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S T U D I M a G E B UNIOR D.A.A.M. Centro di Studi Mag·rebini REBINI ‚ STUDI MAG STUDI Emerging Actors in Post-Revolutionary North Africa Actors in Post-Revolutionary North Emerging Berber Movements: Identity, New Issues and Challenges Berber Movements: Identity, Nuova Serie Vol. XIV - XV Tomo II Napoli 2016 - 2017 UNIOR D.A.A.M. Centro di Studi Mag·rebini UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI NAPOLI “L’ORIENTALE” DIPARTIMENTO ASIA, AFRICA E MEDITERRANEO Centro di Studi Magrebini· STUDI MAG‚REBINI Nuova Serie Volumi XIV - XV Napoli 2016 - 2017 REBINI ‚ EMERGING ACTORS IN POST-REVOLUTIONARY NORTH AFRICA Berber Movements: Identity, New Issues and New Challenges Preface by STUDI MAG STUDI Federico CRESTI Edited by Anna Maria DI TOLLA & Ersilia FRANCESCA Nuova Serie Vol. XIV - XV Tomo II Tomo II ISSN: 0585-4954 Napoli ISBN: 978-88-6719-156-7 2016 - 2017 UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI NAPOLI “L’ORIENTALE” DIPARTIMENTO ASIA, AFRICA E MEDITERRANEO Centro di Studi Magrebini· STUDI MAGREBINI‚ Nuova Serie Volumi XIV - XV Napoli 2016 - 2017 EMERGING ACTORS IN POST-REVOLUTIONARY NORTH AFRICA Berber Movements: Identity, New Issues and New Challenges Preface by Federico CRESTI Edited by Anna Maria DI TOLLA & Ersilia FRANCESCA Tomo II UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI NAPOLI “L’ORIENTALE” DIPARTIMENTO ASIA, AFRICA E MEDITERRANEO CENTRO DI STUDI MAG‚REBINI Presidente: Sergio BALDI Direttore della rivista: Agostino CILARDO &RQVLJOLR6FLHQWLÀFR6HUJLR%$/',$QQD0DULD',72//$0RKD ENNAJ, Ersilia FRANCESCA, Ahmed HABOUSS, El Houssain EL MOUJAHID, Abdallah EL MOUNTASSIR, Ouahmi OULD- BRAHAM, Nina PAWLAK, Fatima SADIQI Consiglio Editoriale: Flavia AIELLO, Orianna CAPEZIO, Carlo DE ANGELO, Roberta DENARO Piazza S. Domenico Maggiore , 12 Palazzo Corigliano 80134 NAPOLI Direttore Responsabile: Agostino Cilardo Autorizzazione del Tribunale di Napoli n. 97 del 26/10/2004 ISSN 0585-4954 In memory of our dear friend and colleague Agostino Cilardo (1947-2017) If you would indeed behold the spirit of death, open your heart wide unto the body of life. For life and death are one, even as the river and the sea are one. Kahlil Gibran This volume is part of the research program PRIN 2010-2011 State, Plurality, Change in Africa financed by the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research. The articles in this book have been peer-reviewed. TABLE OF CONTENTS / TABLE DES MATIÈRES Federico CRESTI, Préface. Entre Langue et Nation 9 Anna Maria DI TOLLA - Ersilia FRANCESCA, Introduction. Berber-Amazigh Movements in North Africa: Identity, New Issues and New Challenges 19 Part 1: Histoire, Identity Issues, Recognition and Claim / Première partie: Histoire, identité, reconnaissance et revendication Mansour GHAKI, L’histoire du Nord-Ouest de l’Afrique durant l’Antiquité : La question de la terminologie 41 Noura TIGZIRI, L’identité amazighe entre le déni et la reconnaissance 55 Abdellah BOUNFOUR, L’identité berbère et ses noms. Parcours de lectures 63 Mohand Akli SALHI, Militantisme et champ littéraire kabyle. Des années 1970 à nos jours 75 Miloud TAÏFI, La « cause berbère » entre la pléthore discursive et la réalité socio-économique 93 Marisa FOIS, Relire l’histoire. La Tunisie entre revendications berbères et enjeux identitaires 107 Part 2: Berberity-Amazighity, New Struggles and New Strategies / Deuxième partie: Berberité-Amazighité, nouvelles luttes et nouvelles stratégies Salem CHAKER, Berberité/Amazighité (Algerie/Maroc) : la « nouvelle politique berbère » 129 Hélène CLAUDOT-HAWAD, « Libérer l’Azawad ». La reformulation des luttes politiques touarègues 155 Madghis BUZAKHAR - Mazigh BUZAKHAR - Nasser BUZAKHAR, The Role of Amazigh Libyan Civil Society in the Tamazgha Spring 179 Kamal NAÏT ZERAD, Évolution de la revendication berbère en Kabylie et modèle européen de la création des nations : quelques observations 205 Masin FERKAL, Tamazgha orientale : émergence/renaissance du combat amazigh après 2011 215 Bruce MADDY-WEITZMAN, Is the Ethnic Genie out of the Bottle? Berbers and the ‘North African Spring’ Five Years on 243 Part 3: Berber Movements, Evolution and Challenges / Troisième partie: Mouvements berbères, évolution et défies Ahmed BOUKOUS, Amazigh Constitutionalization in Morocco: Stakes and Strategies 267 Fatima SADIQI, The Big Absent in the Moroccan Feminist Movement: The Berber Dimension 279 Anna Maria DI TOLLA, Mouvements de revendication amazighe entre luttes de reconnaissance identitaire et réconciliation au Maroc 309 Moha ENNAJI, The Berber Movement in North Africa: Evolution and Challenges 339 Mohand TILMATINE, La construction d’un mouvement national identitaire kabyle : du local au transnational 355 List of contributors 385 Préface Entre Langue et Nation En souvenir de Fanny Colonna, et d’un lointain voyage en Kabylie Trois