The Tooth of Time:: James Smith of Jordanhill

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Geoscience Canada Journal of the Geological Association of Canada Journal de l’Association Géologique du Canada

The Tooth of Time: James Smith of Jordanhill Paul F. Hoffman

Volume 42, Number 1, Spring 2015

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Publisher(s) The Geological Association of Canada

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Cite this article Hoffman, P. F. (2015). The Tooth of Time:: James Smith of Jordanhill. Geoscience Canada, 42(1), 7–26.

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The Tooth of Time: colder climate during the Drift period. purchase and retire to the estate of They were the first proofs that global Jordanhill, overlooking the River Clyde James Smith of Jordanhill climate could get warmer, a phenome- west of the city. Isobel (Euing) Smith non for which no physical theory then (1754–1855), from whom James Smith Paul F. Hoffman existed. Smith was not a major player inherited his amiable disposition and in the ensuing glacial controversy sharp intellect, lived to the great age of 1216 Montrose Ave. because in those years he was sailing in 101 (Fig. 1). To the end, she took a Victoria, BC, Canada, V8T 2K4 the Mediterranean Sea, researching his keen interest in her son’s career, and most celebrated book (Smith 1848), a that of her grandson (his son), the The successfully concluded Common- detailed and erudite reconstruction of mathematician and lawyer Archibald wealth Games in Glasgow brought to the voyage and shipwreck of St. Paul, Smith, FRS (1813–1871), whose scien- mind the remarkable Scottish yachts- as described in the New Testament tific work was in magnetism, geomag- man, antiquarian, architect, patron of (Acts 27–28). Smith’s meticulous schol- netism, and the effect on the compass learned societies, university president, arship—he read Greek and Latin as of the iron of a ship. conchologist, geologist, and Biblical well as most Romance and Teutonic Educated at Glasgow Grammar scholar, James Smith (1782–1867) of Jordanhill. Born into a successful Glas- languages—and his intimate knowledge School and the University of Glasgow, gow merchant family, he discovered of the ships and navigation techniques James Smith (Fig. 2) became a sleeping sailing and won many races as a youth, of the Ancients, combined to authenti- partner in his father’s firm in 1809 at owned his own cutter, and sailed it fre- cate both the voyage itself and Luke, the age of 27. In the course of time, quently into Arctic waters over a span its narrator, as an actual participant Leitch & Smith became James and of 60 years. He was regarded as the (Bruce 1959, p. 90). Archibald Smith & Co., not Archibald father of the sport of yachting on the James Smith was born in Glas- the father but James’ younger brother Clyde, and a sage of the history of gow in 1782, the first-born (of five) of of the same name, whose business yachting, yacht construction and navi- Archibald Smith (1749–1821) and Iso- acumen gave James the freedom to gation at sea. Whenever he sailed in bel Euing (1754–1855), both of whom indulge his own interests. A prodigious coastal waters, he dredged for sea- had rural roots in western Sterlingshire, reader and book collector, James was shells, which he learned to identify north of Glasgow (MacLehose 1886; married in 1809 to Mary Wilson (Fig. under expert tutelage. He was 54 years Macnair and Mort 1908). His father’s 3), the daughter of a book-seller and old when he delivered his first geologi- family had lived in the small parish of granddaughter of Professor Alexander cal paper (Smith 1836), which linked Strathblane for generations, but Wilson (1714–1786), a distinguished recent changes in relative sea level in Archibald Smith, being a fourth son, astronomer in the University of Glas- Scandinavia and the British Islands migrated with his next older brothers gow. They raised a large family, with with the enigmatic boreal Diluvium, or to the Colony of Virginia in 1768 as a seven daughters surviving infancy in Drift, setting the stage for the contro- 19-year-old. He did well in the tobac- addition to first-born Archibald, who versy over the glacial theory that erupt- co-driven economy, but when Virginia in 1836 became the first Scotsman to ed in Switzerland the following year. declared its independence from the be Senior Wrangler at Cambridge Uni- He recognized the Arctic aspect of British Crown in 1775, he returned to versity. The list of also-rans for this molluscan fauna indigenous to the drift Scotland as the junior partner in the coveted prize, given annually to the top of Scotland, and the appearance in Glasgow-based trading company undergraduate in mathematics, reads beds of the same age in Sicily of fauna Leitch & Smith, where he was instru- like a Who’s Who in physics. The fami- found today only in the waters of mental in creating a major industry of ly moved to Jordanhill upon the senior northern Europe (Smith 1839a). These trade with the West Indies. By 1800, Archibald’s death in 1821. were the first empirical proofs of a his commercial success enabled him to

Figure 1. James Smith’s mother, Iso- Figure 2. James Smith (1782–1867), Figure 3. Mary Wilson (1789–1847), bel (Euing) Smith (1754–1855), age 56, age 27, around the time of his mar- age 20, around the time of her mar- a woman of “mental charms untaught riage to Mary Wilson in 1809. Oil riage to James Smith in 1809. Oil to shine” who would closely follow the painting by Edinburgh portrait artist painting (duplicate) by Henry Raeburn scholarly activities of her son and Henry Raeburn (1756–1823). Universi- (1756–1823). grandson (his son) until the age of ty of Strathclyde collection. 101. Oil painting by Glasgow artist 1882; see also Wegmann 1969). Such John Graham-Gilbert (1794–1866), the University of Glasgow with an phenomena were bound to attract the who, like James Smith, forsook his interest of a sailor, at a time when “the father’s West Indies trading business emphasis on “useful learning”, Smith designed the Andersonian Museum history of the Earth, next to that of the for art. National Galleries of Scotland heavens, affords the most sublime subject of collection. (Fig. 5), once the public face of what is now the University of Strathclyde. He study that can be derived from physical sci- Smith’s first voyage in his own also renovated the mansion at Jordan- ence” (Buckland 1836, paraphrasing vessel (Fig. 4), to West Greenland in hill and erected a mast on the grounds astronomer William Herschel 1830). As 1806, cemented a life-long love affair that gave a sense of scale to the rolling enigmatic as the sea level changes were with the sea. His presence in Green- hills of the valley of the Clyde. His the various landforms and surficial land waters became so well known that wide interests and gentle manner made deposits that are characteristic, if not Cape James, Cape Mary and Jordanhill him an ideal companion at sea, and he unique, to northern Europe and North Island in the Fjord Zone of East in turn learned much from the young America. Much was written about the Greenland were named in his honour. naturalists who often accompanied him origin of underfit streams, deep lakes, Yachting as an organized sport dates on his voyages, notably John Scouler silled fjords, and polished bedrock sur- back to the 1700’s in Ireland and Great (1804–1871), who explored the Colum- faces that had been directionally striat- Britain, but organized racing on the bia River system in the same years as ed and streamlined by a flowing medi- Clyde began with the founding of the the Lewis and Clark expedition um that had evidently swept across the Royal Northern Yacht Club in 1824. (1804–06), and Edward Forbes landscape unimpeded by the rises and The idea for the club, to unite yachts- (1809–1868, pronounced four-bees) falls of local topography (Chorley et al. men in the North of Ireland and the who would confirm and extend Smith’s 1964; Davies 1968; Cunningham 1977). West of Scotland, was conceived in the paleoclimatic interpretation of the Many believed that this medium was cabin of Smith’s boat while at anchor Drift fauna (Forbes 1846). also responsible for the transportation in Belfast (Anonymous 1924). While In Smith’s day, it was common of erratic blocks, some of which were his yachts were never large, his “singular knowledge that the land is slowly rising enormous and demonstrably far-trav- talent for planning and arrangement always out of the sea in many places along the elled, frequently standing remote from made his little ship the most comfortable and coastlines of Scandinavia and the existing drainages (Buch 1817, 1819; roomy of her size afloat” (MacLehose British Isles, while in other places the Razumovsky 1819, 1829; Buckland 1886). His architectural designs include sea is slowly inundating the land. 1821; Strangways 1821; Brongniart Craigend Castle, the Govan Parish Raised beaches and drowned forests 1828; Bernhardi 1832; Sefström 1838; Church and an unexecuted scheme for are conspicuous manifestations of Charpentier 1841; Hitchcock 1841). a Crystal Palace at Park Circus in Glas- these changes (Celsius 1743; Linnæus Puzzling as well were deposits of boul- gow’s posh west end. As President 1745; Correa de Serra 1799; Buch der-clay, called till by farmers in parts (1831) of Anderson’s University, 1810; Fleming 1823; Lyell 1835; Bra- of the Scottish lowlands, a term that founded in 1796 as an alternative to vais 1840; Chambers 1848; Jamieson Smith (1836) would add to the geolog- GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 42 2015 9

