A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF GAVIN MAXWELL:
A KERNBERG OBJECT RELATIONS APPROACH
Jacqueline Walters
202314642
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Magister Artium: Psychology (Counselling)
In the
Department of Psychology
School of Behavioural Sciences
Faculty of Health Sciences
Nelson Mandela University
April 2021
Supervisor: Dr Alida Sandison
I
STUDENT DECLARATION
I, Jacqueline Walters (s202314642), hereby declare that the dissertation for Magister
Artium in Counselling Psychology is my own work and that it has not previously been submitted for assessment or completion of any postgraduate qualification to another University or for another qualification.
ii
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to:
My supervisor, Dr Alida Sandison, for her guidance, patience and good humour
My partner for his support and interest
My children for their patience and sharing their mom with “that otter dude” for so many months.
My cats for the early morning company
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Abstract
Gavin Maxwell was an author and naturalist. He published a memoir called A Ring of Bright
Water, which shaped the way millions of readers viewed nature. Maxwell wrote simple prose which paints an idyllic and moving picture of his time spent in his “lost paradise”, alongside his beloved animals, most notably his otters. However, in reality Maxwell was a man in conflict, seen in volatile relationships, financial recklessness, and the preference for the company of animals over people. The aim of this study was to explore Maxwell’s life to gain insight into his personality development. This was achieved by applying Otto Kernberg’s
Object Relations Theory to his life experiences. In doing so the author hoped to gain an understanding of the personality dynamics that led to Maxwell’s relational difficulties and eccentricities. Data was collected by triangulating multiple sources of information on his life.
Miles and Huberman’s (1994) three step approach was used to analyse data collected. These steps are: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing and verification. The research study found that Maxwell’s personality development was likely arrested at the third stage of
Kernberg’s model. Maxwell relied primarily on immature defence mechanisms based in splitting and possessed a fragile ego structure which he protected through grandiosity. The findings indicated that Maxwell’s personality falls in the borderline level of functioning with a strong likelihood of pathological narcissism.
Key words: borderline, defences, Gavin Maxwell, Kernberg, narcissistic, object relations, psychobiography
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration……………………………………………………………………………………..i
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………ii
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………….iii
Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………….. 1
Chapter Overview…………………………………………………………………………….. 1
General Orientation to the Study……………………………………………………………... 1
The Research Subject………………………………………………………………………… 1
The Research Approach……………………………………………………………………….2
The Research Aim……………………………………………………………………………..2
Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………………………..2
Overview of Chapter Structure………………………………………………………………...3
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………...... 3
Chapter 2: The Life of Gavin Maxwell………………………………………………………4
Chapter Overview……………………………………………………………………...4
Ancestry and Lineage………………………………………………………………….4
Early Childhood………………………………………………………………………..5
Middle Childhood……………………………………………………………………...6
Adolescence……………………………………………………………………...….. 10
Young Adulthood…………………………………………………………………….11
Middle Adulthood…………………………………………………………………….15
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………31
Chapter 3: Kernberg’s Object Relations Theory…………………………………………32
Chapter Overview…………………………………………………………………….32
Theory Overview……………………………………………………………………..32 v
Development of Object Relations According to Kernberg……………………………33
Stage I: Normal Autism………………………………………………………33
Stage II: Normal Symbiosis…………………………………………………..34
Stage III: Differentiation of Self from Object Relations……………………..34
Stage IV: Integration of Self Representations and Object Representations….34
Stage V: Consolidation of Ego and Superego Integration……………………38
Levels of Personality Development and Defence Mechanisms……………………….38
Healthy Development According to Kernberg……………………………………….42
Development of Psychopathology According to Kernberg…………………………..44
The Borderline Personality Organisation According to Kernberg……………………47
The Narcissistic Personality Organisation According to Kernberg…………………..49
Critique of Theory……………………………………………………………………54
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………55
Chapter 4: Research Methodology…………………………………………………………56
Chapter Overview…………………………………………………………………………56
Research Aim……………….…………………………………………………………….56
Research Design…………………………………………………………………………..56
Definition of Psychobiography………………………………………………58
History of Psychobiography………………………………………………….59
Value of Psychobiography……………………………………………..…….61
Methodological Considerations of Psychobiography…………………………63
Trustworthiness of Data…………………………………………………………………..65
Credibility……………………………………………………………………65
Transferability……………………………………………………………….66
Dependability………………………………………………………………..66 vi
Confirmability………………………………………………………………..67
Sampling…………………………………………………………………………………..68
Data Collection and Data Analysis………………………………………………………..68
Ethical Considerations…………………………………………………………………….70
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………...70
Chapter 5: Findings and Discussion……………………………………………………….72
Chapter Overview…………………………………………………………………………72
Development of Object Relations…………………………………………………………72
Genetics………………………………………………………………………………..73
Ancestral Lineage……………………………………………………………………...73
Early Loss……………………………………………………………………………...74
Smothering……………………………………………………………………………..74
Positive Family Members………………………………………………………………75
Seclusion……………………………………………………………………………….75
Object Relations in Middle Childhood, Adolescence and Adulthood…………………….76
‘Otherness’ and ‘Specialness’……………………………………………………… 77
Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Turmoil……………………………………………..80
Entitlement and Peter Pan Complex………………………………………………….85
Self Doubt and Critique………………………………………………………………88
Suspiscion and Paranoia……………………………………………………………...89
Control and Manipulation……………………………………………………………91
Grandiosity…………………………………………………………………………..93
Idealisation of Nature………………………………………………………………..95
Discussion…………………………………………………………………………...97
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………. ..98 vii
Chapter 6: Conclusion and Limitations……………………………………………………99
Chapter Overview…………………………………………………………………….99
Overview of the Study………………………………………………………………..99
Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………..99
Limitations of the Study…………………………………………………………….100
Recommendations for Future Research…………………………………………….101
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….101
References………………………………………………………………………………… 102
Appendix A: Extract of Triangulated Data Sources……………………………………109
Appendix B: List of Primary and Secondary Source Material……………………… ..112
Appendix C: Turnitin Originality Report...……………………………………………..114
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Image 1: Maxwell and Teko at Sandaig
Image 2: Maxwell and Edal 1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Chapter Overview
This chapter introduces the research study to the reader. It will do so by providing a general orientation that will include an introduction of the research subject, the research approach, research aim and the theoretical framework. Finally, it will provide a brief overview of the chapter structure.
General Orientation to the Research Study
The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the personality development of author
Gavin Maxwell across his lifetime and takes the form of a psychobiographical case study. The information gathered on Maxwell is analysed using Otto Kernberg’s (1975, 1976, 1980, 1992)
Object Relations Theory.
The Research Subject: Gavin Maxwell
Gavin Maxwell was an author and naturalist. He published a series of memoires, the first being A Ring of Bright Water, which shaped the way millions of readers viewed nature.
Maxwell wrote simple prose which paints an idyllic and moving picture of his time spent in his “lost paradise”, alongside his beloved animals, most notably his otters. However, in reality
Maxwell was a man in conflict, a literary success yet personally unsatisfied, financially reckless and insolvent. He was popular and well liked by many but his close relationships were marked by emotional outbursts and volatility. While Maxwell longed for human contact he seemed unable to tolerate it for long stretches and would need the seclusion of his Avalon, Sandaig, and indulge his preference for animal company over human contact Maxwell’s life was focused on his otters and his writing, and he preferred the isolated life he created. His literary success brought public attention to his remote home (Maxwell & Straiton, 2016), leading to intrusion, which he resented (Field, 2014). Toward the end of his life, Maxwell experienced a series of 2 unfortunate events, and ultimately a diagnosis of cancer in 1968 (Lister-Kaye, 2014). Maxwell died of lung cancer on the 7th September 1969 in Inverness, Scotland at the age of 55. He wrote a total of eleven books during his lifetime (Maxwell & Straiton, 2016).
Research Approach: Psychobiography
Psychobiographies can best be described as idiographic studies that access information about the psychological characteristics of their subjects (Simonton, 1999). Essentially they are biographies that use psychological theory and knowledge to study the entire life of an individual. They formulate a central story that is structured around psychological theory
(McAdams, 2005), and in this process provide psychological descriptions of behaviours, achievements and decisions to achieve a deep understanding of the subject (Elms, 1994). These descriptions are viewed in the social, cultural and historical context that the subject lived
(Carlson, 1988), to allow for unique insight into the development of the individual (Carlson,
1988).
Research Aim
The aim of the present study was to explore and describe the personality development of
Gavin Maxwell using Otto Kernberg’s (1974, 1975, 1980, 1992) Object Relations Theory. In doing so the author hoped to gain an understanding of the personality dynamics that led to
Maxwell’s relational difficulties and eccentricities.
Theoretical Framework: Otto Kernberg’s Object Relations Theory
Otto Kernberg’s (1974, 1975, 1980, 1992) Object Relations Theory is a systematic model of the development of personality (Kernberg, 1984). Object relations are psychic units or patterns. Object relations represent an individual’s image of self and image of other, in interaction, with an affective charge (also called valence) linked to this image. This unit is referred to as an object relations dyad (Clarkin, Lenzenweger, Yeomans, Levy, & Kernberg,
2007). These internal object relations start to form during early infancy and progress through a 3 series of developmental stages, but ultimately form the building blocks of the mind, that make up an individual’s personality (Christopher, Bickhard, & Lambeth, 2001).
In normal personality development there is a smooth progression through the development stages. However, development does not always progress smoothly. Difficulties are generally rooted in problems with the integration of positively charged and negatively charged object relations. The lack of integration of object relations, interfere with the optimal formation of the psychic structures, and can lead to a range of difficulties in development, including emotional lability, interpersonal chaos, lapses in reality testing, self-destructive behaviours, and a underdeveloped moral code. According to Kernberg, there are levels of difficulties that individuals present with, dependent on the extent to which they have integrated their good and bad object relations. Individuals with extreme difficulties with integration may present with personality disorder.
