: An Introspective Look

BY DOMENICO E. ZARRO

impani have a very old, rich and to receiving written parts. “The true in- a pivoted lever or rocker arm that con- majestic history. The timpanist is troduction of timpani took place around trolled the armature to which the tuning Toften referred to as the backbone of 1670 by way of an orchestral score into rods were attached. More significant was the . Even though the timpanist the court of orchestral and operatic en- the fact that this simple device multi- is a percussionist and the instrument is sembles, as well as in large liturgical plied the force transmitted to the base one of the building blocks of percussion pieces” (Bowles, 1995, p. 202). plate by the crank, making for a far more repertoire, it is usually distinguished as Timpani construction remained un- efficient and powerful mechanism. The being separate from the percussion sec- changed for several centuries, except for Pfundt/Hoffman model was subsequently tion. the gradual increase of the instrument’s acquired by in many of the diameter. Early construction used rope major European cities (Bowles, 1995, EARLY HISTORY tensioning on the . Due to the p. 208). “Nakers, the English name by which requirements of maintaining constant The final major addition to contempo- small kettledrums of the medieval period tension on larger heads, increasing de- rary machine emerged during the were known, were of Arabic or Saracenic mands of rhythmic function and precise later part of the nineteenth century. Carl origin” (Blades, 1992, p. 223). The instru- tuning, the need for screw tensioning Pittrich developed and patented the ments came to Europe in the fifteenth emerged. Screws were distributed around model timpani. Pittrich devel- century as instruments played on the rim of the and attached to a oped a tuning device originally manufac- horseback by Muslims, Ottoman Turks hoop by boring down on the and con- tured to be attached to existing drums. and Mongols. “It was mainly via courts in trolling the tension of the head. The ten- Years later, Paul Focke in Dresden began German speaking lands that these large, sion was at first adjusted by a dozen to produce this mechanism as a complete mounted kettledrums spread throughout bolts threaded into receptacles along the drum assembly. Pittrich invented a foot Europe” (Bowles, 1995, p. 201). In En- sides of the drum. In 1790, the T-handle pedal ratchet to accommodate rapid tun- gland as well as other countries through- was introduced to aid the timpanist with ing changes. This mechanism was aided out Europe, the ownership of kettle- faster tuning changes. by using newly available steel that was drums was exclusive only to royalty and During the first half of the nineteenth lighter than iron and greater in tensile nobility. century a number of wrote for strength. The pedal was attached to a le- “The Imperial Guild of Trumpeters and three and four drums. These composi- ver with a heavy club acting as a counter- Kettledrummers included regular mem- tions required rapid tuning changes for weight. Utilizing a bolt attached to the bers who held the rank of officers and the timpanist, which hand-tuned drums center of a lever, the pedal was moved up were privileged to wear the ostrich were not capable of handling. Due to or down, raising or lowering the drum’s feather of nobility in their hats” (Blades, these rapid tuning changes, a new phase pitch. A tuning gauge controlled by the 1992, p. 228). “Along with trumpeters, in the construction of timpani took place. foot pedal was added to indicate correct the kettledrummers belonged to this ex- Timpani began to take on a new name: pitch using a pointer and adjustable clusive guild, a step achieved only after machine drums. “This period was an era markers. Also, a fine-tuning device ac- up to seven years of apprenticeship” of vitality, innovation and change in the companied the drum in case of changes in (Bowles, 1995, p. 202). They were fur- design and manufacture of musical in- temperature, humidity and/or the pres- nished horses and grooms and were struments, generally corresponding sure of heavy playing. forbidden to associate with other instru- somewhat belatedly to the Industrial Pittrich’s invention was a historical mentalists considered household employ- Revolution” (Bowles, 1995, p. 202). In- leap that ended the limitations upon the ees of lesser rank. The performance of ventors were working closely with metal- timpanist. “While other methods of me- kettledrums was safeguarded and could workers trying to develop numerous ways chanical tuning continued to be used, it only be taught by rote from one genera- to rapidly change the pitch of a kettle- is the Pittrich model that, with minor tion to another. Because of this ritual, it drum. The most successful machine changes and improvements, has re- is believed that little written music ex- drums were either tuned with a master mained in widespread use to this day” isted for the instrument. screw, rotating the kettle itself, or by use (Bowles, 1995, p. 212). of a foot mechanism. CONSTRUCTION The Pfundt/Hoffman design and its re- TIMPANI HEADS During the seventeenth century tim- finements represented important innova- In early days, timpani heads were pro- pani were moved indoors and utilized in tions in a traditional design that solved duced by a parchment maker, and the an orchestral setting joining , the dual problems of inertia and lack of materials of choice were goatskin or horns and oboes. Timpanists were no speed found in the earlier screw and calfskin. The chosen skin used for heads longer looked upon for their improvisa- gear-type mechanisms. The contribution was thicker and less uniform during tional or elaborate playing abilities due was a single threaded crank acting upon those early days. Additionally, the best

