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Short Story World. the Nineteenth-Century American Masters

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Short Story World. the Nineteenth-Century American Masters SHORT STORY WORLD The Nineteenth-Century American Masters BIBLIOTECA DE INVESTIGACIÓN nº 33 María Jesús Hernáez Lerena SHORT STORY WORLD The Nineteenth-Century American Masters UNIVERSIDAD DE LA RIOJA SERVICIO DE PUBLICACIONES 2014 Short story World. The Nineteenth-century American Masters de María Jesús Hernáez Lerena (publicado por la Universidad de La Rioja) se encuentra bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial-SinObraDerivada 3.0 Unported. Permisos que vayan más allá de lo cubierto por esta licencia pueden solicitarse a los titulares del copyright. © El autor © Universidad de La Rioja, Servicio de Publicaciones, 2014 publicaciones.unirioja.es E-mail: [email protected] ISBN: 978-84-697-0045-7 This book is dedicated with abiding love to my husband and child. Amid the seeming confusion of our mysterious world, individuals are so nicely adjusted to a system, and systems to one another, and to a whole, that, by stepping aside for a moment, a man exposes himself to a fearful risk of losing his place forever. Nathaniel Hawthorne, “Wakefield” Contents Preface. 13 Introduction. 15 Corpus. 23 I. THE CONCEPT OF SHORT STORY . 25 1. Introduction . 26 2. On Construction . 30 3. On Subject. 36 4. Textual Links and the Role of the Reader . 39 5. Relationships with Other Genres . 48 6. On Aesthetics. 53 II. TEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF THE SHORT STORIES BY IRVING, POE, HAWTHORNE AND MELVILLE . 57 1. THE FABULA . 57 1.1. The Short Story Narrative Cycle . 57 1.1.1. Narrative Cycles: Lack of Possibility. 58 1.1.2. Narrative Cycles: The Events. 62 1.1.3. Exceptions to the “Rule” . 70 1.1.4. Questions Raised by the Analysis . 72 1.2. Narrative cycles: Development and Closure of the Fabula . 74 1.2.1. Processes of Improvement and Deterioration: Fabula progression . 74 1.2.2. Subject and Aim: The Sense of Closure. 79 2. TIME IN THE SHORT STORY . 85 2.1. Fabula Time in the Short Story . 85 2.1.1. The Double Narrative Cycle. 86 2.1.2. Real and Hypothetical Fabula . 91 2.2. Time Disruption in the Short Story . 93 2.3. Short Story Rhythm . 100 2.4. Sequential Ordering . 117 11 MARÍA JESÚS HERNÁEZ LERENA 3. CHARACTERIZATION. 121 4. FOCALIZATION AND NARRATION . 133 4.1. The Concept of Focalization . 133 4.2. Intra-Homodiegetic Narrators and Unreliability . 135 4.3. Extra-Heterodiegetic Narrators. 140 III. THE LOCAL COLOR SCHOOL . 153 III. 1. BRET HARTE´S SHORT STORIES: TEXTUAL ANALYSIS . 153 1. THE FABULA . 153 1.1. The Narrative Cycle . 153 1.1.1. Links between the Stages . 159 1.1.2. The Actors. 161 1.1.3. The Actantial Structure. 162 1.1.4. A Definition of Short Story . 167 1.1.5. Definition of New Concepts. 168 2. RHYTHM . 169 3. CHARACTERIZATION. 179 3.1. Characters and Situation. 179 3.2. The Actants. 183 3.3. Reader/Character Relationships . 185 3.4. The Problem of Characterization . 185 4. DEVIATIONS FROM THE CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER . 187 5. FOCALIZATION AND NARRATION . 189 III. 2. FRAME NARRATION IN THE SHORT STORY: MARK TWAIN . 195 IV. SARAH ORNE JEWETT´S SHORT STORIES . 203 1. SHORT STORY FABULA AND THE READER . 203 2. FABULA AND STORY TIME IN THE SHORT STORY . 214 V. CONCLUSIONS . 219 VI. REFERENCES . 227 1. Primary Sources . 227 2. Secondary Sources . 229 3. Recommended Bibliography. 233 12 Preface The short story is a way of thinking about ourselves and reality. It is not just a short narrative that comes in handy for those who are short of time. The short story translates into fiction a sense of life stuck in a detail unhinged from what came before or after. Those readers who think that their lives form a continuing plot, those who believe that they can make of their lives a narrative which keeps going non-stop are bound to dismiss the short story as irrelevant. If life is a continuous long path, why should they stop at a part that does not quite seem to connect to the whole? Those readers hooked on the short story possess intermittent souls, they are unable to assemble their biographies plausibly and turn to this form of fiction in order to discover new joys in worlds which momentarily step aside from the maddening continuity of life. The short story is a painful genre because it targets the incongruity of life, it shows the reader life´s fissures. The short story denies the comforts of narrative per se: its chaining of events, its sustained incursions into the characters´ lives and minds, its reassurance that we participate fully in a world spread out there for us. However experimental a novel might be, we feel a gratifying sensation that we are accompanying characters in a journey from which some knowledge is to be gained. But the short story usually renders useless our