geologic time. In his first lecture, Hall (1814) reviewed the problem of erratic boulders and associated landforms in northern Europe and the Alps. The Alpine erratics, made famous by Saus- sure’s Travels in the Alps (Saussure 1779–96), were ascribed by most savants to basin-scale outburst floods. [Hutton (1795) and his interpreter, mathematician John Playfair (1748–1819), had suggested earlier that the erratics were transported by glaciers, at a time when the Alps were higher than today (Playfair 1802). Play- fair’s protégé, physicist John Leslie (1767–1831), visited the Alps in 1796 and had inferred that vegetated moraines down to 3000 feet or more below the active glaciers mark the former extents of those glaciers at a colder time (Leslie 1804, note XXV, p. 536–541). Leslie’s own protégé was the pioneer Scottish glaciologist James David Forbes (1809–1868).] In his second lecture, Hall (1814) surprised his listeners by describing erratics, directionally-sculpt- ed landforms, and striated bedrock pavements analogous to those in the Alps in the vicinity of Edinburgh itself, including the city’s topographic and historic landmark, Castle Rock. Direc- tional indicators showed conclusively that the abrasive agent had flowed Figure 4. Smith’s cutter, Wave, in 1863. Smith sailed and dredged sea-shells in the from west to east, consistent with the Arctic Atlantic seas for sixty years, 1806 to 1866, a period encompassing the rise of transport of erratics. Hall proposed Quaternary geology (Fig. 7). that a “diluvian wave”, or mega-tsunami, generated by a sudden displace- ic lexicon. It was paramount that this reader in geology (1814–49) at Oxford ment of the sea-floor and more pow- ensemble of comparatively recent phe- University. Buckland’s eccentricities— erful than any historical tsunami, had nomena be satisfactorily explained, he claimed to have eaten the flesh of swept across the entire country before Smith (1836) dryly observed: “As it every animal species known to man— discharging into the ‘German Sea’ belongs to one of the first steps in the descend- and his penchant for seeking common (North Sea). Its abrasive power he ing series, every circumstance connected with it ground between conflicting perspec- attributed to rock debris entrained in should be carefully observed and recorded, [in tives, have tended to obscure his sci- sea-ice carried by the diluvian wave, order] that researches into the more ancient ence and its significance (Rupke 1983). and he predicted that two sweeps in formations may be conducted with greater suc- In 1812, the Royal Society of opposite directions would be observed cess.” Edinburgh heard a pair of lectures in the west of Scotland, the first asso- Three genetic theories for the from their President, Sir James Hall ciated with the primary wave and the above phenomena dominated geologic (1761–1832), that challenged the strict second with the backwash of water discourse in Britain in successive actualism of his deceased friend James that failed to surmount the inland decades—the diluvial theory in the Hutton (1726–1797) and his followers, ridge. Hall argued that mega-tsunamis, 1820’s, the northern drift theory in the who held that it was ‘unphilosophical’ while outside human experience, must 1830’s and the glacial nappe theory in to invoke imaginary processes outside have occurred frequently over geologic the 1840’s. Each theory had noble human experience to account for geo- time and should therefore be encom- antecedents and a vigorous proponent logical phenomena. Hall argued that passed in a uniformitarian world-view. (Rudwick 2005, 2008). In Britain, the familiar processes, like tsunamis, might “I am a great friend of controversy,” Hall leading proponent of the first and last scale up in magnitude beyond what any wrote at the time, “and keep it up here [in theories was one and the same, William humans had survived to report, yet still Edinburgh] as much as I can” (Rudwick Buckland (1784–1856), the second be commonplace in the enormity of 2005, p. 580). 10