PERCUSSIVE NOTES 57 JUNE 1998 were half-tanned, and the sound far better tone than their predecessors” (timpani heads) that are still the basis of produced was dull and thick with a tre- (Bowles, 1995, p. 220). today’s research. “He defined the theo- mendous amount of drowning In the 1950s, polyethylene terephtha- retical membrane as a perfectly flexible out the fundamental pitch. late was used to produce timpani and infinitely thin lamina of solid matter Over a century ago, the refinement of heads. Plastic heads of today have a dif- of uniform material and thickness, which the timpani head began. Opaque, white ferent tone quality, with less resonance is stretched in by a tension skins began to emerge. These heads were and elasticity. Their sonority is dryer and so great as to remain sensibly unaltered produced by treating hides in a lime solu- thinner, more brittle, and the tone itself during the vibrations and displacements tion, smoothing them with chalk and shorter in duration. The chief physical contemplated” (Power, 1983, p. 62). scraping them with a pumice stone. They differences are that notes produced on A membrane may be thought of as a were then shaved and dried in the sun, plastic heads have a faster decay and two-dimensional string, in that the re- making them hard and stiff. The final produce more sound, or noise, at low fre- storing force necessary for it to vibrate is step of the process included rubbing the quencies, thus providing uneven dynam- supplied by tension applied from the heads in brandy and garlic. By 1850, a ics. They are favored particularly because edge. A membrane, like a string, can be much thinner and more translucent tim- of their imperviousness to atmospheric tuned by changing its tension. One major pani head was produced using alum and changes, making them ideal for outdoor difference between vibrations in the a mechanical process. The hides were performances or environments with con- membrane and in the string, however, is now bathed in slaked lime to loosen the stantly changing humidity (Bowles, 1995, that the mode frequencies in the ideal hairs, and coated with a vegetable tan- p. 221). string are of the fundamental, ning material before stretching over a Lord Rayleigh, a nineteenth-century but in the membrane they are not. An- frame. “It was generally agreed that English scientist, developed a number of other difference is that in the membrane, these thin, translucent skins produced a theories on the function of membranes nodal lines replace the nodes that occur along the string (Anderson, Mills and Rossing, 1982, p. 18). Various experiments have been con- ducted to define the numerous nodal lines of a vibrating membrane. These lines can be seen by sprinkling sand on a while it vibrates at various frequencies using a loudspeaker. Unfor- tunately, the frequency tables developed only hold true for the theoretically per- fect membrane. Variations of these fre- quencies can be drastically altered by a slight change in the resistance of air be- tween the membrane and the bowl of the drum. Studies have concluded that a hard blow to the drumhead causes it to start at a higher frequency and decrease rapidly as the amplitude decreases. These studies have identified more than one hundred resonant frequencies be- tween 40HZ and 500HZ by a separate mode.