Overview of Chapter Structure
This research study contains six chapters. Chapter one introduces the research study to the reader by providing a general orientation to the research, including a brief overview of the chapter structure. Chapter two explores the life of Gavin Maxwell in detail. Chapter three provides an overview of Otto Kernberg’s Object Relations Theory. Chapter four provides an overview of Psychobiography as an approach and methodology. Chapter five provides the study findings and discussion. Lastly, Chapter six presents the conclusions and limitations of the study as well as recommendations for further research.
Conclusion
This chapter provided a general orientation to the study. It introduced the research study to the reader by providing an introduction to the research subject, the research approach, research aim and the theoretical framework. It also provided a brief overview of the chapter structure.
The following chapter will explore the subject, Gavin Maxwell’s life, in greater detail. 4
CHAPTER TWO
THE LIFE OF GAVIN MAXWELL
Chapter Overview
This chapter provides an overview of the life of author and naturalist, Gavin Maxwell. His life will be explored from his birth in 1914 to his death in 1966. This chapter with provide details of Maxwell’s childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Maxwell’s interpersonal relationships will be detailed throughout.
Ancestry and Lineage
Gavin Maxwell was born into aristocracy. His mother, Mary, was the fifth daughter of Henry
Percy, the seventh Duke of Northumberland; Percy was head of one of the most powerful families in Scotland (Maxwell & Straiton, 2016; Botting, 2017). The Percy family is reported to have moved between their estates, castles and palaces “with an almost medieval retinue of servants” (Botting, 2017. p. 35). Maxwell’s father, Colonel Aymer Maxwell, was the son of
Sir Herbert Maxwell, seventh Baronet of Monreith, and was heir to the baronetcy of Monreith
(Lister-Kaye, 2014; Botting, 2017).
Maxwell was also related by either blood or marriage to numerous other dukedoms and earldoms of both Scotland and England and was able to trace his aristocratic lineage down to
King James I of Scotland, William the Conqueror and the Consuls of Imperial Rome. He was distantly related to the British Royal Family and to Lord Byron (as twelfth cousin four times removed) and it has been stated that Maxwell resembled Byron in many ways (Botting, 2017).
Maxwell was profoundly aware of his aristocratic background and was intensely proud of it
(Botting, 2017). According to Botting (2017) Maxwell’s aristocratic lineage formed an essential feature of his personality, without which he would have been “a different animal” (p.
36). Botting (2017) stated that in adult life Maxwell would use his aristocratic background “as 5 a passport to get him wherever he wanted to go, a shield to hide behind, a snub to put down people he disliked” (p. 36).
Early Childhood
Gavin Maxwell was born on 15 July 1914 on the estate of Elrig near Dumfries and Galloway in Scotland; he was the youngest of four children born to Mary and Aymer Maxwell. (Maxwell,
2015; Undiscovered Scotland, 2018). The house on Elrig was built by Maxwell's parents and was situated on a lonely moorland, seven miles from the Maxwell family seat at Monreith,
Wigtonshire, in the Scottish lowlands (Maxwell, 2015). Maxwell's birth was reported to have been difficult and prolonged and left him with five strawberry birthmarks on the inside of his right forearm (Botting, 2017). Maxwell later perceived these marks as a symbol of shame
(Maxwell, 2015, Botting, 2017).
Maxwell was a delicate and sickly child (Botting, 2017; Maxwell, 2015). Three months after
Maxwell’s birth his father was killed during the first German artillery barrage of World War I
(Maxwell, 2015) leaving Maxwell’s mother widowed with four children under the age of four, one of them a sickly baby (Maxwell, 2015; Botting, 2017). With little prospect of remarrying due to religious constraints, Lady Mary (who was considered to be one of the great beauties of the Percy family) is said to have dealt with the prospect of spending her life in solitary widowhood by rejecting her sexuality (Botting, 2017). She did this by adopting a more masculine manner of speaking and dressing as well as by adopting the masculine hobbies
(hunting and fishing) enjoyed by her late husband (Maxwell, 2015).
Lady Mary directed all her instincts for love and affection onto her youngest, neediest and most vulnerable child who she perceived as her husband’s final gift to her (Botting, 2017).
According to Botting (2017), Lady Mary confided in her old age “I kept Gavin very much as the child of my anguish, and he stayed in my bedroom until he was eight years old” (p. 37).
Maxwell spent his earliest years away from the family estate Elrig as Lady Mary found it too 6 painful to reside there following her husband's death. Her mourning is described by botting
(2017) as lengthy and deep, with words such as “anguished” and “forlorn” used to describe her demeanour during Maxwell’s formative years (p. 37).
Middle Childhood
During his middle years Maxwell admitted to a close friend that he believed his mother was the cause of all the problems in his life. “‘Was she one of those cold, aloof, icily aristocratic mothers of the period?’ his friend asked. ‘No’ Gavin replied. ‘Exactly the opposite, alas. I was suffocated by love’” (Botting, 2017. p.37). Maxwell and his siblings, Christian, Aymer and
Eustace, were greatly affected by the moralistic and dominating aspects of their mother’s personality (Botting, 2017). Maxwell’s mother controlled which family members he could spend time with despite his desire to have more contact with them. She also controlled which activities he could participate in at school. For example, Maxwell's brother Eustace was allowed to box but Maxwell was deemed by his mother to be too delicate, despite the fact that this led him to be teased by other boys (Maxwell, 2015; Botting, 2017). She is described as having few close friends, and Maxwell (2015) speculated that this was due to the fact that once she had children she no longer had any need for them. Lady Mary actively encouraged her sons to pursue the same interests as her late husband, namely shooting and hunting (Maxwell, 2015).
Maxwell’s mother also strictly controlled what he was exposed to. Maxwell was not allowed to have his own subscription to a library, and his mother would browse the shelves with him and he would only be allowed to take out books that she approved of, under her library subscription. She was particularly strict regarding any material that “questioned any part of the established order, and any possible direct or indirect reference to sex” (Maxwell, 2015, p. 196)
Maxwell was brought up by his mother to believe that any form of sexual expression (including masturbation) to “be both sin and lead to damnation” (Maxwell, 2015, p. 199). 7
Maxwell’s first ten years were spent in relative seclusion. Apart from his mother, siblings, staff and the occasional visiting relative, he met few other people. He would spend his time exploring the wilderness around the estate, in intimate contact with nature. It was during this time that he developed his keen eye and understanding of the natural world. (Maxwell, 2015;
Botting, 2017). Maxwell (2015) describes himself and his siblings as being “as shy wild animals, the sound of unseen wheels upon the steep drive would send us scuttling for cover like rabbits” (p. 24).
Apart from his mother and siblings there were other family members who made a lasting impact on Maxwell. His paternal grandfather, Sir Herbert Maxwell was well known as a natural historian. For Maxwell his grandfather was a model of writing, painting and natural history as well as historic enquiry, and Maxwell aspired to be like his grandfather. Contact between them was limited as Maxwell’s mother disliked Sir Herbert Maxwell (Maxwell, 2015). Another significant influence for Maxwell was his Aunt Lady Muriel Percy, his mother’s youngest sister, who he affectionately referred to as Aunty Moo. According to Maxwell she was an exceptionally good general naturalist as well as a serious research zoologist who specialised in the fauna of pond and rock pools. She ignited a curiosity and interest in learning new things in
Maxwell and his siblings. She converted an unused gunroom at Elrig into a biological laboratory. Maxwell stated that the result of this was that he and his siblings “were on nodding terms with almost every living thing we could see” (Botting, 2017, p. 40). Under his Aunt’s guidance Maxwell developed as a young naturalist, illustrator and author (Maxwell, 2015;
Botting, 2015).
Maxwell’s uncle, Lord William Percy, acted as a father substitute for Maxwell and he developed a lasting admiration of the man. Maxwell affectionately knew him as Uncle Willie, and revered him as an explorer, soldier, secret agent and ornithologist. He also introduced
Maxwell to ideas on conservation and compassion towards the natural world (Maxwell, 2015). 8
Uncle Willie was a man of keen intellect and tough persona who would converse as though cross-examining, “his brilliant eyes bored into the object of their gaze like the muzzle of a gun”
(Botting, 2017, p. 42). Maxwell is said to have adopted his uncle’s persona and mannerisms when it suited him (Botting, 2017).
Maxwell and his siblings kept a variety of animals including goats, chickens, hedgehogs, wild rabbits and owls. There were also an entire family of rooks that would perch all over
Maxwell, whenever he ventured outside (Maxwell, 2015). Maxwell developed a reputation within his small social circle as having a remarkable ability to tame and befriend animals in a very short period of time. His cousin, Lady Elizabeth Percy, is quoted as saying “A mouse had only to run across the floor and in no time at all Gavin had befriended it” (Botting, 2017, p.
43).