which preceded the establishment of the present drainage system. He rec- ommended (Buckland 1821) that deposits of the former and latter be distinguished, under the names Diluvi- um and Alluvium, respectively, following Strangways (1821). This distinction was supported, for a time, by Sedgwick at Cambridge (Sedgwick 1825). Buckland spent the summer of 1820 on the Continent, where he visited the Quaternary vol- canic area of the Auvergne (central France). U-shaped valleys in the higher parts of the Auvergne had long been a focus of debate over underfit streams, small streams in broad valleys. Were the streams larger in the past, or would small streams carve large valleys if given sufficient time? Buckland saw a dichotomy, reinforced by a striking contrast in morphological preservation between the younger and older vol- Figure 5. Interior of the Andersonian Museum, designed by James Smith in 1831 canic groups. He had the answer: the as the public face of Anderson’s University, now the University of Strathclyde. It older volcanoes had been ravaged by was founded in 1796 as an alternative to The University of Glasgow with an the deluge that cut the U-shaped val- emphasis on ‘useful learning’. Smith was President of the university in 1831. Uni- leys; the younger volcanoes are versity of Strathclyde collection. unscathed and the rivers occupy valleys not of their own making. The last Buckland began lecturing in the human race, and the universality of a point was corroborated on the south mineralogy at Oxford the year Hall’s recent deluge, are most satisfactorily confirmed coast of Devon and Dorset in 1821, paper on diluvian waves appeared in by everything that has been brought to light by where Buckland was working on gen- print and a readership in geology was Geological investigations; and as far as it goes, tly-dipping Secondary (Mesozoic) stra- created to augment his meagre income the Mosaic account is in perfect harmony with ta exposed in sea cliffs. He observed five years later in 1819 (Rupke 1983). the discoveries of modern science.” Buck- that numerous secondary valleys, ori- Like his contemporary, Adam Sedg- land’s knowledge of surficial geology ented north-south, intersect the sea wick (1785–1873) at Cambridge Uni- at this time was largely second-hand, cliffs as hanging valleys (Buckland versity, Buckland was an ordained min- but not for long. 1922a). These valleys could not have ister and strove to ease the entry of Buckland’s curiosity had been been cut by the streams that now occu- geology into the religious universities aroused by smoothly-rounded pebbles py them because neither the streams (exclusively Anglican) of Oxford and of hard quartzite, which were strewn nor the valleys are graded with respect Cambridge. His well-publicized inaugu- among more angular stones in the hills to sea level. For Buckland, the hanging ral lecture as reader (Buckland 1820) and valleys around Oxford (west of valleys had to be Diluvial valleys. He emphasized that no contradiction London). Soon after his inaugural lec- did not speculate on the ultimate cause exists between the Mosaic account of ture (Buckland 1820), he traced their of the deluge. Creation as an abode for humanity and source to the Triassic New Red quartz- Buckland’s big break came in the scientific investigation of worlds pebble conglomerate, exposed in the the Fall of 1821 with news that a cave before Adam: “though Moses confines the Licky Hills southwest of Birmingham rich in exotic bones had been opened detail of his history [in Genesis] to the (Buckland 1821; see also Rudwick over the summer in Yorkshire, and was preparation of this globe for the reception of 2005). Recycling explained the anom- being plundered by local collectors the human race, he does not deny the prior alous rounding of the quartz peb- (Buckland, 1822b, 1823; see also Rud- existence of another system of things, of bles—they were round to begin with— wick 2005). Some specimens had which it was quite foreign to his purpose to but a larger question arose: why were already been sent to London, where make mention, as having no reference to the they shed southeastward as far as Lon- most were identified as the powerful destiny or to the moral conduct of created don, 100 miles away, rather than south- jaw bones of hyaena, but larger than man.” According to Buckland (1820), westward down the Severn River to the modern species. Despite the late- the Mosaic flood is where the observa- Bristol Channel, reaching sea level in ness of the season in the north of tions of geology and the revelation half the distance? To Buckland, the England, Buckland set out for the from Scripture intersect. “The two great answer was clear: the quartz pebbles Kirkdale cave and in December made a points then, of the low [recent] antiquity of were carried by the universal deluge, series of collectively astounding obser- GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 42 2015 11 vations. Most of the bones were of hyaena and small water-rats, but the cave also yielded bones of pachyderms (elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus and horse), ruminants (ox and three species of deer), other carnivores (tiger, bear, wolf, fox and weasel), other rodents (hare, rabbit and mouse), and five species of birds (raven, pigeon, lark, a small duck and an unassigned thrush-like species). The large species were surprising because the cave’s only entrance was far too small to allow such beasts to enter, and no opening existed in the roof through which they could have fallen. Nearly all the bones were fragmented and many bore tooth marks, identifiably hyaena. Buckland reasoned that the cave was a hyaena den and that its residents habitually dismembered their prey in order to eat in the safety of their den. When large game was scarce, the hyaenas had sub- sisted on water-rats inhabiting a nearby Figure 6. William Buckland entering the den of extinct pre-Diluvian haenas at lake. There was a disproportionate Kirkdale in Yorkshire (northeast England) in 1821, in a caricature by Buckland’s abundance of solid foot and hand friend and fellow-geologist William Coneybeare (Rudwick 1992). bones, of minimum nutritional value. Not at risk to earlier collectors were three months after he arrived in Kirk- vianae (Relics of the Flood) was both a vast quantities of fecal droppings, to dale, he read and placed before the public success and a lightning rod for which Buckland predictably devoted Royal Society of London a 65-page criticism from all directions (Page special attention. Experiments were paper with 12 plates (Buckland 1822b). 1969). The most serious criticisms carried out with captive hyaenas on It brought Buckland the Copley Medal were the absence of human remains in ‘Kirkdale’ diets for intricate compari- for 1822, the Royal Society’s most the Diluvium (human creation predat- son of their feces as a test of the hyae- prestigious award, the first geologist to ed the Genesis flood) and the extinc- na-den hypothesis. be so honoured. (Like other such tions of boreal megafauna (should Buckland knew that the age of awards, it used to be given for work have survived in Noah’s Ark). Human the bones was critical. Upon excava- done in the past year, then in the past remains had in fact been found in tion, he determined that the bedrock decade, and now for work done half a caves with antediluvial bones, and floor of the cave was largely covered century ago. At this rate, the selection Buckland discussed them in his book. by stalagmite, which had encrusted criterion will soon be longevity itself.) But he was rightly cautious about some of the bones. Most of the bones In the same year, Buckland’s grouping cave fossils that lacked prop- lay above the stalagmite and were friend, supporter and geological superi- er stratigraphic control and favoured buried by up to a foot of mud. The or, William D. Conybeare (1787–1857), an Alluvial age for human remains in mud was capped by a second level of published Outlines of the Geology of Eng- caves, despite the difficulty it raised for stalagmites, which match the stalactites land and Wales (Conybeare and Phillips the Diluvial theory. He tried to deflect on the roof of the cave. Buckland esti- 1822). In describing the Diluvial they criticism of the age discrepancy by mated that the interval of stalagmite wrote: “In these deposits, and almost in these suggesting that while humans existed growth following mud deposition last- alone, the remains of numerous land animals before the universal deluge, they had ed no more than several thousand are found, many of them belonging to extinct yet to populate northwest Europe. years. He inferred that the hyaenas species, and many others no longer indigenous Decades later, the evidence for ante- were driven away and the mud deposit- to the countries where their skeletons are thus diluvial humans in northwest Europe ed by the universal deluge. The bones, discovered.” Here were the seeds of was confirmed (Boucher de Perthes therefore, were the hyaena’s pick of destruction for Buckland’s Biblical 1857; Prestwich 1860; Lyell 1863; see antediluvian faunal diversity (Fig. 6). flood connection. In 1823, Buckland also Grayson 1983): there was no con- Buckland had added a new dimension, republished his Diluvial papers as a flict with Genesis on this point after paleoecology, to the study of Cuvier’s book, expanded with descriptions of all, but Buckland and other Diluvian- ‘former worlds’ (Rupke 1983; Rudwick cave faunas in Germany and through- ists did not know that the facts were 2005). A natural showman, the Kirk- out England, and of evidence for Dilu- actually on their side. dale cave for Buckland was a dream vial action on other continents (Buck- Either way, the extinction prob- come true. On February 21st, less than land 1823). The book, Reliquiae Dilu- lem was the more intractable one, and 12 there was hidden danger there as well Germany in the course of which he True to his word, he substituted for as the obvious one. John Fleming realized that boulders of granite and each problem a complex solution: for (1785–1857), a Scottish anti-Diluvianist porphyry in the north of Thuringia did striated pavements, “the friction of blocks (aka Fluvialist) who had recently pub- not have a local source (Engelhardt rolled along the floor of the ocean before the lished on drowned forests in the Firth 1999). He reasoned that they were of country emerged from the deep”; for Alpine of Tay (Fleming 1823), argued that the northern origin because of their distri- erratics—take a deep breath—earth- Diluvial fauna of Buckland’s hyaena bution within the state. As to their quake-triggered rockfalls onto glaciers, den had survived into Alluvial times, mode of emplacement, he noted that which collapsed into dammed lakes when they were extirpated not by cold fishermen had observed stones being causing them to burst, sending cas- but by the expansion of human civi- rafted in ice flows from one side of a cades of water and rock-bearing ice- lization (Fleming 1824). He pointed to lake to the other over Spring breakup. bergs into an arm of the sea, now the extinct giant deer, Megaceros (aka By extension, he postulated that as the occupied by the Swiss central valley Irish ‘elk’), the bones and antlers of ocean waters slowly receded over geo- (Lyell 1833, p. 149–50). Three years which occur in the Alluvial peat-bogs logic time and the continents emerged later, just months before James Smith’s of Ireland and the Isle of Man (Forbes (a Wernerian theory, and not a bad one paper on Scottish tills was read in Lon- 1846). A Presbyterian minister, Flem- on the planetary time scale), landfast don (Smith 