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Autonomous Sailboat Navigation Novel Algorithms and Experimental Demonstration Autonomous Sailboat Navigation Novel Algorithms and Experimental Demonstration Roland Stelzer Centre for Computational Intelligence De Montfort University, Leicester A thesis submitted as partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2012 I would like to dedicate this thesis to Dr. Herbert H¨ortlehner,whose enthusiasm and unconventional way of education has awaken my interest in robotics and artificial intelligence. Herbert had been on my supervisory team since he unexpectedly died in September 2005. May he rest in peace. Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisors Prof. Robert John, Dr. Mario Gongora and Dr. Tobias Pr¨oll,who always had time to answer my questions and have repeatedly supported me with their helpful advice. I would also like to express my special thanks to my unofficial supervisors Dr. Jenny Carter and Dr. Simon Coupland for their many useful tips on how to structure my work, and to Peter Farnell for his linguistic corrections. Above all I would like to thank the Austrian Society for Innovative Computer Sciences (INNOC). With the support of INNOC, I was able to carry out my research under optimal conditions. By name I should like to thank Karim Jafarmadar from INNOC, who helped me in my research into autonomous sailing boats from the outset. I should also like to express my thanks to all of the many other members of INNOC who actively supported me and my research project. Furthermore, I would like to thank the Austrian Federal Ministry of Science and Research. The project is partially realised within the funding programme Sparkling Science. Finally, I would like to thank my family for the patience that they have shown with me and my work. Thank you, Silvia, Elena and Jonathan! Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate novel methods on an unmanned sailing boat, which enables it to sail fully autonomously, navigate safely, and perform long-term missions. The author used robotic sailing boat prototypes for field experiments as his main research method. Two robotic sailing boats have been developed especially for this purpose. A compact software model of a sailing boat's behaviour allowed for further evaluation of rout- ing and obstacle avoidance methods in a computer simulation. The results of real-world experiments and computer simulations are vali- dated against each other. It has been demonstrated that autonomous boat sailing is possible by the effective combination of appropriate new and novel techniques that will allow autonomous sailing boats to create appropriate routes, to react properly on obstacles and to carry out sailing manoeuvres by controlling rudder and sails. Novel methods for weather routing, collision avoidance, and autonomous manoeuvre execution have been proposed and successfully demonstrated. The combination of these techniques in a layered hybrid subsumption architecture make robotic sailing boats a promising tool for many applications, especially in ocean observation. Contents Contents iv List of Figures viii List of Tables xiii Nomenclature xv Publications xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Robotic sailing . 1 1.2 Motivation . 2 1.3 Potential applications . 5 1.4 Research hypothesis . 6 1.5 Contribution to knowledge . 9 1.6 Contribution to robotic sailing community . 10 1.7 Organisation of the thesis . 10 2 Literature review 12 2.1 History of robotic sailing . 12 2.1.1 Self-steering gear . 12 2.1.2 Automatic sail control . 17 2.1.3 Ship routing . 22 2.2 Scientific community and events . 26 2.2.1 Early examples . 26 iv CONTENTS 2.2.2 Competitions in robotic sailing . 28 2.2.3 Competing teams and their sailing robots . 31 2.3 Summary . 39 3 Research Methodology 41 3.1 Roboat I . 42 3.1.1 The Robbe Atlantis model remote-controlled sailing boat . 43 3.1.2 Computer and communications . 44 3.1.3 Sensors and actuators . 45 3.1.4 Power supply . 45 3.2 ASV Roboat . 45 3.2.1 Laerling class boats . 46 3.2.2 Computer and communications . 48 3.2.3 Sensors . 49 3.2.4 Actuators . 50 3.2.5 Power supply . 54 3.3 Summary . 58 4 System architecture 59 4.1 Layered architecture . 60 4.1.1 Strategic long term routing . 62 4.1.2 Short course routing . 62 4.1.3 Manoeuvre execution . 63 4.1.4 Emergency reflexes . 64 4.2 Communication system . 64 4.2.1 Communication partners . 64 4.2.2 Multi-stage architecture . 65 4.2.3 Stage selection . 69 4.2.4 Communication stages . 71 4.2.5 Experiments . 