In September 1924, at age 10, Maxwell was sent to boarding school after several years of instruction by private tutors at Elrig. He was distraught at leaving his beloved home and being separated from his mother. He described the event as one of the most traumatic of his life
(Botting, 2017). Elrig was Maxwell’s Avalon, his early childhood paradise that he sought to return to or recreate throughout his life (Maxwell, 2015; Botting, 2017). His first boarding school was Heddon Court in Cockfosters, north London. At this point in his life, he had had very limited contact with other children, meeting fewer than ten children in total, with three of those being his siblings (Maxwell, 2015; Botting, 2017). He was now thrown among a multitude of boys, and he found them to be alien and hostile, a situation he experienced as an unnerving horror (Maxwell, 2015). Maxwell’s time at boarding school was a period of confusion, fear and humiliation for him. Botting (2017) quotes Maxwell as saying “This was the beginning of the breakdown of my image of what life was. Going to school in England seemed nothing but a violent disruption, something terrible” (p. 44). 9
Maxwell did not struggle scholastically. His vocabulary and handwriting were advanced and was more widely read than the majority of his peers. It was dealing with large number of people that Maxwell struggled with, “the treachery and enmity, the violence and aggression that seemed part and parcel of the human package as he perceived it. Everywhere he turned he was confronted by images that shocked or terrified” (Botting, 2017. p. 45).
Maxwell was lonely and was bullied. He was removed from Heddon Court at the beginning of 1925 and sent to St Cyph’s in Eastbourne. Here Maxwell was mocked because of his birthmarks, the fact that he couldn't swim or box, and because of his family’s aristocratic heritage (Maxwell, 2015; Botting, 2017). This resulted in insecurity and alienation which negatively influenced his ability to relate to adults or other children (Botting, 2017). Maxwell was identified as odd and was even advised by a well-meaning senior boy to be more like other people, but Maxwell was never able to follow this advice, and never was like other people
(Maxwell, 2015). Subsequently as a child he suffered for it and photographs of Maxwell show the progression from a relaxed and smiling young child to an uptight and unsmiling pre- adolescent, with “the look of a hunted animal in his eyes” (Botting, 2017. P. 45).
By his second year at St Cyph’s, Maxwell was experiencing nightmares that would result in him waking screaming (Maxwell, 2015; Botting, 2017). He felt he could no longer stand it and wrote a desperate letter to his mother which ended “for God’s sake take me away from this awful place” (Botting, 2017, p. 46). Maxwell was removed from St Cyph’s shortly thereafter, a few months shy of his thirteenth birthday. After spending the summer weeks at Elrig,
Maxwell began school at Hurst Court, a more liberal and accepting school, willing to make allowances for a boy who was now perceived as “difficult” (Botting, 2017. p. 47).
Maxwell’s voice suddenly broke in class one day resulting in him being given his first sex talk by headmaster Dr Vaughan-Evans. Up until that point Maxwell had been completely ignorant on the topic. His mother later gave him an Edwardian book What Young Men Ought 10 to Know. Both these sources left Maxwell as ill-informed and confused as before (Maxwell,
2015). Maxwell remained completely sexually inactive for most of his adolescence (Botting,
2017). His mother had created the understanding of sexual expression and masturbation as sinful, and Maxwell went into his adolescence thinking “what am I meant to do with this demon body of mine for the next ten years” Maxwell (2015, p. 199).
Adolescence
In September 1928 Maxwell began his public school education at Stowe, Buckinghamshire.
His brothers had both attended Eton but his mother and uncle decided that the highly ritualised academically focused atmosphere of Eton would be an unwise choice for Maxell (Maxwell,
2015; Botting, 2017). Maxwell again found the sheer number of people he was exposed to overwhelming and he retreated often into the woods and fields surrounding Stowe (Maxwell,
2015; Botting, 2017). In time he made a few close friends at Stowe, mostly with boys who shared his affinity for the outdoors and love of nature. Maxwell also had enemies at Stowe and was unable to understand why they disliked and mocked him (Maxwell, 2015; Botting, 2017).
Maxwell did not do well academically at Stowe. Although bright, he had the tendency to doze and daydream in class. According to Maxwell’s school friend, Anthony Dickens, Maxwell showed an ability to write well early on. Dickens theorised that Maxwell’s sexual energies were all channelled into dreaming and daydreaming as he was completely sexually inactive as a teenager, thus leading to a rich imagination which was often expressed in written work
(Botting, 2017). Later in life Maxwell criticised the education system as ignoring and extinguishing creative ability in those who presented it (Botting, 2017).
On Maxwell’s sixteenth birthday, in 1930, he fell seriously ill with Henoch’s purpura, leading to massive internal bleeding and resulting in his near death and several months of severely limited physical activity while in remission. It was towards the end of 1931, while convalescing at a family friends house, that Maxwell experienced his first romantic infatuation, 11 a girl the same age as he was, the daughter of a friend of his mothers, called Elizabeth
(Maxwell, 2015; Botting, 2017).
Maxwell studied as a day scholar and with tutors while recovering so that he could take part in the final exam at the end of the year. During this time, Maxwell’s relationship with his mother became very confrontational, he longed for freedom and resented her continuous presence (Maxwell, 2015; Botting, 2017).
In 1932 Maxwell was deemed well enough to travel back to Scotland and it is shortly after this trip that he started displaying symptoms of what is now thought to be bipolar mood disorder
(Botting, 2017).
Young Adulthood
In the summer of 1933 Maxwell began his studies toward a degree in Estate Management at Hertford College, Oxford. He is reported to have felt slighted that he was not sent to a more prestigious Oxford college. He was also not interested in what he was studying and thus did not exert himself academically (Botting, 2017). During this time he further developed his interests in poetry, painting and hunting game (Botting, 2017).
Maxwell received his degree in June 1937 (Maxwell & Straiton, 2016). He struggled to find employment and eventually worked as salesman selling maize sprouter to the farming industry.
He kept his job for a little over a year and resigned due to that fact that he “had great difficulty taking orders from idiots in authority over me” (p.72). This was to be Maxwell’s first and last formal job (Botting, 2017).
By the spring of 1938 Maxwell was submitting articles to magazines. At this stage in his life he wished to be an explorer, and in the summer of 1938 he began his first expedition, solo, to the Arctic tundra. In July 1939 he returned to England due to the imminent outbreak of
World War II (Botting, 2017). 12
Maxwell was selected to serve in the Scots Guards, an elite fighting regimen and part of the
Special Operations Executive (S.O.E.) which was a secret British World War II organisation.
He began his training in 1939. During the war Maxwell dreamt of retiring to an island on the
Hebrides after the war was over (Frere, 1976). A recurrence of Maxwell’s pervious ailment meant that his medical clearance in the army was downgraded, severely affecting his options in terms of active service during the war (Botting, 2017). Maxwell ended up instructing special operations executives on small arms and fieldcraft (Frere, 1976). He gained a reputation as an excellent instructor and was well liked by the men he worked with, being described as having a good sense of humour. He also became known as eccentric (Frere, 1976). According to
Botting (2017), Dr James Mcdougal who was the S.O.E. medic who looked after the psychiatric health of recruits, classed Maxwell as the personality type ‘creative psychopath’, a profile he believed was shared with Winston Churchill. The creative psychopath personality structure was said to be composed of a series of opposite characteristics “friendly and unfriendly, truthful and untruthful, bold and fearful, loyal and disloyal, thick-skinned and thin-skinned, considerate and callous” (p.88). He believed these characteristics to be in constant conflict with one another, leading to an unpredictable and disorganised presentation who “inspires affection and loathing in equal measure” (p.88). Mcdougal went on to state that the creative psychopath’s emotional makeup is more like that of a child than that of an adult and gave his view that
Maxwell was “emotionally retarded” (p. 88) and that individuals with this personality make up struggle to maintain adult relationships.
According to Botting (2017), confidential S.O.E. reports on Maxwell reveal some of the above ambivalence. He was described as cheerful by one officer and self-centred by another.
Yet another reported an “excitable temperament” (p.90) and another referred to him as egotistical. He was described as likable and pleasant yet also reported to have behaved 13 childishly if reprimanded and had trouble accepting authority. Maxwell’s time serving with the
S.O.E. was noted as being “probably one of the happiest of his life” (Botting, 2017, p. 86).
The Hebridean island that had captured Maxwell’s imagination during the war was called the Isle of Soay and was, along with his childhood home of Elrig, referred to by him as Avalon
(Maxwell, 2015; Maxwell, 2013). After the war ended Maxwell decided to buy the island and open a basking shark fishery on the island. He invested large amounts of time and money into the venture, and spent many days and nights with his dog Jonnie on board a harpooning vessel in the waters surrounding the island (Maxwell, 2013). There is evidence that Maxwell was ill prepared for the venture and made impulsive, unwise decisions (Botting, 2017; Maxwell,
2013).
Maxwell wrestled with the concept of slaughter inherent to the industry, when he loved animals. He eventually rationalized that since the shark had a small brain compared to its body size it was unlikely to feel the same degree of pain that mammals do (Maxwell, 2013). During this period he was interviewed by journalist John Hillaby about his venture and was described as “an aristocrat, a naturalist, a bisexualist and a very complex character”; he was also described by Hillaby as having a “particularly magnetic personality” and as suffering from “serious manic-depression” (Botting, 2017, p. 120).
Overall, the fishery was unsuccessful, and in 1948 the venture and the island were sold
(Maxwell, 2013). Maxwell is said to have experienced an overwhelming sense of failure
(Botting, 2017). Maxwell found himself penniless, and turned to developing his hobby of drawing and painting to generate an income (Frere, 1976). During this time he painted and was looked after by a young woman who appears to have been infatuated with him. He described his feelings for her as follows:
Her reign of a month here has been heaven - she dotes on me and anticipates my
every need. Alas she is supposed to go and be trained to be a doctor or theatre nurse 14
or something soon, and I can think of no remedy but marrying her, which is perhaps
a little drastic (Botting, 2017, p. 133).