1836), Lyell delivered the ing’s intent was to sunder the connec- sea ice on the Scandinavian coast, as annual Presidential address to the Geo- tion between science and religion, well as the boulders it froze onto, logical Society (Lyell 1836). He now which could only produce, in his would be rafted southward annually endorsed Murchison (1836) in recog- words, “Philosophia phantastica, Religio during Spring breakup under the influ- nizing the “northern drift” as a distinct hæretica.” Yet, survival of antediluvian ence of prevailing winds (Voigt 1785). class of surficial deposits, distinguished fauna through the universal deluge The image of high seas, cold winds by its spatial and compositional affinity offered to reconcile the Diluvial theory and invasions of pack ice into central with erratic boulders of northern ori- with Genesis. However, in the absence Europe captured the imaginations of gin, and by the infrequent occurrence of a mass extinction, the Diluvium in contemporary artists and writers (Rud- of marine molluscan shells of existing different areas could not be correlated wick 1992; Engelhardt 1999). species (see also Murchison 1839). and consequently the basis for the uni- In 1804, a 38-year-old high- Their distribution and lack of extinct versality of the deluge would evapo- school math and science teacher in species implied that much of the north rate. Buckland was trapped. Sedgwick Berlin, Erhard Wrede (1766–1826), country was below sea level in the geo- withdrew his support for the Diluvial published a new wrinkle on ice rafting logically recent past (Lyell 1836). As to theory in his presidential addresses to of erratic boulders (Wrede 1804). Like its origin, Lyell steered in the direction the Geological Society (Sedgwick 1830, Voigt, he envisioned sea ice rafting to of Voigt (1785) and Wrede (1804), cit- 1831), as did Buckland himself in his have occurred at a time when sea level ing reports of rock and soil rafting by masterpiece, the Bridgewater Treatise was higher than present, to accommo- ice islands of winter sea ice in Scandi- of 1836 (Buckland 1836). He contin- date the enormous size of some boul- navia, the Labrador Sea and the Gulf ued to treat the Diluvium and Alluvi- ders. Unlike Voigt, he imagined that of St. Lawrence. He noted the nascent um as distinct in age and origin, but if sea level could change in either direc- glacial theory for the emplacement of the Diluvium was the product of a tion. He suggested that if the solid Alpine erratics, recently put forward by universal flood, it was not the flood of Earth shifted with respect to its rota- Charpentier (1835, 1836). However, Genesis, but an older one. No geolo- tion axis, those areas on the globe that Charpentier (1786–1855) postulated gist of the stature of Buckland or moved equatorward would experience that the Alps were even loftier than Sedgwick would attempt again to link a sea level rise due to the equatorial today when the erratics were emplaced, geology and Genesis until Bill Ryan bulge, while areas that moved poleward leading Lyell to dismiss the glacial the- and Walter Pitman in the modern era would undergo sea level fall (Rudwick ory as having no relevance to British (Ryan et al. 1997; Ryan and Pitman 2005, p. 572; see also Wegener 1929, geology. 1998). chapter 8). In principle, Wrede’s sug- Iceberg rafting, as distinct from With the demise of Diluvialism, gestion is valid although the relative sea entrainment in sea ice, became Lyell’s another old idea was revived to take its level change is transient, caused by the principal means of accounting for dilu- place, this time by the neo-Huttonian difference in response time of seawater vial phenomena beginning with the geological correspondent, Charles Lyell and the Earth’s mantle. It is therefore second edition of The Principles, in (1797–1875). Fifteen years younger strongly dependent on the rate of which volume 3 on historical geology than James Smith and thirteen younger polar migration (Mound and Mitrovica was split off as a separate series (Lyell than Buckland, Lyell promoted what 1998). 1838). The new emphasis on iceberg came to be known as the iceberg drift In volume 3 of the first edition rafting is mainly attributable to one theory, although at first it didn’t of Principles of Geology, Lyell devoted Charles Darwin (1809–1882), then not involve icebergs at all. In 1780, Johann only two pages (0.4%) to striated pave- yet 30 years old. After noting that (Karl Wilhelm) Voigt (1752–1821), a ments and Alpine erratics, brushing erratics occur in both hemispheres but recent graduate of Werner’s Mining aside the mega-tsunami interpretation only in higher latitudes, implicating a Academy (Bergakademie) at Freiberg, disparagingly as “a simple solution of every colder climate in their origin, Lyell began a geological survey of central difficult problem” (Lyell 1833, p. 148). (1838) cited Darwin to the effect that GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 42 2015 13 glaciers reach down to the sea at the Glacial Maximum, the Gulf of Corco- gous landforms occur throughout heads of all the sounds on the west vado was filled by glacial ice and the Scandinavia as well as the Alps, he coast of South America at latitudes edge of the Andean (Chilean Lake observed, “in every country, whether it be equivalent to the Swiss Alps (46°S). District) ice cap was situated on the mountainous or flat, we shall find similar Icebergs calved from these glaciers, Island of Chiloe itself (Hollin and traces of the operation of masses of ice.” In charged with boulders of granite, were Schilling 1981; Harrison 2004; see also Norway, he wrote (Esmark 1826), observed floating seaward more than Evenson et al. 2009). Although the where “the mountain precipices are often 30 km from the head of the sound space Lyell devoted to the northern three, four, to five thousand feet high, and the (Darwin 1840, p. 283–4). Six months drift in his major works waxed and valleys over which they hang are likewise sev- earlier (austral summer of 1833–34), waned with the fortunes of the glacial eral thousand feet in breadth, it must be a Darwin had carefully surveyed vast ter- theory (Fig. 7), it was not until the matter of astonishment to think of such val- races capped by gravel at different ele- 1860’s (Lyell 1863, 1865) that he was leys as being filled with ice to the extent of vations in Patagonia east of the Andes finally persuaded that glacial ice may several miles. This ice must have stretched a (Darwin 1840, p. 201–207; see also have played a significant role in its ori- long way into the sea, and, on its thawing, Herbert 2005). Ascending the Santa gin (Boylan 1998). Lyell was less intem- large masses must have broke loose, and gone Cruz River (~50°S), he had encoun- perate than Roderick Murchison out to sea as we find takes place now in the tered angular blocks of schist and (1792–1871) in his opposition to the polar regions.” To my knowledge, Dar- granite up to 100 km from the foot of glacial theory (Murchison 1842a, b), win’s footnote and an allusion by the mountains (Darwin 1841, 1840, p. but he thought it no less inconceivable Murchison (1836) are the only refer- 224). Now he had the explanation: ice- that the British Islands would have ences to Esmark’s theory by an Eng- bergs had rafted the blocks far from been glaciated at a time when they lish-speaking author during the entire their glacial sources at a time when the were mostly submerged (Lyell 1863). controversy over the glacial theory Patagonian lowlands were submerged; Darwin, who subsequently flip- (Fig. 7). Rudwick (1969) attributes this subsequent stepwise uplift had raised flopped over the glacial theory, added neglect to the cosmogonic overtones in the terraces and their oversize cargo to an intriguing footnote in Voyage of the the first half of Esmark’s paper, but their present elevations (Darwin 1841, Beagle (Darwin 1840, p. 294–5). He this hardly absolves British historians, 1840, p. 284). The same was true on credited Jens Esmark (1763–1839) for viewing the glacial controversy from a the west side of the Andes, where recognizing that glaciers in Norway century’s perspective (e.g., McCallien erratics are spread along the coast as once descended to lower elevations 1941; North 1943; Chorley et al. 1964; far north as 42°S (Darwin 1837, 1839a, than they do today, indicating a colder Hansen 1970). With the exception of 1841). This explanation resonated with climate. Indeed, Esmark’s paper, origi- Herries Davies (1969), Rudwick (1969), Lyell because it dovetailed with his nally published in Danish (Esmark Cunningham (1990) and especially view that most climate change was 1824), was the progenitor of the glacial Peter Worsley (2006, 2008), they largely regional, not global, caused by inter- theory (Andersen 1992). Darwin would ignored Esmark’s (1826) hypothesis change between areas of land and sea likely have encountered it in his natural and its extensions to northern Ger- (Lyell 1830: see also Fleming 1998). history course at the University of many (Bernhardi 1832). Darwin, for his part, recognized that, if Edinburgh in 1826–27, taught by For his part, Darwin (1840) iceberg rafting was the general cause of Robert Jameson who was responsible expressed admiration for Esmark’s erratics and associated phenomena in for having Esmark’s paper presented hypothesis regarding a colder climate. the northern hemisphere (Darwin and published in English translation It would account for Darwin’s pre- 1839a), large parts of North America the same year (Esmark 1826; see also sumed iceberg-rafted erratics on the and Europe had been subsequently Worsley 2006, 2008). Esmark, another Island of Chiloe at latitude 42–43°S, uplifted. Consequently, other large graduate of Werner’s Bergakademie (and where no Andean glacier touched the areas of the Earth’s crust must have an older classmate of Alexander von ocean even in Darwin’s day. Darwin recently subsided, exactly as required Humboldt and Leopold von Buch), was skeptical, however, because “organic by his theory for the growth of coral was professor of mining sciences at remains [fossils] of that epoch, instead of a reefs and atolls in response to subsi- the new University of Christiania former period of refrigeration, would have dence of the sea floor under much of (Oslo) and a mountaineer, familiar with indicated a climate of a more tropical charac- the tropical western Pacific and central the active glaciers of western Norway. ter;––a conclusion, which may be deduced Indian oceans (Darwin 1842a). In the second half of his paper, from plain evidence” (Darwin 1840, p. As a measure of the efficacy of Esmark described a 25-m-high trans- 295). Darwin’s hasty judgement under- iceberg rafting, Lyell often cited the verse moraine (locally named Vass- scores the importance of James occurrence of Andean erratics on the ryggen) and associated sandur (outwash Smith’s work on the paleoclimatic, as Island of Chiloe (42–43°S), which is plain) that dammed a deep lake within well as the biostratigraphic, significance separated from the mainland by the a U-shaped valley at low elevation near of the molluscan fauna indigenous to Gulf of Corcovado. The erratics are Stavanger, on the southwest coast of tills in Scotland (Smith 1836, 1839a–d), limited to the east side of the island, Norway. Esmark interpreted the which demonstrated that Darwin was consistent with iceberg rafting from moraine as the former termination of misinformed regarding the climate of the mainland (Darwin 1841). Little did a glacier that cut the steep-walled the Drift period. Lyell or Darwin know that at the Last bedrock valley and lake basin. Analo- 14

