while tures relate to differences in cognitive national laboratory, supported by the monitoring the results using electroen- functions. Department of Energy, which con- cephalography (EEG) (see Technical The Army Research Office (ARO) ducts technology research to sup- Report Research Highlight 5. Tracking is the division of the ARL responsible port national security. The Cognitive Language Learning by Listening to the for extramural research, specifically Science and Applications group in the Brain). that concerning soldier performance Basic Science Department of Sandia through life sciences. ARO program National Laboratories focuses on the Zone 2: Supporting DoD CNS managers seek matches between aca- human dimension of engineering sys- research relevant to SLA demic and industry capabilities that fit tems developed by its engineers. The The Applied Physics Laboratory at the research requirements for an appli- group’s main objective is to study and Johns Hopkins University (APL) is cation to Army needs. Funding awards mode human decision making. Using a UARC supported by the Navy. The come in many forms, including small EEG and ERP methods, researchers Applied Neuroscience program at APL single-investigator grants with add-on examine WM as it relates to lan- uses novel neuroscience applications to possibilities; larger 6.1 Multiuniversity guage, as well as memory strategies to support the mission of the services and Research Initiative (MURI) research enhance language retrieval. The lab’s the Intelligence Community, includ- awards; and industry Small Business current work also includes observation ing the interface between the human Innovation Research grants (SBIR) of individual differences in brain mark- brain and computers, the neural bases that functionally and theoretically ers associated with memory strategies of human performance, and enhancing seek to bridge 6.1 to 6.3 categories of for language (see Research Highlight prosthetics using neuroscience. research funding. 6. Learning to Read on the Brain’s The four main thrust areas for neuro- ARO also uses Cooperative Best Schedule). science at APL are: Research and Development Zone 3: Potential supporters of DoD • brain computing interfaces Agreements (CRADA) as mecha- • neuromimetic algorithms nisms for allocating funds. CRADAs CNS research • the neural basis of human encourage an Army and a university The Air Force Research Laboratory’s performance laboratory each to contribute capital to (AFRL) mission is to discover, • neural prosthetics enable collaboration on a single proj- develop, and integrate technology rel- The Army Research Laboratory ect. Project managers at ARO have the evant to Air Force warfighting efforts. (ARL) is located under the U.S. flexibility to fund long-term research The major focus of the AFRL is on Army Research, Development, and projects that may develop Army rel- basic and applied science and engi- Engineering Command, which in evant applications in 10 to 20 years. neering research related to air, space, turn is under the U.S. Army Materiel The Institute for Collaborative and cyberspace. Command. The ARL mission focuses Biotechnologies (ICB) at the The Army Research Institute for the on the interface between Army warf- University of California in Santa Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI) ighters and technology. Specifically, Barbara is a UARC supported by is a field operating agency of Army the Translational Neuroscience Branch the Army. The Action Lab (West) is G-1, which is tasked with managing of ARL’s Human Research and a component of the Institute, whose all aspects of manpower and person- Engineering Directorate is relevant overall mission is to use cognitive nel needs for the U.S. Army. ARI is to this report. While the Translational neuroscience (i.e., fMRI, EEG, and responsible for science and technology Neuroscience Branch conducts Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation investment related to the selection, a significant amount of in-house (TMS) methods) to enhance the human training, and development of soldiers research (6.1 and 6.2 funding), it also performance of Army personnel. ICB and leaders. supports external research through is a lab that uses cognitive neurosci- The Defense Intelligence Agency the Cognition and Neuroergonomics ence to enhance human performance (DIA) is the central producer and man- Collaborative Technology Alliance in support of ARO’s mission. Current ager of all source defense intelligence (CAN CTA). The CAN CTA is a research projects involve working with for DoD. The Language, Regional consortium that encourages collabo- a collaborator to investigate the neural Expertise and Culture Portfolio within ration between the Army, academia, substrates of stuttering using fMRI as a DIA (LREC-DIA) does not address