Maxwell did no such thing, though. He next set himself up as a society portrait painter but struggled with his sense of competence, stating that he was only able to paint well if he didn’t care what anyone thought of his art (Botting, 2017). On 13 October 1948, during a holiday at an Oxford friend’s estate in western Scotland, Maxwell encountered a small lighthouse keepers’ cottage in Sandaig. Upon further enquiry his host revealed to him that the cottage was empty and he would be happy to rent it to Maxwell for one pound a year as long as Maxwell kept it in good repair (Frere, 1976). Maxwell wrote the following in a letter to a friend:
News- hold your breath! I've rented a cottage - an idyll, something out of a
dream! No road, approachable only by boat, nearest human habitation two
miles. Stands on a little white shell sand beach, on green turf with river flowing
round it, sea within fifty yards of the door. Absolute paradise, everything one
could possibly want in a tiny compass. A reef on which the sea breaks, an
automatic lighthouse, and six little islands, also with green turf and white sand.
Faces across to Skye with hills rising steeply behind it” (Botting, 2017, p. 140).
However, Maxwell was unable to stay in what he referred to as his Xanadu as the necessity of earning an income forced him back to London (Maxwell, 1964). He was becoming disillusioned with the artistic life and realised that he was not doing as well as he had anticipated. This insight coincided with the realisation that his romantic feelings for Raef
Payne, an English painter and friend of his, were unrequited. The strain of the pressure Maxwell placed on Payne resulted in the temporary dissolving of the friendship; this as well as his financial crisis left Maxwell lonely and depressed, even becoming suicidal at one point. The intervention of Psychiatrist, Dr Ellis Stungo helped alleviate Maxwell’s dark mood as well as repair Maxwell’s friendship with Payne (Botting, 2017). 15
Middle Adulthood
Maxwell gave up professional portrait painting and turned his attention to race car driving in 1949 (Frere, 1976). He was introduced to Kathleen Raine, a well-known poet at the time
(Raine, 1977). Their friendship developed, and centred around their mutual appreciation of nature and wilderness; both felt a spiritual bond to one another, with Raine referring to Maxwell as her spiritual soulmate and “as if one consciousness lived in them both” (Botting, 2017, p.
150). The title of Maxwell’s most famous book A Ring of Bright Water was taken from a line in one of Raine’s poems, The Marriage of the Psyche (Undiscovered Scotland, 2018). Raine is reported to have seen Maxwell as a genius and he to have greatly admired her poetry and success (Botting, 2017). Raine also pitied Maxwell when they first met, as she saw him as vulnerable and in need of care and guidance. Botting (2017) quoted her as stating “at that time
I was strong and he was weak; I was happy and he was wretched; my life had achieved some sort of stability, his was in ruins.” (p. 150). Raine wanted to assist Maxwell and believed she had some form of magical ability to bring about something mystical through helping him
(Raine, 1977). They reportedly experienced a shared vision of a Rowan tree, which they interpreted to be the archetypal tree of life and to symbolize Eden (Raine, 1977).
Raine fell in love with Maxwell, although he made it clear from the outset that his love for her was platonic (Raine, 1977; Watts, 2003; Potter, 2016; Field, 2014). Botting (2017) reported that he did not in fact love her at all but merely admired and respected her intellectual accomplishments and wished to learn from her and use her connections to advance his own career. Maxwell is also reported to have genuinely believed that Raine possessed some form of magical ability, and called upon her to perform a spell to save the life of his pet bird (Botting,
2017). The bird recovered, and Maxwell reported that it had developed the ability to mimic voices after Raine’s incantation (Botting, 2017). Through Raine, Maxwell met Clemency
Glock and the two began a relationship, although she was married at the time. It is described 16 as one of the few strong emotional and sexual relationships Maxwell formed with a woman
(Botting, 2017). Maxwell’s feelings towards Glock were explained by Botting (2017) as being more admiring and covetous than loving in the true sense of the word. Maxwell’s brother,
Aymer, also fell in love with Glock leading to a love triangle of sorts, as she enjoyed the affection and company of both men. Maxwell was unhappy with the situation and is quoted by
Botting (2017) as stating: “why can't Aymer find a Clement and an object of his own? - why must it be my Clement and my object?” (p. 156). Both romances eventually dwindled and ended
(Botting, 2017).
Maxwell met Tomas through Glock and after the end of his relationship with Glock, he began a relationship with Tomas (Botting, 2017). Raine was purportedly deeply jealous of
Maxwell's romantic relationships. It is reported that Maxwell could be brutal in his criticism of
Raine, tearing her down intermittently by criticising her looks, dress sense, and talent, as well as highlighting all of her mistakes as he saw them. It has also been suggested that he possibly saw their relationship as a means to further his own career (Botting 2017). Maxwell referred to
Raine as a devouring spider, yet on two occasions, while in a deep despair, he asked her to share his bed, as a friend, and comfort him (Botting, 2017). Of his relationship with Tomas,
Botting (2017) quoted Tomas to have said:
[Maxwell] split his personality into two distinct parts and led two
compartmentalised lives. This division of his personality was crippling for him.
He could never experience true joy, because only wholly integrated people can
do that. He was too afraid to live his essence so he lived his ideal. The
externalization of his emotional life led to a mistrust of relationships with
adults, so that he only felt safe in the animal world, the natural world, and
would be more heartbroken at the death of a favourite animal than of his best 17
friend… I was a complete fantasy of his. He wished to mould me, dog-train
me, correct my English and try improve me socially and culturally. p. 157
In April of 1949 Maxwell took residence at Sandaig (Frere, 1976). In his writing Maxwell repeatedly refers to Sandaig as his Xanadu (Maxwell, 1964). For a time it was a paradise for him. Adult responsibility demanded that he still spend much of his life in London in order to make a living, although he often despaired of having to do so (Botting, 2017; Maxwell, 1964;
Frere, 1976). By this time Maxwell had abandoned painting for good and was forced to sell his clothes and furniture to make ends meet (Botting, 2017). It is reported that Maxwell saw financial difficulty as an annoyance rather than a real problem of life (Botting, 2017).
Maxwell’s mother moved to London and he is reported to have had a complex and increasingly detached relationship with his family during his adulthood (Frere, 1976). Maxwell was a keen student of Freud and often reflected on his childhood and its influence on his adult relationships, both with people and animals (Field, 2014).
Maxwell abandoned his painting career, and began writing, a pursuit that had always come naturally to him (Botting, 2017). In January 1950 his poetry was first published in the New
Statesman and was well received. In the summer of 1950 he began writing his first memoire, a recounting of his basking shark fishing days, which was eventually published in May 1952 to universal critical acclaim (Botting, 2017). Maxwell’s memoires did not reflect his true self but rather a mask he presented to the world, often a mask that portrayed him in the best possible light, minimizing or omitting his flaws. His publisher, Rupert Hart-Davis described him as the most difficult client he’d ever had, demanding of reassurance, admiration and money (Botting,
2017).
Maxwell’s next two literary projects were set in Sicily and he spent much of 1953, 1954 and 1955 doing research for his books there (Maxwell, 2001). God Protect Me from My Friends 18 was published in 1956 and The Ten Pains of Death in 1959. During this time Maxwell suffered from intermittent depression and was treated by Dr Stungo (Botting, 2017).
In 1956, while in London, Maxwell met Wilfred Thesinger and was invited to join him on a tour of the Iraq reed marshes, an area mostly untouched by modern civilisation at the time
(Maxwell, 2003; Thesinger, 1964). Both men published books inspired by that tour. Maxwell’s being A Reed Shaken by the Wind was published in 1957. Thesinger and Maxwell did not always see eye to eye on their two month long expedition. Thesinger felt that Maxwell acted selfishly and showed little interest in the local people. Maxwell in turn felt neglected by
Thesinger and felt that he should have been taken better care of, as he was invited on the expedition (Botting, 2017). During the expedition Maxwell began longing for an animal companion, both in the marshes and back home, as his dog Jonnie had recently been put down
(Maxwell, 2003). On 29 February he purchased a young otter cub from a small village, which was being hand fed with a bottle (Maxwell, 1964). Maxwell was utterly besotted with the young cub; he named her Chahala and the locals referred to her as his daughter (Maxwell, 1964). He cared for her abundantly, teaching her to answer to her name and allowing her to sleep in his jersey. Tragically, Chahala died after a few weeks and Maxwell was devastated and blamed himself. According to Thesinger, he was in hysterics, stating that through his stupidity
(supposedly in weaning it too soon) he had killed an innocent creature who had trusted him
(Botting 2017).
On Maxwell’s last night in the marshes Thesinger presented him with another otter cub, a male this time, of a clearly different species and already weaned. Maxwell was ecstatic and named the otter Mijbil. With Mijbil his life entered a new phase, what he referred to as “a thraldom to otters, an otter fixation” (Maxwell, 1974, p 104.) Maxwell told Botting that with an otter for company he could forgo all human love and affection (Botting, 2017). 19
Maxwell returned to London and then went on to Sandaig with Mijbil. Maxwell experienced the otter as giving him complete and utter trust, and as lavishing him with affection
(Maxwell, 1974). While in London, Maxwell had Mijbil examined by the Zoology department of the British Museum who stated that Mijbil belonged to a new species of otter, the discovery of which was attributed to Maxwell. Consequently, the species was named after him: Lutrogale perspicillata maxwelli (Maxwell, 1974). Maxwell was inordinately proud to have the species named after him and saw it as a form of immortality. On his deathbed Maxwell was to proclaim that the discovery of Maxwell’s otter was the greatest achievement of his life (Botting, 2017;
Frere, 1976).