Lyell (1840a) would later “adopt” FrequencyFrequenccyy of papaperspers andand booksbooks (yellow)(yellow) IV 1.0 onon tthehe DDiluvium,iluvium, or DDrift,rifftt, 11790-18807790-1880 IIII (without attribution) the term till, for AcceptanceAcceptancncn e s apers

HysteriaHHystteriia e unstratified boulder clay, and also

papers pa ((cumulativecumulativefr frequencyequency in bblue)lue). g 1010 PagesPages in the mamajorjor bbooksooks of f Charles Charles a Smith’s twofold division in describing p pages LyellLyell ((1833-1865)1833-1865) - PPrinciples..,rinciplees.., III the Boulder Formation or Drift exposed 40 Elements..,Elements.., TTrTravels..,rava els.., ReRejectionjection on the Mud Cliffs of the coast of Antiquity..Antiquityy... I Norfolk (England). He added two 30 important observations: the stratified NeglectNeglect 0.4 5 and unstratified drifts are partly inter- 2200 FullFull bibliographybibliography contactcontact mingled, and on compositional paulfhofpaulffhhof [email protected]@gmail.com 1100 grounds both have a common (northern) provenance (Lyell 1840). Lyell had 0 0 flirted with the term Pleistocene as a sub- 180018 1820820 1840 1860 188018880 stitute for Newer Pliocene in the 1939 YearYYeear ((AD)AD) French translation of his Elements of Geology (Farrand 1990), but he shunned Figure 7. Histogram of publication frequency of papers on the Diluvium, or the term—the concept of global cli- Drift, between 1790 and 1880, illustrating the four stages of the controversy over mate change being anathema to him— the glacial-nappe theory of Esmark, Bernhardi and Agassiz. Magenta bars give the from 1840 until the 1873 (4th) edition numbers of pages Charles Lyell devoted to the topic in his major works. Lyell of The Antiquity of Man, two years rejected the theory outright until 1863. before his death. Farrand intimates that Lyell abandoned the term Pleistocene James Smith was no novice in the present seas; … on the other hand, because of confusion created by when he read his first paper to the some of the species have become very rare, if Forbes’ (1846) modification of its defi- Geological Society of London in not extinct with reference to the coast of Scot- nition, but Lyell had already dropped November 1836, “On indications of land.” the term six years earlier. changes in the relative level of Sea and Land On account of the high propor- Smith updated his paleontologi- in the West of Scotland” (Smith 1836). tion (~90%) of living molluscan cal results at the 1837 British Associa- Already a Fellow of the Royal Society species, Smith (1836) assigned both tion meeting in Liverpool (Smith of London, he had been elected a Fel- deposits to the Newer Pliocene, following 1837), but 1839 would be the year of low of the Geological Society six Deshayes (1831) and Lyell (1833, his signature contribution to science, months earlier. His paper was motivat- Appendix I). The marine shells typical- and one of personal tragedy. By then, ed by Lyell’s claim of ongoing emer- ly occur 9–12 m above present sea Smith’s inventory of molluscan shells gence on the coast of Sweden (Lyell level, and they are indigenous, based indigenous to the drift deposits of the 1835), presented orally at the British on manner of preservation, not swept Clyde Basin included 190 marine and Association meeting of 1834 in Edin- in by violent action (Smith 1836). He 57 terrestrial species (Smith 1839a). Of burgh (Smith 1862b). Smith began by marshalled his own observations and these, 89% still existed in British succinctly describing the gross two- those of many others, finding in time waters. Of the remaining 28 species, fold stratigraphy of superficial deposits that indigenous marine shells occur as three quarters were extinct or in the Clyde River basin. The lower much as 156 m above present sea level unknown in the modern ocean. The division, he wrote, “in some districts called and that two discrete tills are separated seven extant species that no longer “Till”, consists of stiff unstratified clay, con- by stratified drift (Smith 1850). Smith inhabited British waters all flourished fusedly mixed with boulders.” The distinc- believed that the land was lower, rela- on the colder coasts of Newfoundland tion of till as a stiff clay is interesting: tive to sea level, but stationary while and Labrador, Greenland, Iceland and if the stiffness indicates dewatering the clays were deposited, which he esti- even Spitsbergen, 1,000 km north of under the load of an ice sheet, then till mated from the size of their terraces the Clyde (Fig. 8). The drift was clearly according to Smith’s definition is a to “have greatly exceeded 2000 years.” associated with a colder climate and strictly subglacial deposit. “It rarely con- While he compared the subsequent rise molluscan fossils held the first empiri- tains organic remains, but stags’ horns, tusks, of the land with that described by cal evidence of this, independent of and bones of the elephant have been found in Lyell (1835) in Scandinavia, Smith theories for the emplacement of the it in the bed of the Union Canal in Kil- (1836, 1839c) observed that “in Scot- drift itself (e.g. Esmark 1824). In 1839, marnock,” he continued, “and remains of land, the Roman [142 A.D.] wall, which Smith’s extended reports were pub- the elephant are associated with marine shells crosses the island from sea to sea, was built at lished in Edinburgh (Smith 1839c, d) at [nearby] Kilmaurs in Ayrshire.” The both ends with reference to the present level of and he read two papers at the Geologi- upper division “is composed of finely lami- the sea.” Unlike Lyell (1835), Smith cal Society of London (Smith 1839a, nated clay, overlaid by sand and gravel; and found it “highly probable, that no changes of b), the first “On the Climate of the newer marine remains of existing species occur in level have taken place since the British islands pliocene tertiary period” and the second in every part of it, but most abundantly in the have been tennanted by man” (Smith which he endorsed “Lyell’s proposed pleis- clay. A very great proportion of the species of 1839c). tocene system.” The last paragraph of the shells, amounting in all to about 70, abound first paper, almost a footnote, contains GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 42 2015 15