TIMPANI BOWLS Timpani bowls are produced from cop- per sheeting formed into a cylindrical shape and seamed with a soft brass sol- der. The bottom of the bowl is added and produced in the same manner as the above. After the bowl takes shape, it is then tempered by hammering. Some tim- pani manufacturers and performers be- lieve hammering the timpani bowl as hard as possible produces the best tone quality. There are three main ways in which the bowl can affect the tone quality: baf- fling, shape and resonance. “The baffling

PERCUSSIVE NOTES 58 JUNE 1998 effect of the bowl prevents the sound vi- rounder and richer tone. ratios: 0.85:1:1.5:1.99:2.44:2.89. brations from radiating around the un- A larger soft beater has more contact It is a little surprising that the pitch of derside of the head. By doing so, the area with the membrane and is thus able timpani corresponds to the pitch of the out-of-phase vibrations from opposite to excite the lower modes of vibration. principal tone rather than the missing sides of the head are not allowed to can- This, in effect, produces a darker and fundamental of the series, cel each other” (Power, 1983, p. 63). more mellow tone. With a small, hard which would be an octave lower. Appar- Henry Taylor, former timpanist of The beater, the opposite effect can be had by ently the strengths and durations of the London Orchestra, researched exciting the higher modes; this leaves the overtones are insufficient, compared to the effects of the bowl upon the lower modes almost inaudible. The sound the principal tone, to establish the har- instrument’s overall tone quality. He is also affected by the position at which monic series of the missing fundamental found a sound wave will travel straight the timpani head is struck. If struck near (Anderson, Mills and Rossing, 1982, until it meets an obstruction. Once meet- the rim, higher modes will be excited, p. 22). ing an obstruction, the wave is deflected while moving toward the center will ex- The performer is always faced with an at an angle similar to the striking point cite the lower modes of vibration. Corre- uphill battle when tuning his or her in- of the head. Taylor ascertained that a spondingly, the sound would be either strument. “The timpanist, first of all, is wave with the least number of deflections very bright or very dull (Power, 1983, trying to tune a pitch on an instrument is the true one to be calculated. For ex- p. 65). which does not produce a clear pitch” ample, a hemispherical bowl produces a (Power, 1983, p. 66). The inexperienced short note, with little resonance; a shal- TUNING AND SOUND PRODUCTION performer can easily confuse the funda- low, spherical bowl, when struck in a Most modern timpani utilize a pedal- mental pitch with the overtones the short fortissimo style, would produce a operated tensioning mechanism, with six drum produces. An instrument that isn’t rather unsatisfying tone as well. A hemi- to eight tension lugs around the rim of properly in tune with itself will present spherical bowl with straight sides will the drum. The pedal permits the per- difficulty to the most experienced timpa- produce good tone quality through its en- former to vary the tension over a range of nist. “There is a danger of confusing pitch tire range. 3:1, corresponding to an interval greater with tone, the brighter tones which may than or equal to a sixth. “A carefully be present at some point on the drum- MALLETS tuned kettledrum is known to sound a head being mistaken for sharpness in Early mallets were short with small strong principal note plus two or more pitch, while the duller sounding places tips, and made of wood or ivory. These harmonic overtones” (Anderson, Mills may be thought flat” (Blades, 1992, mallets produced a loud, dry sound and and Rossing, 1982, p. 19). There are p. 355). were ideal for outdoor ceremonies per- three effects contributing to the mem- Another difficult aspect of timpani tun- formed by the mounted kettledrummer. brane and its harmonic relationships. ing is keeping intonation relative to each To soften the harshness of these mallets, The membrane vibrates in a sea of air, drum. A common method utilized by the the tips were covered with woolen cloth, and the of this air sloshing back timpanist is sympathetic resonance. “In chamois or . In the late 1700s and and forth lowers the frequencies of the many tuning situations, there is a need early 1800s, the tips of the mallets were principal modes of vibration; the air en- for tuning intervals of a fifth, particu- replaced with various sized discs covered closed by the kettle has resonances of its larly in compositions dated before the in flannel and held in place with a screw. own that will interact with the modes of middle of the nineteenth century” (Power, Along with the various sizes, there were the membrane having similar shapes; the 1983, p. 66). When the timpanist has also varying thicknesses in order to pro- stiffness of the membrane, like the stiff- tuned a interval between two vide differing tone qualities. The wooden- ness of strings raises the frequen- drums, the dominant will be heard ended mallets were used for a hard, dry cies of the higher overtones. Recent sounding on the tonic drum. This method and bright sound; leather-covered mal- studies show that the first effect (air of sympathetic resonance can also be lets were used for a softer and less suc- loading) is mainly responsible for estab- used for unisons and occasionally oc- cinct sound. Sponge-headed mallets, lishing the harmonic relationship of taves. introduced by the French timpanist Jean kettledrum modes; the other two effects The tuning-gauge mechanism, which is Schneitzhoeffer, produced a very clear only fine-tune the frequencies, but may present on most modern timpani, oper- tone with a faster rebound. Once the use have a considerable effect on the rate of ates by a rod attached to the pedal sys- of piano felt became prominent in the decay of the sound. The frequencies of tem of the instrument. Dependent on the production of timpani mallets, all other the fundamental and other symmetrical position of the pedal, a pointer that is forms were quickly abandoned (except for modes will be raised by the stiffness of part of the rod attached to the pedal cor- wood). the enclosed air in the kettle (Anderson, responds to a letter on the gauge depict- For the timpanist of today, “one of the Mills and Rossing, 1982, p. 20). ing a given pitch. This method provides most important factors affecting the pro- The spectrum of sound is dependent great ease and relieves a tremendous duction of a quality timpani sound is the upon the point of strike, the shape and amount of stress and worry for the per- type of stick used” (Power, 1983, p. 65). hardness of the mallet, the strength of former. Generally, the smaller, harder mallets the blow, and the position of the per- Aside from this advantage, many fac- are used for passages requiring greater former and instrument in a given room. A tors can affect the performance of tuning rhythmic articulation. As for the large normal strike to the membrane produces gauges. Three of the most common of and softer mallets, they produce a partials with frequencies in the following these problems are: mechanical inconsis