Mijbil was to be the first of a series of otters to share Maxwell’s life and home. The animals were highly anthropomorphised by Maxwell and formed the primary subject matter of what were to become his most famous works (Parrinder, 2014). Maxwell described his time living at Sandaig with Mijbil as the best year of his life (Maxwell, 1974). He employed the assistance of Jimmy Watt, fifteen at the time, to help him care for Mijbil. Jimmy lived with Maxwell at
Sandaig and in London (Field, 2014; Botting 2017). It was during this period that Maxwell and
Raine had one of their most bitter fallings out. Raine had been staying at Sandaig with Mijbil while Maxwell travelled to London. When he returned with a friend he demanded that Raine leave immediately. This was followed by a violent altercation outside the house resulting in
Raine being cast out into the stormy twilight to make the long trek uphill towards the nearest neighbours. In her distraught state she stood under a Rowan tree (which to Maxwell and Raine symbolised the tree of life), looked down at the cottage and cursed Maxwell saying “let Gavin suffer, in this place as I am suffering now!” (Raine, 1977; Botting, 2017; Lister-Kaye, 2014).
Maxwell and Raine eventually mended their friendship (Botting, 1977).
Tragically, in 1957, after Mijbil had been with Maxwell for little over a year, he was beaten to death by road mender while under Raine’s care (Maxwell, 1974). Maxwell mourned the loss 20 of Mijbil deeply, and it was over a year before he was able to return to Sandaig (Botting, 2017;
Frere, 1976).
Maxwell decided to write a book recounting his experience of Mijbil and his time at
Sandaig and in April of 1959 he returned to Sandaig to begin writing (Frere, 1976). Despite making this decision, to all accounts Maxwell disliked writing for living, describing it as “blood sweat, toil and tears” and stating “I loathe the process of writing” (Botting, 2017, p. 270). In
1959, following a chance meeting, he acquired Edal, an adult female otter who had been hand reared by a couple who were due to return to Africa and needed a home for Edal. Maxwell leapt at the opportunity to have another otter companion at Sandaig (Maxwell, 1974). Shortly thereafter, Maxwell finished writing his book, A Ring of Bright Water in 1959 and it was published in 1960 to universal critical acclaim and public approval (Botting, 2017; Frere,
1976).
Maxwell travelled to Morocco in 1959 and 1960 to conduct research on a book set in the
Atlas mountains, this would eventually be published in 1966 as The Lords of the Atlas. During these visits to Morocco, Jimmy Watt would care for Edal. (Botting, 2017). Upon Maxwell’s return to London in 1960 he acquired yet another otter cub, a male named Teko who had also been hand reared in Africa (Maxwell, 2001). Maxwell had ideas of Edal and Teko frolicking together at Sandaig, but sadly this was never to be. Edal was unwilling to tolerate Teko’s presence and the two had to be kept separate at all times (Botting, 2017). With this came changes to Sandaig; instead of being Maxwell’s retreat it became his primary residence.
Electricity, running water and a telephone were installed. A fence was also erected around the cottage to keep the otters confined when necessary (Frere, 1976). Botting (2017) reflected on the tragic irony that from the moment Maxwell decided to make Sandaig his permanent home it began to disintegrate “both as a concept and as a reality” (p. 301). In the early years following these changes there is no evidence that Maxwell regretted them (Botting, 2017). 21
Maxwell had a steady stream of visitors at Sandaig. While he desired solitude and seclusion, he did not like to be alone for long periods (Botting, 2017). In 1961 Maxwell also hired a second assistant to help care for the otters. Terry Nutkins was a fourteen year old school boy who Maxwell eventually took legal guardianship of (Maxwell, 2001; Bottling 2017;
Garavelli, 2014). Maxwell’s Avalon was now a community (Maxwell, 2001).
In August 1961 Maxwell invited Raine to Sandaig for the first time since the death of
Mijbil. During this visit she revealed to Maxwell the curse she had made under the rowan tree.
Maxwell was “aghast when he heard this, for part of him genuinely believed she possessed occult powers” and described her to mutual friends as a witch and once again rudely ejected her from Sandaig (Botting, 2017, p. 307). By this stage Maxwell and Raine’s friendship was marked by contrasts, bitter arguments followed by warm reconciliations where they would swear never to doubt one another again, which would then be followed by ever fiercer arguments (Botting, 2017; Raine, 1977).
While the publishing of A Ring of Bright Water brought fame and fortune to Maxwell, all was not well at Sandaig. Edal and Teko both attacked guests, Edal attacked Terry Nutkins so ferociously that he lost two fingers, leading to their permanent confinement in separate enclosures outside the house, and their treatment like zoo animals with minimal human contact
(Frere, 1976). This affected Maxwell greatly and he felt great guilt over it (Botting, 2017).
Edal's repeated attacks on humans (most frequently women) were explained by Maxwell as jealousy; he believed that her bond to him was so strong that she could not tolerate another person being close to him (Botting 2017).
The popularity of A Ring of Bright Water resulted in a near constant stream of fans and tourists arriving uninvited at the cottage in Sandaig (Maxwell, 2001). Maxwell resented the intrusion (Field, 2014) that his new found fame brought to his remote home (Maxwell &
Straiton, 2016). During this time of invasion one tourist arrived by yacht and dropped anchor 22 in the bay and began wantonly shooting seagulls. Maxwell decided that this destruction of wildlife could not be tolerated, and shot at the boat with a large calibre rifle, leading the tourist to flee the bay (Maxwell, 2001). The account given by the man allegedly shooting the gulls was that he had been shooting at empty bottles for target practice (Botting, 2017).
On the 1st February 1961 Maxwell married long time friend Lavinia Renton. He approached the concept of marriage in a rather business-like way, first deciding that he would like to be married and then choosing from his friends and acquaintances who he would like to marry (Botting, 2017). According to Renton, during their brief courtship Maxwell referred to her as the perfect woman, strong, unemotional and “entirely capable in a somewhat masculine way” (Botting, 2017, p. 368). Renton was warned by friends that Maxwell was not interested in a romantic partner but rather a substitute mother (Botting, 2017). Even before their marriage there is evidence that Maxwell treated Renton poorly, refusing to return to London from
Sandaig to assist with wedding preparations and insisting that she buy his Christmas presents for him, as well as her own wedding ring (Botting, 2017).
There is evidence that Maxwell struggled with being torn between freedom, and the security that he believed marriage would bring to his life. Following the wedding reception he is reported to have said to his new wife: “Well, I’m going to Sandaig. Where are you going?”
(Botting, 2017, p. 375). Maxwell believed that marriage would transform his life and bring him happiness (Botting, 2017). Renton said that as his wife, she saw things about him which he did not want to be seen and that this put pressure on their relationships (Botting, 2017). The cracks started to show during their honeymoon in Morocco (Botting, 2017). Halfway through Renton returned to England as Maxwell needed space and solitude. During this time he wrote her a letter stating that he didn't think she was capable of understanding just how complex he was
(Botting 2017). Renton stated that the more time they spent together, the more aware she became of the contradicting elements of his personality (Botting, 2017). He needed both 23 solitude and companionship. They would converse happily for hours and then he would suddenly explode when she made a careless remark. He had many friends but was deeply insecure and was at times preoccupied with being betrayed, even though there were no grounds for his suspicions.
Before long the marriage was in crisis. Maxwell’s swings became wider and wider, with
Renton stating “I take this into account in both the best and worst things he says of me”
(Botting, 2017, p. 385). Renton revealed that Maxwell had confided in her “that he had spent years freeing himself from his mother (on the surface that is), and ten years more freeing himself from Kathleen Raine” (Botting, 2017, p. 389). The couple tried to start a family but were unsuccessful. Maxwell held Renton solely responsible for this. Renton reported that
Maxwell felt that his “perfect woman had let him down by not conceiving” (Botting, 2017, p.
385).
Maxwell hit a period of serious writer’s block which he blamed on Renton. After only four months of marriage Renton realised that Maxwell had the emotional development of an adolescent stating: “Intellectually he was like Sophocles. But emotionally he was like Peter
Pan” (Botting, 2017, p. 411). There have been other references to Maxwell as Peter Pan – like, and the fact that he was most comfortable in the presence of adolescent boys (Syse, 2007).
In her conversations with Botting and her letters to friends, Renton revealed deep insight and empathy for Maxwell, as well as mounting distress at her situation. She was expected to single handedly care for Maxwell, Watt and Nutkins as well her own two teenage boys, in a remote setting. She grew exhausted and this was evident to even acquaintances who visited
Sandaig. One friend remarked “how sad, Wendy and the Lost Boys” (Botting, 2017, p. 388).
According to Renton, Maxwell built her up into “a sort of goddess creature” (p. 386) but was unable to cope with the give and take of an adult relationship and resented any demands placed upon him (Botting, 2017). Maxwell also became jealous of the friendships that Renton 24 developed with Watt and Nutkins and even of her bond with the otters (Botting, 2017).
Maxwell had an episode, described by Renton as a nervous breakdown, leaving him bedridden and withdrawn for several days. Immediately following this episode Maxwell suggested to
Renton that she get psychiatric help, even writing to the Psychiatrist outlining Renton’s case as he saw it (Botting, 2017). According to Botting (2017), Renton stated:
I have known for a long time how he inverts things. He takes something someone
else has said and makes it come as if from himself; likewise he will transfer to
another person some feeling or thought which he doesn't like (p. 391).
Maxwell could be very cruel to Renton at times, calling her destructive and “a killer bent on destroying people”, accusing her of jealousy, hysteria and being a “Jekyll and Hyde character”
(p. 392). Maxwell was described as a master manipulator who played “chess with people”
(Botting, 2017, p. 392). Kathleen Raine stated “He had the gift of making us all his slaves”
(Raine, 1977, p. 33).
Renton began to feel that she was losing her sense of self (Botting, 2017). Renton revealed that Maxwell presented her with a document that listed a profits and losses account of their relationship as well as a pros and cons lists of Renton, with the cons list being considerably longer than the pro’s list. Maxwell also told Renton that she was both mad and suicidal
(Botting, 2017).