health of their youngest daughter, the family lived in Gibraltar and Malta for the next five years, returning to Jordan- hill in 1846, where Mary Smith herself died of pneumonia the following year. It was during those years in the south of Europe that Smith undertook the research leading to The Voyage and Ship- wreck of St. Paul (Smith 1848). In September of 1840, the British Association held its annual meeting in Glasgow. Smith was a co- chair of Section C (Geology and Phys- ical Geography) but, given his circum- Figure 8. Cold-water molluscan fossils from the Newer Pliocene drift of the Clyde stances, played a subordinate role Basin, in the west of Scotland (Lyell 1865, p. 153). James Smith showed that these (Smith 1840). The appearance of Louis species are absent in Scottish waters but flourish off Newfoundland and Labrador, Agassiz (1807–1873) of Neuchâtel was Greenland, Iceland and Spitsbergen, implying a colder climate in Scotland during a highlight of the meeting (Agassiz the drift period (Smith 1839a). At the time, there was no physical theory for global 1840b). The young Swiss was greatly climate warming and geological evidence was taken as being consistent with region- admired in Britain, as elsewhere, for his ally reversible but globally monotonic cooling. ground-breaking research on fossil fish. He remains the youngest ever a hugely important additional observa- gy than it receives and would conse- recipient of the Wollaston Medal (in tion. He has found in the Newer quently cool down until energy balance 1836 at age 29), the highest award of Pliocene of Sicily, “several species now was restored. According to Fourier, the the Geological Society of London. found living only in more northern European Earth’s climate is self-adjusted to be in Agassiz was a recent convert to the seas; and he infers from them, that the climate radiative energy balance with the Sun. glacial-nappe theory, which held that of Sicily was at one period colder than it is at As the Sun is a large object that radi- northern Europe and North America present” (Smith 1839a). Newer Pliocene ates far more energy than it receives, it were formerly covered by dynamic ice to Recent warming in northern Europe must therefore be cooling and emitting sheets (nappes). He had precipitated a alone could have been a regional phe- less and less energy over geological torrent of criticism with his surprise nomenon, as Lyell (1830) believed; time. That solar luminosity has in fact Presidential address at the 1837 meet- contemporaneous warmings in north- been steadily rising, due to thermonu- ing of the Swiss Natural Science Socie- ern Europe and the Mediterranean clear processes, would remain ty at Neuchâtel (Terrisse 1931). implied a supra-regional, presumably unknown until 1939. Secular cooling Expected to speak on fossil fish, he global, climate change. was seen as consistent with paleob- instead expounded on the glacial theo- In 1839, there was no physical otanical evidence that Late Cretaceous ry, which at the time was neither new theory for global warming. At the turn and Eocene temperatures were warmer nor accepted in Switzerland, and which of the century, the late Edinburgh than more recent periods in most Agassiz linked with the extinction of a physicist John Leslie (1867–1831) had areas, and with historical evidence that strictly pre-human boreal fauna (Agas- pointed to the retreat of Swiss the Medieval Period was warmer than siz 1837, 1840a; see also Evans 1887; moraines as evidence for global warm- the Little Ice Age, which was rapidly Wright 1898; Zittel 1901; Carozzi ing “due to the accession of solar radiation” intensifying toward its last maximum in 1966). Undaunted by criticism, Agassiz (Leslie 1804, p. 180–182, 536–541). the decades following Fourier’s 1824 had taken his message to France But his theory had been discredited by essay on climate (Holzhauser et al. (Agassiz 1838–39) and had mounted a the discovery of infra-red radiation 2005). Smith’s (1839a) inference that research program on active glaciers in and the recognition by his contempo- significant global warming had the Alps, knocking heads with the rary Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier occurred in the geologically recent past Scottish glaciologist James David (1768–1830), that the Earth is emitting was therefore a challenge both to cli- Forbes (Cunningham 1990). The 54- invisible long-wavelength radiation that mate physics and Lyellian geology year-old William Buckland had gone to exactly balances the energy it receives (Rudwick 1969). Switzerland in 1838 to discourage from sunlight. In a fascinating essay on For Smith personally, his report Agassiz’s glacial theorizing (Rupke climate, Fourier (1824, 1827) argued on the Sicilian fossils (Smith 1839a) 1983), but was himself won over by that as hot bodies emit more heat than had harrowing circumstances. That the remarkable homology between cold ones, the Earth, if it were too winter, two of his younger daughters diluvial phenomena and those on dis- cold, would emit less energy than it had contracted tuberculosis at school play around active glaciers (Agassiz received and would consequently warm in London. Despite moving with their 1840a). It was much to the old diluvial- up until radiative equilibrium was parents to the island of Madeira in the ist’s credit that he quickly became the established. Conversely, if the Earth subtropical eastern Atlantic, both chil- most vigorous proponent of the glacial were too hot, it would emit more ener- dren succumbed to the disease. For the theory in Britain, inviting Agassiz to 16 the Glasgow meeting coincident with the publication of his impressive report on active and former glaciers, Études sur les glaciers (Agassiz 1840a; see also book reviews by Forbes 1842; Maclaren 1842; Murchison 1842; Rud- wick 1969). 350 m After the meeting, Agassiz and 325 m Buckland toured the Grampian High- 260 m lands searching for signs of glaciation above (Davies 1968). Knowing what to look sea level for, they saw them everywhere— moraines, cirques, striated pavements and U-shaped valleys. At the northern foot of Ben Nevis, they visited the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy, then arguably the most famous and prob- lematic natural phenomenon in the country (Fig. 9). Three terraces, the highest ~350 m above sea level, had Figure 9. The Parallel Roads of Glen Roy (MacCulloch 1817), three horizontal ter- previously been interpreted as the races in Lochaber between 260 and 350 m above sea level, as viewed from the shorelines of an ancient lake (MacCul- mouth of the glen (Fig. 10). loch 1817; Dick 1823; Mackenzie 1835), but there was scant evidence of the required dam at the mouth of the glen (Fig. 10). The previous year, Charles Darwin had published a long paper reinterpreting the terraces as uplifted marine shorelines in light of his experiences in Patagonia and south- ern Chile. The paper (Darwin 1839) got him elected to the Royal Society, but has subsequently gained notoreity as a blunder (Barrett 1973; Rudwick 1974; Herbert 2005). In 1840, Agassiz looked into the glen and immediately saw an ice-dammed lake, just like the famous Märjelen See (Lake), which was dammed by the Aletsch Glacier in Valais (Fig. 11) and was illustrated by a lithograph in Études sur les glaciers (Agassiz 1840a, Plate 12). Agassiz’s interpretation of the Parallel Roads was fully vindicated, but only after the acceptance of the glacial theory twenty years later (Jamieson 1863; Prestwich 1879; Livingston 1906; Peacock 1970; Sissons 1979). Figure 10. Charles Darwin’s map of the terraces in and around Glen Spean and Following the tour with Agassiz Glen Roy map (Darwin 1839b), with spillways (red arrows) supporting a lacustrine (who went on to Ireland to look at a origin for the terraces added. However, no dam at the mouth of the glen exists. fossil fish collection), Buckland went Note that only the lowest terrace occurs in Glen Spean. Darwin, who alone argued directly to see Lyell, who was staying at for a marine origin for the terraces, claimed that no spillway exists for the middle his father’s estate in Strathmore, east of terrace. It exists at the head of the first tributary of Glen Roy (yellow circle), which the Grampians (Davies 1968). Togeth- Darwin did not map. Agassiz, visiting with Buckland in 1840, realized from his er, they identified what they thought experience in the Alps (Fig. 11) that the lake in Glen Roy had been dammed by gla- were moraines in nearby Forfarshire cial ice in Glen Spean, and the subsequent lake in both glens by ice in the Great and, for a few months, Lyell too was Glen (Agassiz 1840c, 1842). converted to the glacial theory (Boylan 1998). Buckland arranged for all three, Agassiz, Lyell and himself, to present GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 42 2015 17

NNesthorn RRothhornothhorn AAletschhornletschhoorn JunJungfraugfrau EigerEiger FFinsteraarhorninsteraarhorn OberOberaarhornaarhorn GalenstockGalenstock Mutthorn SattelhornSattelhorn DimenhornDimenhorn MonchMonch“ WalliserWalliser FiescherhornerFiescherhhorner“ RothhornRothhorn GalmhornGalmmhorn