habitual mechanisms to make reality intelligible. Nineteenth-century American writers understood this from the very beginning: they realized that a mere disturbance in a previously unmolested course of life can satisfy us imaginatively as the plot of a short story. They discovered that the individual consciousness is composed of very short incidents “highly telescoped” as the American writer Jerzy Kosinski has said. Short story writers believe that progression is unfounded, that it is our society that has taught us to think of ourselves as characters in the plot of a novel. But what if isolated 13 MARÍA JESÚS HERNÁEZ LERENA perceptions are more important to us than any conventional narrative account? The short story does not reason in transitions, it shows the reader that the substance of life cannot be spread out and chaptered until a final destiny is reached. Also, that life may have no direction and that there are gaps in this gigantic mechanism of causes and effects. Short story writers focus on a piece of life to show that we are forever at the beginning. The genre reflects the impact of life, it does not dissect all the forces behind it. Because of this, it partakes of the visual arts greatly; significance is conveyed through a gesture, an attitude, an object which speaks through silence. An image persistent in our mind because we cannot fully articulate what it means. This book tries to show how to better appreciate the essence of the short story. Because of this, it focuses on the nineteenth century, when a number of writers struggled to express their notions of experience in a fictional medium at odds with the epistemology of the novel. The American writers discussed here are but a very restricted group, many others could have been included, but the task would have been then too overwhelming. I have preferred to deal with the selected stories at length rather than to offer a barely outlined panorama. My interest is to show students of American literature and also readers and critics interested in this genre one way to approach short story territory. Narratology is only one possible way, its advantage being that its classifications are relatively unified and that it allows us to identify certain components of the narrative with a view to comparison. However, the validity of the methodological tools I am using is never taken for granted. The book explores to what extent they are useful and to what extent many adjustments and additions are necessary. The weaknesses and contradictions of the method must per force interrupt our analysis with questions that need to be answered. I have tried to answer them without hampering the advance of textual analysis. 14 Introduction The idea that triggered off this analysis was to discover the nature of the mechanisms of the kind of fiction which, despite depending on only a few pages, offers the reader complete imaginary worlds as in the novel. A second dominating idea was to study the possibilities that had been developed in order that a short piece of fiction could become a short story. Hence my choice of corpus: there was a difference of a century between the English novel and the North American novel, and it was in this century that the short story appeared in America. The nineteenth century abounds with authors who conceived of the short story as a miniature novel, as a short empty stretch into which an appropriately reduced plot should fit in, or as a frame in which to exhibit descriptive powers. There were, however a fair amount of writers, who, although they wrote in the absence of a genre, modelled their fiction to completely different methods of construction to those of the tale, the tall tale, the legend, the reportage, the sketch, the essay, the anecdote, the humorous piece, the parable, and of course, the novel. These are the writers chosen to be analysed, since, once conclusions about the specificity of their productions have been reached, arguments can be developed to refuse the inclusion of those other productions within this genre. The process of translating into observable textual terms such aspects as the illusion of expansion, the building up of characters, rhythm, etc., and the comparison between the strategies of different narratives, cannot be carried out without a method. Our most urgent demand was first of all to find a critical system which would make possible to identify the mechanisms that enable the functioning of the narrative, and which would offer a classification of their relationships, since we need to pin down the basic components of the short story and to study the nature of their combination. 15 MARÍA JESÚS HERNÁEZ LERENA Narratology offers the tools to carry out this analysis since it classifies the constitutive elements which intervene in the construction of a story and their “enchasing” within a relatively unified critical framework.
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