After this incident, the couple went overseas separately, Maxwell to Morocco and Renton to Switzerland (Botting, 2017). On the eve of their first wedding anniversary, Maxwell wrote to Renton, thanking her from the bottom of his heart for bringing hope and purpose to his life by marrying him. He gave her total credit for his current state of hopefulness and ability to write again (Botting, 2017). A little over a month after this, Maxwell wrote to Renton telling her that he wanted her to move out and never set foot in Sandaig again. He did however still want her two teenage sons to remain there while on holiday from boarding school and he still 25 wanted to write to her about his life and day to day goings on (Botting, 2017). It took the firm intervention of Renton’s father, insisting on a clean break, to resolve the one sided arrangement.
Renton’s father accused Maxwell of wanting “the best of both worlds” (Botting, 2017, p.410).
Renton left Sandaig and they were officially divorced. During their marriage they had never spent more than three weeks at a stretch in each other’s company (Botting, 2017).
Maxwell began to perceive that his Avalon had lost its charm. Terry Nutkin left in 1963, and Watt began to take over more and more responsibility for the upkeep of Sandaig (Frere,
1976). Maxwell was also in financial trouble. The cost of maintaining Sandaig paired with his reckless spending habits resulted in the money earned from A Ring of Bright Water disappearing fast (Frere, 1976). Maxwell now felt bound to his desk as he struggled to write
The Rocks Remain, The Lords of the Atlas and The House of Elrig to pay his mounting bills
(Botting, 2017). Despite his dire financial situation, Maxwell decided to buy two lighthouses on nearly islands (the larger named Eilean Ban) with the intention of refurbishing the houses and renting them out too wealthy tourists (Frere, 1976). To help him achieve this he employed
Richard and Joan Frere to renovate and decorate the houses (Frere, 1976). Although Richard
Frere at first found Maxwell to be “abrupt and uneasy” (p. 434) the two became close friends over time as Frere understood Maxwell’s many contradictions of character (Botting, 2017).
During this time Maxwell was planning another book, a work of philosophy and psychology called The Heritage of Fear which would explore the roots of human and animal behaviour which he claimed to be “his great discovery” and “an entirely new idea” (p. 441).
The book was never completed (Botting, 2017).
Maxwell suffered a series of misfortunes in rapid succession, including the death of his mother in 1965 (Botting, 2017; Maxwell & Straiton, 2016). To add to his troubles he was now in serious financial difficulty and he faced bankruptcy (Frere, 1976). Maxwell attributed his disastrous financial situation to his allowing other people to control his money and make 26 financial decisions for him, and as such fired his London office manager Michael Cuddy
(Botting, 2017). It was later revealed that the cause of his financial woes was not mismanagement by others, but Maxwell's own financial indiscretions (Botting, 2017). He was very demanding financially and would make purchases against the advice of his financial advisors, leaving them powerless to control the outflow of money (Botting, 2017; Frere, 1976).
Maxwell was often frivolous in his spending, buying boats and luxury cars, when he was barely solvent. Maxwell’s unfair dismissal of Cuddy led to another falling out with long time friend,
Raef Payne (Botting, 2017).
Maxwell eventually enlisted the help of Bruno de Hamel to save his dire financial situation.
De Hamel reported that when he tried to exert some financial control or place financial restraints on Maxwell he would become difficult and childlike, accusing de Hamel of “ruining his life” (p. 455) and even accusing de Hamel of flirting with him (Botting, 2017). Maxwell was financially rescued by his literary agent on many occasions, yet he remained deeply in debt
(Botting, 2017). Maxwell had a great desire for a life that lived up to his aristocratic roots and would host luxurious parties where he would offer no less than twelve different kinds of whiskey (Botting, 2017; Frere, 1976).
At this point, after eight years, Jimmy Watt informed Maxwell of his intention to leave
Sandaig and make his own path in the world, somewhat removed from a guardian he both loved and found to be possessive (Botting, 2017). This news drove Maxwell into a depressive state as he viewed Watt as a son. He used every available means to convince Watt to stay, resulting in an “emotional tug of war” (p.460), but Watt was determined and left Sandaig. Maxwell wrote
Watt a fond note of farewell stating his gratitude and hopes for happiness in Watt’s future.
Maxwell and Watt remained close (Botting, 2017).
Maxwell’s Moroccan history Lords of the Atlas was eventually published in 1966. Over the next two years Maxwell lived a semi nomadic existence, traveling between Morocco, 27
Sandaig, London and Greece and suffered further misfortunes including the deaths of pets, further financial troubles and a lawsuit for libel. Maxwell stated during this time that he feared he would never experience fortune again and that it seemed to him that every day brought news of disaster in one form or another. (Maxwell, 2007). While visiting his brother in Greece,
Maxell has a chance encounter with Kathleen Raine who by coincidence was visiting friends on the same Greek island. Maxwell invited Raine for dinner, the two having had no contact for the past six years. Their meeting turned hostile after the topic of Raines curse against Maxwell came up, with him reflecting on his recent series of misfortunes. He blamed her, calling her a destroyer and denying that there had ever been any real love of any kind between them.
Following this Raine attempted to reconcile with Maxwell by writing him a letter (Raine, 1977;
Botting, 2017).
Upon his return to Sandaig Maxwell attempted to reintroduce some human contact into
Edal and Teko’s lives. Gradually they spent more and more time out of their enclosures and with their human caretakers. Maxwell described this as bringing both him and the otters immense joy (Maxwell, 2007). Maxwell had planned to send both otters to a zoo as the future of Sandaig seemed very unstable, but following his renewed contact with Edal and Teko,
Maxwell decided that this was no longer an option (Botting, 2017; Maxwell, 2007).
In 1967 Maxwell suffered a period of ill health including headaches and lung complaints
(Frere, 1976). During this time he had a dream of his own obituary after which he told friends
“I very much wonder if I am going to survive September 1969” (Botting, 2017, p. 494). The film rights to A Ring of Bright Water was purchased from Maxwell in 1967, and brought some much needed financial relief to him. He was now able to feasibly keep Sandaig (Frere, 1976).
Richard Frere, who was now assisting Maxwell in managing his finances, had to persuade him to allow the creative changes proposed by the producers in order for filming of A Ring of Bright
Water to take place. This was met with massive resistance from Maxwell. In response to the 28 situation, Frere stated “compromise never suited him. He preferred to scrap an idea rather than modify it” (Botting, 2017, p. 505).
In 1967 Maxwell hired Andrew Scott, seventeen at the time, to assist at Sandaig. The young man proved to be an enthusiastic and competent employee who did a good job in caring for
Sandaig and the otters (Frere, 1976). Tragically on 21 January 1968 the house at Sandaig caught fire. Maxwell and Scott were both present at the time and tried frantically to douse the flames.
Realising this was not working they attempted to rescue the otters. They managed to save Teko but tragically Edal died in the fire. The house was completely destroyed and Maxwell was left with only the clothes he was wearing at the time. Edal was buried under the Rowan tree (Frere,
1976; Maxwell, 2007). The news soon became public and Maxwell received an outpouring of charity. People from all over the world sent clothes and comforts, a five year old boy even posted a tin of sardines for Teko (Botting, 2017; Frere 1976).
Maxwell was completely uninsured. Richard Frere, being largely in control of Maxwell’s finances at this point, felt a large amount of guilt over this (Frere, 1976; Botting, 2017).
Maxwell reportedly expressed no anger and attached no blame, he just expressed his gratitude repeatedly to Frere for assisting with life's practicalities following his tragic loss (Botting,
2017).
Maxwell moved to Eilean Ban with Teko and Scott with plans to open a zoo on the island as well as an Eider duck colony (to harvest Eider duck down) on an adjacent island. Maxwell was enthusiastic about the move and viewed it as a new beginning (Frere, 1976). Eilean Ban was not an easy place to live, the terrain was rough and supplies were difficult to get up to the house (Lister Kayne, 1972). Maxwell’s health continued to deteriorate although he was given the all clear in a medical check (Frere, 1976). He relied on the help of Scott and Frere although he did not acknowledge or even seem to realise just how dependent on them he was (Botting,
2017). 29
During this time Maxwell had periods where he would become increasingly paranoid and aggressive, accusing those around him of treachery and betrayal. Increasing signs of emotional instability and irrationality were noted in Maxwell (Frere 1976; Botting, 2017). Frere also noted that by the beginning of 1969 Maxwell was battling near constant headaches and insisted that he undergo a more thorough medical examination. Maxwell underwent extensive tests and was again given a clean bill of health (Frere, 1976).
By this time tension between Maxwell and Scott had reached alarming proportions. They engaged in hour long shouting matches that sometimes devolved into physical altercations.
These episodes were often triggered by a perceived slight from Scott and resulted in Maxwell’s listing off all of Scott’s flaws as he saw them (Frere, 1976). Maxwell by this stage realised that life on the island would not be possible without the assistance of Scott. This awareness of his need for Scott’s assistance did not stop Maxwell from pushing him away (Botting, 2017). Their final catastrophic fight was over the affections of an eighteen year old girl, Lisa van Gruisen, who visited the island to bring a fox cub to Maxwell at the fledgling zoo. Maxwell accused
Scott of pulling a knife on him and threatening to kill him. When Frere heard of the incident he dismissed Maxwell’s allegations against Scott. In his view Maxwell had invented the incident to deter Lisa from Scott. Frere felt that given that there was a real or imagined grudge against Scott, there would be no limits to Maxwell’s powers of invention. Shortly after this incident, Scott left Maxwell’s employ for good (Botting, 2017; Frere, 1976).