GrosserGrosser Aletsch Aletsch GGletscherletschher MarjelenMa“ rjelen SeeSee

Figure 11. Aletsch Glacier and the ice-dammed Märjelen See (Lake), lower right, in Canton Valais (upper Rhône basin), Switzerland, as seen in 1900. The lake, deemed a flood hazard, was later drained. Engraving courtesy of Michel Azéma. back-to-back papers applying the gla- toms of an illness (dementia?) that founding editor of The Scotsman, Scot- cial theory in the British Isles at the would shorten his productive career. land’s first independent Liberal news- Geological Society of London in Interest in the glacial theory and paper. In his astute review of Études sur November 1840 (Agassiz 1840c, 1841; support for it fell off precipitously les glaciers (Maclaren 1842), he noted Buckland 1840; Lyell 1840b)—Lyell’s, after 1842, not only in Britain (Fig. 7). that the melting of the mass of glacial in my opinion, is the most tightly- Historians have not critically analyzed ice envisaged by Agassiz should have argued paper of the three. In question why this happened. To its critics, the raised sea level by over 200 m on aver- period, the glacial theory was con- glacial theory (shed of its biological age globally (Agassiz erroneously demned as unscientific by the Society accoutrements, which Agassiz sensibly assumed that an ice sheet existed over establishment, notably Conybeare, cast adrift) labored under three major northern Asia, as well as northern Murchison and William Whewell difficulties. First, Lyell and most other Europe and North America). In reality, (1794–1866). Against strict Society reg- geologists associated glaciers with sea level stood higher, not lower, in ulations, the question period was tran- mountains. There were no mountains Britain and Scandinavia during the drift scribed, and later published (Wood- in Britain in the Newer Pliocene, only a period. The glacial theory appeared to ward 1882, 1907; Herries Davies 2007). cluster of islets. Lyell’s disbelief only contradict evidence from marine fossils The news of Agassiz and Buckland’s increased in New England, the first leg that all geologists knew and accepted tour of the Grampians (Bailey 1962; of his Travels in North America, 1841–2 as true. It would be decades, long after White 1970) and the image of glaciers (Lyell 1845). If the glacial theory were the glacial theory had been accepted in Britain caught on with the media true, the ice divide in New England (Fig. 7), before the actual causes of ice- and the public, never helpful for an should have coincided with the highest age submergence were correctly identi- aspiring scientific theory. range of the northern Appalachians, fied as the loading of the land by ice Early in the new year, Lyell the Green Mountains. Instead, Lyell masses, aka glacial isostasy (Shaler reverted to his former stand against learned from Edward Hitchcock 1874; Jamieson 1882), and the gravita- the glacial theory in his greatly expand- (1793–1864) that the drift of New tional attraction between the ice mass- ed treatment of the topic (Fig. 7) in England came from north of the St es and seawater, aka ice gravity the 1841 second edition of Elements of Lawrence River. It had flowed oblique- (Jamieson 1882; Penck 1882). The Geology (Lyell 1841). In May, he formal- ly across the Green Mountains as if answer to the old question about the ly requested that the full text of his the range did not even exist (Hitchock land sinking or the sea rising would be, Geological Society paper supporting 1841a, b). Neither Lyell nor Hitchcock both. Combined, they had easily out- the glacial theory be withdrawn (Boy- sufficiently understood that an ice stripped the glacioeustatic response lan 1998; Herries Davies 2007). Lyell sheet flows under its own weight: “all that Maclaren (1842) had deduced. was not alone. Buckland had intended that was needed was a general southward slope The third problem for the gla- to revise his Reliquiae Diluvianae in light in the upper surface of the glacier, or simply a cial theory was Agassiz’s extreme of the glacial hypothesis, but he got greater accumulation of ice to the north than depiction of ice-age Britain. Former cold feet. For all his innovations, Buck- to the south” (Dana 1880, p. 535). glaciers in northern Britain resembling land was a peace-maker at heart (Buck- The second problem was the those found today in the Alps and land 1841; see also Rupke 1983). Soon, submergence itself. It was best framed Norway would perhaps have been he would begin to experience symp- by Charles Maclaren (1782–1866), acceptable to British geologists, but 18 this is not what Agassiz offered them. made a small decision that would have Quaternary time scale because its con- Virtually all of Britain had been cov- lasting consequences for the glacial centration is a strict function of tem- ered by a continuous ice sheet, Agassiz theory. He apparently appointed a perature itself. On the other hand, Tyn- insisted, “like Greenland” (Agassiz young local amateur to a committee dall thought that the concentrations of

1840c, 1842). Only the tops of the charged with constructing a scale- CO2 and the hydrocarbon gases could highest peaks emerged above the sur- model and map of the geology on the conceivably change independent of face of the ice sheet, which filled every Isle of Arran (Firth of Clyde) for dis- temperature. He marvelled that small valley. Why was Agassiz so insistent on play at the meeting in advance of a changes in these variable yet trace con- this point, insistent to the detriment of field excursion. Andrew (later Sir stituents of the atmosphere “may have his own theory? Agassiz had puzzled Andrew) Crombie Ramsay produced all the mutations of climate which over the fact that Swiss moraines carry (1814–1891) took charge of the proj- the researches of geologists reveal” (Tyndall two types of pebbles and boulders, ect, on the strength of which he was 1861). However, radiative transfer in those that are smooth, rounded and offered an assistant geologist position the real atmosphere cannot be cap- polished, and those that are unpolished with the British Geological Survey tured by experiments with pure gases, and angular. After close examination of (McCallien 1941). Along with Robert or with measurements having low active glaciers, Agassiz realized that the Chambers (1802–1871), Ramsay kept spectral resolution. Questions were rounded clasts were carried along at the glacial theory alive during the peri- raised (Ångström 1900; see also Archer the base of the glacier, in the “couche de od of rejection (Fig. 7) with his field and Pierrehumbert 2011). Does water bou” (bed of muck) that forms a bed work in North Wales (Ramsay 1852, vapour absorb all the radiation that on which the glacier slides. Their 1866) and his finely-crafted handbooks CO2 would even if CO2 were absent? roundness and polish is due to tritura- aimed at the emergent middle class Does CO2 absorb all the energy it can tion, or milling by rock paste. As James (Ramsay 1860, 1864). He championed already, so that raising its concentration David Forbes would explain, “It is not the glacial origin of Lake Geneva and would have no additional impact on the wheel of the lapidary which slits a pebble, other overdeepened lake basins (Ram- surface temperature? These and other but the emery with which it is primed. The say 1862; see also Herries Davies questions could not be answered with- gravel, sand, and impalpable mud are the 1969), and was the godfather of a out knowledge of the composition and emery of the glacier” (Forbes 1843, p. 47). group of young Scottish geologists thermal structure of the upper tropo- Angular clasts, in contrast, originate (Fig. 12), whose systematic studies led, sphere, where Earth’s long-wavelength when landslides on mountain slopes unexpectedly, to the general and per- emissions can actually escape to space, above a glacier drop debris into the top manent acceptance of the glacial- and where Fourier’s radiative balance is of the ice, which dutifully carries it nappe theory in 1860–65 (Fig. 7). actually established and maintained. It passively to the ablation zone, where it Simultaneously, the Irish-Eng- would be over 100 years before it was is gently lowered onto the subglacial lish physicist and mountaineer John properly understood how changes in bed (ground moraine) as the ice disap- Tyndall (1820–1893) conducted experi- the concentration of CO2 and other pears. In the Scottish tills, Agassiz had ments with pure gases demonstrating ‘greenhouse’ gases in the atmosphere found rounded and polished clasts that tri-atomic and larger molecules cause changes in Earth’s surface tem- only, no angular debris. He had (H2Ov, CO2, C2H4) absorb in the infra- peratures (Manabe and Wetherald inferred from this observation that red part of the spectrum but are trans- 1967). nunataks were inconsequential in ice- parent to sunlight (Tyndall 1861, 1863). During the years 1841–46, while age Britain; the country had been Water vapour, wrote Tyndall (1863), “is his family resided on Gibraltar and almost completely buried by ice (Agas- a blanket more necessary to the vegetable life Malta, James Smith geologized on the siz 1840c, 1842). This was a remarkably of England than clothing is to man. Remove islands and other parts of the Mediter- astute inference on which to base such for a single summer-night the aqueous vapour ranean, as he had on Madeira (Smith a bold conjecture. In retrospect, we from the air which overspreads this country, 1841, 1862b). But as his familiarity know the inference was substantially and you would assuredly destroy every plant with the inland sea grew, his ardor was correct (Boulton and Hagdorn 2006), capable of being destroyed by a freezing tem- increasingly drawn to its human histo- but the reasoning was too subtle for perature. The warmth of our fields and gar- ry. As a sailor and scholar, he thought geologists like Lyell, who had never dens would pour itself unrequited into space, he might contribute to a longstanding been close to an active glacier. One and the sun would rise upon an island held controversy over the author and veraci- geologist who had (Herbert 1999) fast in the iron grip of frost. The aqueous ty of the voyage and shipwreck of St. would write a moving description of vapour constitutes a local dam, by which the Paul in late 59 AD, as narrated in the trimlines marking the former surface temperature at the earth’s surface is deepened: Acts of the Apostles (27–28) in the of the British Isles ice nappe in the the dam, however, finally overflows, and we New Testament. The Biblical critical mountains of North Wales (Darwin give to space all that we receive from the sun.” movement in Protestant central 1842b). But thereafter, Darwin also, Tyndall knew, however, that the water Europe in the mid-18th Century had would turn against the glacial theory vapour content of the atmosphere will laid bare many contradictions between (Darwin 1848, 1855). not rise unless the atmosphere is first the earliest known sources of New James Smith returned to the warmed. Although water vapour is a Testament Scripture. The movement’s Mediterranean after the 1840 Glasgow powerful amplifier of climate change, wide influence in opposition to reli- meeting, but as local co-chair he had it cannot be a driver of change on a gious fundamentalism was reflected in GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 42 2015 19