PERCUSSIVE NOTES 59 JUNE 1998 inherent in the mechanism; possible shift- ing of pitch due to other ensemble mem- drum,” Encyclopedia of Percussion. New ing of the head; and the inevitable rise or bers. All of these fine-tuning changes can York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc. fall of ensemble pitch during a perfor- only be determined and corrected by the Kvistad, Garry, Rossing, Thomas D. mance. Gauges can be used to locate the timpanist during a given performance. (1976). “Acoustics of Timpani: Prelimi- general area of a certain pitch, but fine As stated previously, timpani have a nary Studies,” Percussionist. Terre Haute, tuning can only be accomplished with the very old, rich and majestic history. How- Indiana: . help of a well-developed ear (Power, 1983, ever, timpanists do not have a very thor- Power, Andrew. (1983). “Sound Produc- p. 66). ough or simplistic way of study and tion of the Timpani, Part I,” Percussive Because of the sensitivity of many elec- introspection regarding the instrument. Notes. Urbana, Illinois: Percussive Arts tronic tuners, the timpanist has another This instrument is always unpredict- Society. tool to aid in keeping the drum and its able—reacting differently from day to Power, Andrew. (1983). “Sound Produc- gauges in tune—unfortunately not with day, performer to performer, composition tion of the Timpani, Part II,” Percussive the rest of the orchestra. The performer to composition, and so forth. For percus- Notes. Urbana, Illinois: Percussive Arts can take a tuner and lightly tap each lug sionists and timpanists, an introspective Society. around the instrument; therefore, the look at the evolution, construction and timpanist can determine whether or not mechanics of sound production is always Domenico E. Zarro is an Instructor of Ap- the drumhead has shifted from its funda- a must for adequate performance. plied Percussion and a Doctoral Candi- mental pitch. After the performer has de- date in Music and Music Education at termined that the pitch is balanced CITED REFERENCES Columbia University, with an emphasis in around the head, he or she can adjust and Anderson, Craig A., Mills, Ronald I., percussion performance and percussion properly set the gauges prior to perform- Rossing, Thomas D. (1982). “Acoustics of pedagogy. He received his B.F.A. in per- ing. During the course of a performance, Timpani,” Percussive Notes. Urbana, Illi- cussion performance at the Purchase Con- the timpanist may need to adjust the nois: Percussive Arts Society. servatory and was a scholarship student gauges and/or the pitches of the timpani Blades, James. (1992). Percussion In- at the Aspen Music Festival. He is Assis- due to outside influences such as tem- struments and Their History. Westport, tant Timpanist and Percussionist for the perature and humidity, force of stroke due Connecticut: The Bold Strummer, LTD. Bergen Philharmonic and Garden State to balance within the ensemble, and shift- Bowles, Edmund A. (1995). “The Kettle- . PN

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