Following Scott’s departure Maxwell felt abandoned and isolated, despite the fact that he quickly hired a replacement. Botting (2017) expanded that Maxwell wrote to his housekeeper stating “I don't feel myself to belong anywhere special, things change so quickly, don't they?”
(p. 554).
By now Maxwell was obviously ill and was described as “cadaverous and ill-looking”
(Botting, 2017, p. 550). He was brave and strong in the face of his deteriorating health and was 30 described by friends and acquaintances as particularly kind, welcoming and generous of spirit during this time (Botting, 2017; Frere, 1976; Lister-Kaye, 2014).
On 11 April 1969 Maxwell underwent more extensive tests that confirmed that he had terminal lung cancer that had metastasized to his bones (Frere, 1976). Following this news, while Maxwell was in hospital, Frere contacted Maxwell’s friends and family. Maxwell tried to present a brave face to those he spoke to including doctors but according to Frere he was afraid and heartsore (Frere, 1976). Maxwell left hospital to sort out his affairs and Jimmy Watt came to stay with him on the island to assist him (Frere, 1976). He wrote letters to friends and family including Raine, asking her to send him some poems (Raine, 1977; Frere, 1976).
Maxwell became concerned with what he would leave behind as his legacy, particularly with regards to paying his debts and ensuring that his heir, Jimmy Watt, had a worthwhile inheritance, although his dire financial situation meant that there was little to leave to Watt financially (Botting, 2017; Frere, 1976). Commenting on Maxwell’s courage during this time his friend Peter Janson-Smith stated:
It was typical of Gavin that he had, in all the years I had known him,
become hysterical, childish and totally unreasonable at every minor
disaster that had befallen him, but accepted the final doctors’ verdict with
total calm and dignity (Botting, 2017, p. 564).
Maxwell’s friends were unwilling to accept his terminal diagnosis and arranged for a renowned chest specialist to give his second opinion. The news was even more dire than expected. Maxwell’s life expectancy was reduced from six months to three. Maxwell was at this stage back in hospital in Inverness and he confided in Frere that he hoped for a quick death
(Frere, 1976).
Maxwell died in hospital at 4:30 am on 7 September 1969, a mere three weeks after being informed that he had three months to live (Frere, 1976). Numerous friends including Jimmy 31
Watt, Kathleen Raine and Terry Nutkins reported a sense of knowing at the time of Maxwell’s death (Botting, 2017). His ashes were buried at the site of the Sandaig cottage on 18 September, and was attended by a small gathering of those closest to him, including Terry Nutkins, Jimmy
Watt, Richard Frere, Raef Payne and Kathleen Raine (Frere, 1976). A formal, larger memorial service was held on 23 September in London (Botting, 2017). Teko, the last living remnant of
Maxwell’s life with his otters, died two weeks to the day after Maxwell’s death (Lister-Kaye,
1972).
Maxwell published a total of eleven books during his lifetime (Maxwell & Striaton, 2016).
His most lasting legacy has been the impact he had on public views of conservation, most specifically with regards to otters and other indigenous British fauna. Although his approach to conservation has subsequently been criticised, he drew public awareness towards the necessity of conserving wild places and creatures (Parrinder, 2014).
Conclusion
This chapter provided a biographical overview of the life of Gavin Maxwell. Major events and relationships in his childhood, adolescence and adulthood were detailed within the context of the culture and time period in which Maxwell lived. The following chapter will provide an outline of Otto Kernberg’s Object Relations theory, the theoretical framework through which Maxwell’s life experiences will be examined.
32
CHAPTER THREE
KERNBERG’S OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY
Chapter Overview
The following chapter will provide an overview of Otto Kernberg’s (1975, 1976, 1980,
1992) Object Relations Theory. It will broadly outline the theory, the formation of ego structures within healthy development, as well as psychopathological development. It will also explore the defense mechanisms employed in both optimal development and pathological development. The chapter will then explore the Borderline Personality Organisation as well as the Narcissistic Personality Organisation in greater detail.
Theory Overview
Otto Kernberg’s (1975, 1976, 1980, 1992) Object Relations Theory is a systematic model of the development of personality (Kernberg, 1984). Object relations are psychic units that represent an individual’s view of self, view of other, with an affective charge (or valence) imbedded in this view. This unit is referred to as an object relations dyad (Clarkin,
Lenzenweger, Yeomans, Levy, & Kernberg, 2007), and is a form of affective memory which forms the primary building blocks that make up an individual’s personality (Christopher,
Bickhard, & Lambeth, 2001). Object relations are patterns of affective memory. When triggered, the individual experiences either gratifying or frustrating affect (Kernberg & Caligor,
2005). Affect is thus pivotal, and is the organising component according to which patterns are stored. Thus, patterns are organised very simply into pleasant patterns, which cluster together, and unpleasant patterns, which cluster together. As cognitive development progresses these affect associations become more complex (Christopher et al., 2001). The presence of emotional valence leads the infant to organising experiences as either good (pleasurable) or bad (non pleasurable) depending on whether the needs of the infant are met. Over time, the representations of good accumulate and are internalised as the good internal object, and bad 33 accumulate and are internalised as the bad internal object (Christopher, Bickhard, & Lambeth,
2001). These enduring psychological structures are the foundation of the ego. Kernberg proposed that the primary motivational system for humans isn't simply drives and instincts but rather that the affects combine to form drives. Good self-object representations lead to psychic structures invested with libidinal energy and bad self-object representations become the psychic structures containing aggressive energy. Kernberg thus integrates drive theory by stating that drives develop in the context of the early mother - child relationship (Summers,
2015). In this relationship inborn instincts become drives and drives towards the pleasant become libidinal object relations units and drives away from the unpleasant become aggressive object relations units. During this progression affect changes its function from simply being the organisational force for instinct to being the informants for the organising of drives.
Development of Object Relations according to Kernberg
The development of internal object relations, the building blocks of the internal psychic structures, are influenced heavily by the infant’s caregivers. Over time patterned interactions with the caregiver become internalised as a stable parts of the psychic structure, with the particular relationship patterns and their associated emotional valence internalised. Kernberg
(1976) stated that the formation of psychic structures progresses through a series of five stages.
These stages are normal autism, normal symbiosis, differentiation of self from object relations, integration of self representations, and consolidation of superego and ego integration
(Christopher, Bickhard, & Lambeth. 2001). These stages will now be explained in greater detail.
Stage I: Normal Autism (0 to 1 month)
During this stage the infant experiences normal undifferentiated self-object representations, known as primary undifferentiation (Carsky & Ellman, 1982) self-object constellations. This lack of differentiation is primarily due to the physiological immaturity of the ego structure 34
(Summers, 2015) and is characterised by the inability of the infant to distinguish between the self and external objects (St Claire, 1996). Consequently, the infants experiences their self as one with their caregiver.
Stage II: Normal Symbiosis (2 to 6-8 months)
During Normal Symbiosis the self and object images are still fused (St Claire, 1996). Over time, the infant starts to differentiate the self-object constellations, by dividing them into good and bad. The ‘good’ self and object representations form in response to pleasurable experiences in the mother child relationship, and group together and are internalised as the good internal object. Similarly, the ’bad’ self and object representations form from unpleasurable mother child interactions, and group together and are internalised as the bad internal object. These two distinct object relations structures are the first introjections (Summers, 2015).
Stage III: Differentiation of Self from Object Relations (6-8 to 18-36 months)
This stage begins with the differentiation of the self and object representations within both the good and the bad internal objects. This means that the child is now able to experience the self as good and bad, and others as good and bad. The child still keeps the various representations separate, as the ego is not yet mature enough to integrate them. However, when bad representations are triggered they can overwhelm their child’s experience of their self as good. Consequently, the child is likely to split these representations off and project them outside onto the world, experiencing others as bad rather than the self. Splitting at this point is developmentally appropriate. As development progresses ego boundaries become sufficiently well developed that they are able to be maintained even when the individual is stressed. Just before the third year the child undergoing healthy object relations development will begin to integrate good and bad images in both his self and other object representations.
Stage IV: Integration of Self Representations and Object Representations (36 months - 6 years) 35
During this stage the child slowly starts to merge their good and bad representations. Thus, development is focused on the integration of conflicting self representations as well as conflicting other representations (Chessick, 2015). Good and bad self images combine to form a “definite self-system” while good and bad object images are solidified into “total object- representations” (Kernberg, 1976, p.67). This progression supports the child’s achievement of object permanence. It allows the child to view itself and others with more complexity, as consisting simultaneously of both positive and negative attributes. For example, mom is experienced as kind and stern. In the past she was either the one or the other, but now that she is both these things, she is experienced more consistently. The outcome is thus the presence of more stable, accurate and realistic self- and object-representations (Kernberg, 2001).
The merger of a variety of representations into a whole self and into whole object representations allows for the discrimination between persecutory, realistic and idealized representations (Kernberg, 1998; Summers, 2015). The child is able to more effectively reality test, with the ability to evaluate nuance and extremes in behaviour.
Integrations cause and neutralisation of valence, and release energy that activate the capacity for repression. Thus, the individual’s primary defense mechanism moves from splitting to repression (Summers, 2015). When bad representations are triggered, it is no longer necessary for the ego to defend its good representation against perceived attack by threatening objects, splitting them off. Rather bad representations are repressed from conscious awareness, and the child is unaware of them. Repression supports stable functioning through a consistent experience of self and other. Additionally, repression leads to the formation of psychological structures (Kernberg and Caligor, 2005). At this point, the structures of the id, ego and superego form.