© 2012 University of Maryland. All rights reserved. November 2011 viii COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION neuroscience methods directly, but issues. primarily focused on understand- funded projects potentially can utilize The National Science Foundation’s ing how to support students learn- them. LREC-DIA funding includes a (NSF) primary mission is to fund ing English as a second language combination of proposed and internally basic research; thus, proposals wholly and rarely supports research generated projects and is commit- applied and product-driven in nature utilizing neuroscience methods ted to cross-agency and inter-agency are not appropriate for NSF sup- because of its application-focused integration and collaboration. LREC- port. The Neuroscience Program is mission. NSF is strongly inter- DIA does leverage the capabilities of concerned with projects that state ested in neuroscience research but universities and colleges with flagship questions in terms of brain functions has been mandated by Congress and university-level language pro- and mechanisms while employing to exclude foreign languages from grams to ensure that SLA opportunities CNS techniques. its purview. The are available while the DoD pro- The Linguistics There are important NICHD branch gresses toward its goal of Interagency Program also is of NIH supports Language Roundtable (ILR) level 3 housed within differences between a substantial language expertise. the Division teaching adults a foreign amount of bilin- The Institute for Creative of Behavioral language and teaching gualism research Technologies (ICT) at the University and Cognitive children, including (including neuro- of Southern California is a UARC Sciences. This science); how- supported by the Army. Its primary program includes motivational strategies, ever, it focuses focus is on virtual gaming to improve CNS methodolo- adults’ greater life more on children training and education. The multidisci- gies in supporting experience, and their age- and ESL. Finally, plinary workforce at ICT is particularly roles for L2, lan- related decrements in basic DoD program concerned with such human aspects guage acquisition, officers are doing as emotion, facial expressions, and and bilingualism cognitive abilities. what they can to human interaction. research. supplement civilian research, but agree that CNS Zone 4: Non-DoD but supporting Gap assessments work—let alone CNS SLA research relevant to CNS of SLA Civilian funding agencies are not work—is underfunded. The Institute of Education Sciences addressing DoD training needs in the 3. There are important differences (IES) is the research arm of the U.S. areas of adult students, intensive train- between teaching adults a foreign Department of Education (ED) charged ing, aptitude, retention, pressure, and language and teaching children, with providing rigorous and relevant cross training. including motivational strategies, evidence on which to ground educa- 1. The scope of DoD neuroscience adults’ greater life experience, and tion practice and policy and sharing research on second language their age-related decrements in this information broadly. By identify- issues currently is quite limited. basic cognitive abilities. Because ing what works, what doesn’t, and While the team did hear about a adults develop bilingual capa- why, the Institute aims to improve number of such projects poten- bilities differently than children, educational outcomes for all students, tially being started in the near continued work in foreign lan- particularly those at risk of failure. future, at present only a handful guage training is needed for both Because education research is were identified as underway. It children and adults. focused on the classroom, IES-funded became evident that the DoD is 4. DoD language training typically is research is applied in nature and only just beginning to take advan- very intensive compared to that in researchers interested in basic research tage of this approach to advance conventional classroom settings. often are encouraged to seek funding the science of second language Some issues include how to mini- from the National Institutes of Health research. mize dropout rates due to motiva- or the National Science Foundation. 2. Interviews revealed some seri- tional burnout, optimize memory The National Institutes of Health ous gaps in funding from the consolidation despite the closely (NIH) are charged with supporting perspective of DoD needs (espe- spaced nature of the instruction, research related to human diseases, cially regarding those using CNS and accommodate differential human growth and development, approaches). The great majority learning trajectories. environmental contaminants, and of research is funded by civil- 5. Unlike conventional school set- mental and physical disorders. The ian sources (NIH, NSF, and ED); tings, in which students self-select National Institute for Child Health and however these largely ignore the their course of study and bear Development (NICHD) is the compo- domain of CNS of SLA research. the cost of failure, DoD invests nent of NIH most concerned with SLA ED research funding on SLA is a considerable sum in training

students, so there is a poten- interference between languages potentially could be repurposed to tially large benefit in improving with similar characteristics. second language applications, as success rates. DoD and civilian in monitoring student comprehen- program managers recommended Recommendations sion during instruction. It could be that DoD support research on the CASL makes the following helpful to implement a program to ability of some people to pick recommendations: discover such potential synergies up multiple languages easily as 1. CASL obtained feedback from and facilitate knowledge transfer adults, although it also was noted the interviewees on what features in such cases. that meeting recruitment goals is would be needed for a proposed 3. A recurrent theme in our inter- already an issue at facilities like R-Space website that would views with program officers was DLIFLC, so increasing selectiv- help facilitate communication