71 4.3 Summary . 73 5 Short course routing 75 5.1 Routing strategy . 75 v CONTENTS 5.1.1 Local coordinate system . 75 5.1.2 Sailboat behaviour (polar diagram) . 76 5.1.3 Quantification of target-approach . 78 5.1.4 Beating hysteresis and beating parameter . 78 5.1.5 Leeway drift consideration . 82 5.1.6 Summary of algorithm and implementation . 83 5.2 Experiments . 86 5.2.1 Experimental setup . 86 5.2.2 Results and discussion . 86 5.3 Summary . 96 6 Obstacle avoidance 98 6.1 Basic idea . 98 6.2 Obstacle data processing . 101 6.3 Weeding out non-relevant data . 102 6.4 Sort and sweep algorithm . 103 6.4.1 Description . 103 6.4.2 Analysis . 104 6.5 Minimal distance maintenance . 105 6.6 Experiments . 106 6.6.1 Experimental setup . 106 6.6.2 Results and discussion . 107 6.7 Summary . 110 7 Manoeuvre execution 111 7.1 Fuzzy control system . 112 7.1.1 Rudder control circuit . 113 7.1.2 Sail control circuit . 115 7.1.3 Manoeuvres . 117 7.2 Experiments: tack and jibe . 120 7.2.1 Experimental setup . 120 7.2.2 Results and discussion . 120 7.3 Experiments: course keeping . 125 vi CONTENTS 7.3.1 Experimental setup . 125 7.3.2 Results and discussion . 128 7.4 Summary . 131 8 Discussion 133 8.1 Sailing boat routing . 133 8.1.1 Long term routing . 134 8.1.2 Short course routing . 134 8.2 Collision avoidance . 136 8.3 Sail and rudder control . 137 8.4 Communication . 139 8.5 Control architecture . 140 8.6 Further work . 141 A CHR-based long-term routeing 144 B AAS Endurance: An autonomous acoustic sailboat for marine mammal research 155 C Sensor network developed for Roboat I 162 References 167 vii List of Figures 1.1 Comparison of the spatial and temporal coverage of a research vessel (dotted line) and stationary recorders (dashed circles) . 3 2.1 Example for a wind-vane with trim tab on main rudder (Scanmar [2011]) . 14 2.2 Turning the sail boat using sails only. The left example illustrates turning the boat towards downwind by increasing the resistance of the front sail, and decreasing that of the rear sail; the right example shows the opposite sail configuration which leads to the boat turning into the wind. (Benatar et al. [2009]) . 17 2.3 Balanced rig example (BalancedRig [2009]) . 19 2.4 Self-trimming wing sail: (a) side view of an arrangement with main wing sail and tail (b) orientation of wing sail and tail on a close hauled course . 21 2.5 Points of Sail: (a) in irons (into the wind) (b) close hauled (c) beam reach (d) broad reach (e) running . 24 2.6 Early robotic sailing boats: (a) SKAMP { Station Keeping Au- tonomous Mobile Platform (b) RelationShip (c) Atlantis . 27 2.7 Number of boats competing in Microtransat, SailBot and WRSC. In 2010 SailBot and the WRSC were organised as a single event. 31 2.8 Autonomous sailing vessels with a length of less than 2 m: (a) D¨aumling,University of L¨ubeck (b) MOOP, University of Aberys- twyth (c) Pi-mal-Daumen, University of L¨ubeck (d) Breizh Spirit, ENSTA Bretagne (e) Roboat I, INNOC (f) AROO, University of Aberystwyth (g) ARC, University of Aberystwyth . 32 viii LIST OF FIGURES 2.9 Autonomous sailing vessels with a length of exactly 2 m: (a) Black Adder, Queen's University (b) First Time, USNA (c) Gill the Boat, USNA (d) Luce Canon, USNA . 33 2.10 Autonomous sailing vessels with a length of more than 2 m: (a) IBoat, ISAE (b) FASt, University of Porto (c) Pinta, University of Aberystwyth (d) Beagle-B, University of Aberystwyth (e) ASV Roboat, INNOC (f) Avalon, ETH Zurich . 34 3.1 Roboat I . 43 3.2 ASV Roboat at field tests on the Baltic Sea (2011) . 46 3.3 Technical infrastructure on ASV Roboat . 47 3.4 Waterproof box with IP67 Connectors . 48 3.5 Remote control software written in Java running on a netbook with touch screen . 49 3.6 Linear actuator connected to the tiller controls rudder (2006{2008) 51 3.7 Self-constructed rudder gear with balanced rudder (since 2008) . 52 3.8 Illustration of concept of balanced rudder . 52 3.9 Sheet guidance and sail gear on ASV Roboat . 53 3.10 Self-tacking jib on ASV Roboat . 54 4.1 Four layered hybrid subsumption architecture for robotic sailing . 62 4.2 Screenshot of visualisation software . 65 4.3 First stage - wireless LAN communication . 66 4.4 Second stage - 3G communication . 68 4.5 Third stage - satellite communication . 69 4.6 Communication partners and available communication stages . 70 4.7 Network coverage in Aberystwyth (UK), Microtransat 2007 . 72 5.1 Example of a polar diagram produced after a 7 h test run with ASV Roboat on Lake Ontario, Canada in 2010. It.
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