Figure 12. The Scottish glacial revival, geological contemporaries whose work led to the general acceptance of the glacial-nappe theory after the early 1860’s (Fig. 7). Clockwise from upper left: Andrew C. Ramsay (1814–1891), who confirmed (after Darwin 1842b) that an ice sheet formerly existed over North Wales and postulated a glacial origin for Lake Geneva and other deep ‘fin- ger’ lakes (Ramsay 1860, 1862, 1866); James Croll (1821–1890), who developed the first orbital theory for glacial-interglacial cycles and the concept of snow(ice)-albedo feedback, and wrote the first treatise on paleoclimate (Croll 1864, 1875); Thomas F. Jamieson (1829–1913), who first attributed ice-age submergence to loading by ice (glacial isostasy) combined with ice gravity, and identified glacial forebulges and their collapse (Jamieson 1865, 1882); James Geikie (1839–1915), who recognized the Holocene- like character of Pleistocene interglacials and wrote the first major treatises on Ice Age geology (Geikie 1872, 1874, 1881, 1892); and Archibald Geikie (1835–1924), whose regional studies along with those of Jamieson (1865) established the glacial-nappe theory in Scotland and, as a prolific and lucid writer, captured the public imagination by linking the glacial theory to the scenery of Scotland (Geikie 1863, 1865, 1887, 1892). Of Croll (1875), a reviewer in Nature remarked, “Mr. Croll does not possess the happy facul- ty which some authors have of carrying their readers with them: in the contrary, his style is so controversial, that to agree with him is to have the feel- ing of being vanquished, and the reader is throughout set on his metal to find out some flaw in the argument.” the strong secularism (separation of Natural Theology (Paley 1802), with its ral Theology is an exposition on adapta- church and state) of the founding famous metaphor of the natural world tion in nature, upon which the teleo- fathers of the United States, progres- as a finely-crafted pocket watch. Intelli- logical argument is presented “not as a sive even by modern (American) stan- gent design, an idea older than history, chain of reasoning like Euclid’s, where one dards. In Britain, fears over a loss of was the self-evident explanation for weak link would spoil the whole argument. It faith among the population led an age- what all naturalists observed: species is instead a rope, where the various fibres are ing William Paley (1743–1805) to craft are exquisitely well-adapted to their in themselves weak, but twisted together will his heartfelt and beautifully-written natural environments. The book Natu- support a great weight” (Eddy and Knight 20

2006). Accepted by virtually every nat- struck in the Ionian Sea by a severe ural philosopher of the early 19th Cen- winter storm with northeasterly gales. tury, including the young Charles Dar- After missing Sicily to the south, the win, intelligent design was an inference ship reportedly ran aground and was that the theory of natural selection destroyed on Malta, but all hands were would render unnecessary. saved and St. Paul eventually reached In 1842, with natural selection Rome in 60 AD (where he waited existing only as a pencil-written sketch another two years for his hearing in Darwin’s files (Darwin and Wallace before the Emperor, the outcome of 1958), Smith faced many uncertainties which remains uncertain but probably regarding the voyage and shipwreck of did not end well for the accused). St. Paul, which, according to local leg- James Smith, after comparing all the end, ended at St. Paul’s Bay on the known early transcriptions of the story island of Malta (Melita). Did the voy- line-by-line, and after reconstructing age actually occur as described in the the entire voyage in light of the sea- New Testament (Acts 27-28)? Was sonal weather patterns of the region, Malta the site of the shipwreck? Was and the sailing and navigation practices St. Luke the anonymous narrator as of the time, concluded that the most Figure 13. James Smith, age 71, as traditionally assumed, but recently telling evidence is the style of the nar- Provost of the Burgh of Helensburgh. questioned? Was his account that of an rative itself. Luke had some maritime Oil painting attributed to James Wil- eyewitness to the events, or the piece- experience, unlike other proposed nar- son. Argyll and Bute Council. meal report of a correspondent? Ships rators, and was therefore casually of the day had canoe-shaped hulls with familiar with the lexicon of sailors. But its parts, unless from actual observation. This V-sterns, as seen on Roman coins he was not a sailor and therefore did peculiarity of style is to me, in itself, a which, to show the strength of the not recognize as anomalous, proce- demonstration that the narrative of the voyage currency, were often embossed with dures followed under unusual circum- is an account of real events, written by an eye- symbols of trade (ships) and war stances. The narrator of Acts reports witness.” (Smith 1848, p. xix). (ships). With his intimate knowledge of many nautical actions taken, from After returning to Jordanhill in sailing and of the ships and navigation which no explanatory meaning is 1846, and despite the loss of his wife techniques of the ancients, as well as drawn, nor any rhetorical purpose of 38 years Mary Wilson Smith, James his access to library collections in served (McGrew, undated). To cite Smith (Fig. 13) published The Voyage Europe and the Near East, Smith only the most dramatic examples, on and Shipwreck of St. Paul in 1848 to crit- hoped to shed light on these issues, the night of the shipwreck, they were ical acclaim. As a testament to the reli- not as a pious man (which he assuredly being driven downwind when, fore- ability of St. Luke as an eyewitness, the was), but “precisely as I would any antient warned by soundings, they heard book was unique. It went through four voyage of doubtful authority” (Smith 1848). breakers in the darkness dead ahead. editions, the second significantly In particular, he aimed to resolve the The narrator describes what happened enlarged and the last issued posthu- identity of the narrator and, if it was next, “Then fearing lest we should have fall- mously in 1880. He published a second St. Luke, to evaluate his reliability as a en upon rocks, they [the sailors] cast four book of Biblical scholarship in 1853, witness to events. anchors out of the stern, and wished for the in response to newly discovered texts, According to Acts, St. Paul was day[light]” (Acts 27, verse 29). No hint an enthusiasm for which he never lost jailed during his third and last visit to is given why this unusual action (cast- (MacLehose 1886). He resumed his Jerusalem in 57 AD, charged with ing anchors from the stern) was taken: research on the tills of the Clyde proselytizing against Jewish beliefs and it was to prevent the ship turning (Smith 1846, 1850, 1862a) and collect- customs. He was held in captivity for broadside into the wind and striking ed all of his papers on Newer Pliocene two years in Caesarea, then the Roman rocks leeward, and to have the bow geology together in one hardbound administrative capital of the province pointed shoreward in preparation for volume (Smith 1862b) with commen- of Judea and situated on the Mediter- beaching at daybreak. After securing tary and colour illustrations. He contin- ranean coast between Tel Aviv and anchorage, “they lightened the ship, and cast ued to sail and dredge for seashells Haifa in modern Israel. With the out the wheat [cargo and provisions] into until the age of 84, and died one year arrival of a new Governor in late 59 the sea” (Acts 27, verse 38). Again, no later in 1867 with ‘unimpaired faculties AD, St. Paul’s request to have his case explanation is given why they took this and many of his family around him.’ heard before the Roman Emperor precaution when they did, after not He was, at the time, President of the Nero (54–68 AD) was granted. doing so during the height of the eight-year-old Geological Society of Although late in the season, St. Paul storm at sea. It was to run the ship Glasgow (Macnair and Mort 1908). and a number of other prisoners and aground as high as possible on the their guard detail embarked on a trad- beach, which they did. “No sailor would REFERENCES ing ship bound for Rome via the south have written in a style so little like that of a Agassiz, L., 1837, Discours prononcé à l’ouver- coast of Asia Minor (Turkey) and sailor; no man not a sailor could have written ture des séances de la Société Helvétique des Crete. 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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Cees van Staal provided expert nautical advice regarding the shipwreck of St. Paul.

CORRECTION In my column on Conrad Gebelein (Geoscience Canada, v. 41(2), p. 105–117), I incorrectly wrote that Holocene stromatolites were discovered in Hamelin Pool (Shark Bay, West- ern Australia) by Dick Chase, while working as an assistant to Phil Playford (Wapet). In fact, the structures were discovered by Playford in 1954, while Chase, in 1955, was the one who recognized their similarity to ancient stromatolites.