décennies se sont écoulées depuis la parution de l’essai de Salem Chaker dans lequel il proposait un bilan de l’évolution de l’identité berbère à partir du début du XXe siècle. Cet essai se référait en particulier à la Kabylie algérienne, mais il embrassait également dans ses notations multiples l’ensemble du monde berbère. Salem Chaker y soulignait l’importance de la poussée qu’il définissait « berbéro- nationaliste » et qui allait bien au-delà de l’espace kabyle ; il rappelait ainsi que : Certains des chants en langue berbère composés par les jeunes militants nationalistes kabyles sont de véritables appels à un « Maghreb berbère ». Les références à la langue berbère, à une unité berbère allant de Siwa (Égypte) au Sahara occidental (Targa zegg°aɣet), à l’histoire spécifiquement berbère, notamment anté-islamique, y sont nombreuses.1 Et Chaker affirme que le sentiment identitaire berbère n’était pas un produit du colonialisme, contrairement au cliché qui apparaissait fréquemment dans le discours nationaliste arabo-musulman dominant dans les pays maghrébins à l’époque des indépendances : ses racines historiques étaient anciennes. Elles se retrouvaient non seulement dans les épisodes de la lutte anticoloniale, dont les expressions les plus 1 S. Salem, « L’affirmation identitaire berbère à partir de 1900. Constantes et mutations (Kabylie) », in Revue de l’Occident Musulman et de la Méditerranée 44, 2e trimestre (1987), p. 26. 10 Federico CRESTI marquantes ont été les résistances du Rif, de la Kabylie ou du Maroc Central – dans des régions berbérophones réagissant « comme des entités autonomes depuis plusieurs siècles » –, mais aussi dans diverses expressions culturelles qui ont façonné au cours du temps une conscience communautaire, par le biais de la langue : ainsi, en particulier, certaines formes de poésie. Langue et Nation, en fin de compte, étaient alors, et sont aujourd’hui encore, les deux pôles entre lesquels se joue la « question berbère ». Cet essai paraît vers la fin des années 80, alors que la plupart des espoirs et des promesses associées à la fin de l’époque coloniale dans les territoires de l’Afrique septentrionale commencent à être rangés dans les tiroirs de l’utopie : espoir de sortir du sous-développement, espoir de mettre à bas une société économiquement et socialement injuste, espoir de voir naître enfin des mondes nouveaux fondés sur la répartition équitable des ressources disponibles… Le miracle aurait dû être accompli par l’État-nation issu des luttes pour l’indépendance ; mais celui-ci affichait désormais le visage classique d’une institution régie et ordonnée par la loi du plus fort, outil de cliques vouées à la protection de leurs intérêts particuliers sous couvert de fidélité monarchique, de camouflage socialiste, ou encore par l’affirmation de castes militaires. La composition sociale des pays sortis de la colonisation semblait avoir assumé une totale uniformité, du moins en ce qui concerne l’aspect religieux : les minorités juives autochtones avaient été progressivement éliminées, dans un climat de pogroms et d’incertitudes quant à l’avenir, de qui a amené la presque totalité des juifs maghrébins à s’exiler vers d’autres contrées, en Orient comme en Occident ; les minorités chrétiennes installées par la colonisation étaient parties elles aussi, au moment de l’indépendance (d’Algérie, en particulier), ou bien ont été expulsées quelques années plus tard (comme les Italiens de Libye). Le rouleau compresseur de l’arabo-islamisme semblait écraser les différences, stigmatisées et culpabilisées dans la lutte idéologique et politique. La revendication de la différence berbère semblait demeurer le seul petit caillou qui refusait de se laisser enterrer : ou mieux, la montagne qui refusait de se faire niveler. L’unanimisme des premières décennies post-indépendances, dans les années 60 et 70 du siècle dernier, ne permettait pas d’évaluer avec précision le poids réel de cette différence, son importance historique, culturelle, politique, la profondeur de ses racines qu’on ne pouvait pas Entre langue et nation 11 extirper comme une quelconque mauvaise herbe. Cet enracinement était alors, au mieux, interprété comme un élément d’archaïsme, un fait local et presque folklorique, destiné à disparaître avec l’affirmation des identités nationales. C’était là le discours que tenaient non seulement certains observateurs peu avisés, mais aussi des experts, comme par exemple Ernest Gellner ; ce profond connaisseur des sociétés berbères de l’Afrique du Nord, fort estimé dans le monde des études anglo- saxonnes, avait prononcé au début des années 70 une prophétie que le passage du temps démentirait. Il affirmait en effet que les langues du futur dans les pays maghrébins ne pouvaient être que l’arabe et le français : « Dans son cœur, le Nord Africain sait non seulement que
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