that communication between ity has limited benefits. What is among DoD program officers civilian and DoD program offices crucial is to get more from those and researchers working on the is limited. Interviewees often who are selected. CNS of SLA. To develop the best remarked that when a proposal 6. Whereas research on conventional tool, interviewees and the CASL might be more appropriate for educational team recom- the other side of the civilian- settings is mend supporting DoD divide, the program officer concerned An issue largely irrelevant a dedicated staff was not sure where to direct with the in the civilian setting but to populate and it. Likewise, the potential for acquisition of great concern to DoD is maintain it, ensur- duplication of effort and missed of language ing that it has a opportunities for productive skills in the the ability to utilize second critical mass of synergies could be foreseen more classroom, language skills in high- users, and making easily with better communication. the DoD also pressure situations. it user-friendly Interviewees noted that a useful must be con- and timely for application for the R-Space tool cerned with the retention of these program managers and researchers would be to help civilian program skills once the student leaves the looking for individuals and groups officers to connect better with classroom. It is of little use for its who are interested in a particular their DoD counterparts, allowing employees to gain high levels of topic. Interviewees cautioned them to determine more easily proficiency if these subsequently against a tool that presents too whom to contact about issues of decay due to disuse. Thus, there much irrelevant information to shared interest, and vice versa. is a need to develop methods for sift through, and are wary of a 4. To focus interest on DoD second minimizing such deterioration in function that generates another language issues, it could be help- skills. layer of reporting. They also ful to institute an annual forum 7. An issue largely irrelevant in expressed concern that there are at which scientists and program the civilian setting but of great too many similar tools already in managers could discuss ongoing concern to DoD is the ability to existence, and that they have too issues and exchange their latest utilize second language skills in many passwords to remember. An findings, comparable to the HSCB high-pressure situations, such as efficient R-Space would provide FOCUS meetings. Such a forum the battlefield. Likewise, there is a an introduction to key contribu- also could provide another avenue need to ensure that using a second tors and current research, allow through which civilian and DoD language does not require so much for networking and collaboration, program managers could develop attention from the warfighter that and exhibit and promote funding better lines of communication. situational awareness suffers, opportunities. 5. Advances in research need to putting him or her at risk from 2. While as yet there is only a very be translated to the classroom undetected threats. limited amount of CNS research before they can make a difference. 8. A final issue unique to DoD is being conducted on the topic of School teachers and administra- how best to transfer language SLA, a variety of DoD research tors expressed concern that they skills from one foreign language on related topics exists that could did not know how to frame their to another (e.g., due to changes be leveraged to great advantage. challenges in terms that research- in the geopolitical status quo or For example, the ARL research on ers could investigate; researchers in theaters of war). Some issues EEG-mediated cybernetic com- in turn found it difficult to find the include predicting which foreign munication involves decoding time to translate existing scientific languages lend themselves to language-related neural patterns. findings into a form that could be cross-training and minimizing Findings from this line of research applied in the classroom. CASL

currently provides the primary ful synergies might be achieved in possible to provide safe pharma- channel for such translational this domain. While it makes sense cological methods and/or brain work for the DoD, but it must be to treat language and culture as stimulation methods for improv- given direction and support by distinct domains, it also would be ing language performance, both a funding source before it can advisable to support their integra- during training and in the field. take action. Of the schools, only tion explicitly. For example, lan- DLIFLC appears to have the guage projects might be directed resources to commission studies to include a culture component ENDNOTE directly to obtain scientific solu- and vice versa, or programs might tions, and even it is constrained by be established with a direct focus 1 For more information about DLIFLC’s foreign language programs, see www. a lack of the type of funds appro- on “cultural linguistics” projects. dliflc.edu/about.html. priate for long-term research. Also, other language schools RELEVANCE may have needs not relevant to REFERENCES DLIFLC and hence those would The DoD’s research in Cognitive not be addressed. Finally, the Neuroscience of Second Language Abutalebi, J. (2008). Neural aspects of pedagogy component has received Acquisition is directed by many inde- second language representation and language control. 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