The Id. The id is formed when the individual splits off inappropriate or extreme impulses from the developing ego, usually representations from early development that are intense and 36 irrational. They are repressed into the id, and are no longer consciously accessible. Repression thus becomes an essential defensive strategy critical to normal personality development through its function of allowing erratic aggressive and libidinal material to be rejected by the ego and to be stored in the id (Kernberg & Caligor, 2005) to become part of the drive system.
Superego. Superego development occurs in a series of phases, beginning during the third stage of Kernberg's model (Kernberg & Caligor, 2005). In this first phase threatening images are split off from the self and projected onto object representations (usually the mother or primary caregiver, as threatening or punitive). These representations carry a negative valence and are typically punitive in nature (Kernberg, 1995). Once this outward projection has occurred the infant will then reintroject those representations. This is done to protect the idealised image of the mother, who’s representation must remain good under all circumstances
(Carsky & Ellman, 1985).
As the child moves into the fourth stage of Kernberg’s model the second phase of superego development takes place. During this phase ideal self images and ideal object images combine to form an ego ideal. A tension forms between the punitive introjects established in the first phase of superego development (Kernberg & Caligor, 2005), and the representations making up the ego ideal from the second layer. These punitive and idealised representations are successively internalised and integrated, with parts repressed into the superego. This integrated superego allows for the capacity of guilt, as the superego can place pressure on the ego for correct behaviour, thus influencing the ego. Pressure is placed on the ego when the individual's realistic self image does not live up to expected standards, and this is experienced as guilt
(Kernberg, 2004). Under optimal developmental conditions the integration of the ego ideal with the sadistic attacking self representations produces a superego that functions as a separate psychological structure (Summers, 2015). 37
The third phase of superego development occurs once the superego is mature enough to place pressure on the ego to respond appropriately to situations. When the child fails to act according to their ego ideal, they experience guilt which is projected onto an external object.
These feelings of guilt are then unconsciously re-introjected back into the superego (Kernberg,
1998). This re-introjection causes the superego to grow. The more this process takes place the more the child's superego develops and matures. This in turn results in the superego becoming more organised and allows the child to interpret the limitations set by caregivers in a more realistic manner and respond with a greater degree of emotional stability and a restriction of aggressive reactions (Kernberg & Caligor, 2005). As the superego grows, it becomes depersonalised and abstracted. This means that the individual now identifies their ideals and values as part of their identity and no longer originating from an external source (Kernberg,
2004). In cases where superego development is not sufficient the result is an individual who relies primarily on an external locus of control and is incapable of taking responsibility for their own behaviours. A healthy superego allows the individual to develop a personal moral code, and there by take responsibility for their own actions. It allows them to be self reflective and self critical without risking damage to their ego identity. They also develop a sense of flexibility when faced with beliefs and realities contradictory to their own, allowing them to accommodate the differing values of others without feeling threatened. Once the third phase of ego development is complete the superego becomes responsible for the ego’s decision making processes (Kernberg, 1995).
Ego identity. Under the supervision of the superego the ego can organise and integrate self- object representations. (Kernberg, 1998) Ego identity is thus established when the intrapsychic structures are consolidated, the result of the integration of self - and object representations
(Summers, 2015).
38
Stage V: Consolidation of Ego and Superego Integration (approximately age 5 to 7 years)
The individual has a complete self system, and a complete object system. As the superego becomes more consolidated its pronounced distinction from the ego decreases and the superego gradually becomes integrated into the individual’s personality. Furthermore, as the individual interacts with their world of objects, their internalised object relations are tweaked and reshaped to more accurately reflect their self and others. Thus, the development of integrated object images in the previous phase of development allow for meaningful relationships with external objects which in turn results in further solidification of self and object images, as well as the further integration of intrapsychic structures (Summers, 2015). This reduces tension between the ego and superego and results in strengthened ego identity (Chessick, 2015).
Perceived ego threats can now be repressed into the unconscious, supporting stability and consistency in functioning.
Levels of Personality Development and Defense Mechanisms
Kernberg’s conceptualisation of personality functioning exists on a continuum ranging from optimal to severely pathological. The degree to which the individual has been able to integrate their positive and negatively charged object relations is pivotal to the health of the personality.
The defense mechanisms the individual employs depends on the health of the personality
(Christopher et al., 2001).
Defense mechanisms are defined by Perry and Bond (2005) as “an individual’s automatic psychological response to internal or external stressors or emotional conflict” (p. 523).
Individuals functioning at a healthy level employ mature defense mechanisms while individuals on the more pathological end of the spectrum employ primitive defense mechanisms as a way to protect the idealised self from perceived external threat (Clarkin et al.,
2007). 39
Mature defenses are repression based, and include intellectualization, rationalization, humour and sublimation. Repression involves the transference of unacceptable drives, memories or wishes from the conscious awareness of the individual to the unconscious (Meyer et al., 2008). More specifically, intellectualization is the use of reasoning to avoid confrontation with an unconscious conflict (Gabbard, 2010). Rationalization refers to the justification of psychologically uncomfortable feelings or behaviours by means of explaining them in a way that makes them seem acceptable or even admirable. Humour refers to finding something comedic in a situation in which the individual feels they lack control or finds stressful, thus helping them to cope with it, while sublimation references the transformation of unacceptable behaviours and impulses into socially acceptable behaviours and thoughts (Meyers et al., 2008,
Valiant, 1992).
Primitive defenses are splitting based, and include omnipotence, omnipotent control, primitive idealization, devaluation, denial and projective identification (Clarkin et al., 2007).
These defenses will now be explored in greater detail, given that they are more relevant to the current study.
Splitting
Splitting refers to the separation and isolation of internal affective states experienced by the individual. It functions to protect the ‘good self’ from contamination and potential annihilation by the persecutory ’bad self’. While splitting is developmentally appropriate for very young children, it becomes pathological when it extends further than this, and prevents the ego from developing optimally (Kernberg, 1984). A consequence of splitting is that the lack of integration of object relational patterns impairs the healthy formation of psychological structures. Furthermore, intense affective valence cannot be neutralised or moderated, this in turn means that repression based defences are not activated, and splitting continues beyond the point of being appropriate for development. This results in the rapid switching between 40 cognitive affective states, depending on which side of the object relation split is active. This is experienced by the individual employing this defense as intense and rapidly switching emotional states which are often not situationally proportionate or appropriate (Clarkin et al.,
2007)
Omnipotence
Omnipotence refers to the pervasive and enduring belief by the individual that they are powerful, superior, important, intelligent or desirable to external objects (Kernberg, 1976).
Characteristic of omnipotence as a defence is its presence in all spheres of life (Vaknin, 2015).
The individual’s belief in their omnipotence justifies their demand for gratification and adoration from external objects (Kernberg, 1985). The function of the omnipotence defense is to protect the fragile ’good self’ against threat from bad representations. This defence results in a fundamental lack of awareness of the individuals flaws and inadequacies (Vlaknin, 2015).
Primitive Idealisation
This defense mechanism involves the perception of external objects as completely good or perfect (Caligor, et al 2007). In order to protect the vulnerable ’good self’ from potential attack or annihilation from ‘bad’ objects, the individual will exaggerate the objects ’goodness’ while ignoring any flaws or shortcomings. The idealised object is not experienced as a separate entity but as an extension of the subject's ’good self’. According to Kernberg (1985) primitive idealisation is not to be confused with genuine care or admiration as it is purely self serving in nature and is employed as a means of protection against dangerous or threatening external objects. It is a “primitive fantasy structure in which there is no real regard for the ideal object, but a simple need for it as a protection against a surrounding world of dangerous objects”
(p.30). The idealisation of others occurs so that the subject may share in the idealised qualities of the object (Kernberg, 1985). The idealised goodness is transferred into the fragile self, thus 41 protecting it against persecution. The blurring of boundaries leads to impaired reality testing
(Kernberg & Caligor, 2005).
Omnipotent Control
This defense has primitive idealisation as its base. In order to preserve the all good self image the individual splits off and discards any aspect of either the self or the idealised object that is incongruent with this image (Caligor et al. 2007). Primitive idealisation is taken further through the subjects' grandiose influence and control over both their environment and idealised other. As individuals experience their idealised objects as an extension of self, they unconsciously feel the right to control them. Unconscious attempts to control present as manipulative and exploitative behaviours (Caligor et al. 2007). Should the idealised object resist or refuse to submit to attempts at control the likely outcome is devaluation and discard by the subject as they no longer hold any value (Kernberg, 1985). This defense serves to enhance and inflate the individuals grandiose sense of self (Caligor et al. 2007).
Devaluation
Devaluation is the antithesis of idealisation. Instead of an idealised wholly good and flawless object there is a persecuted object onto which negative attributes are projected. They are either actively devalued, or merely are “dropped and dismissed” (Kernberg, 2004a, p. 33) as if a previous relationship did not exist. This defense is used in order to protect the individual employing the defense from experiencing threatening or negative aspects of the self which could threaten the grandiose ‘all good’ self image. Devaluation is often extreme and devalued objects may be seen as inferior and completely without worth (Caligor et al, 2007). In addition to its primary function of protecting the fragile ego, this defense also serves to neutralise the potential threat of a powerful and fearful object. Devaluation can also be employed as an unconscious attempt to destroy an object that has not adequately met the needs of the subject
(Kernberg, 1985). 42
Denial
This defense involves the process of excluding from the consciousness material that does not align with the self representation of an individual (Meyer et al, 2008). In an attempt to protect the all good self representation as well as the fragile ego, individuals employ denial through disregarding and discarding aspects of their internal world or external environment that are viewed as incongruent or threatening, and causes conflict, as they clash with another aspect of self. Usually only one area is identified with at a time, and the importance of the other is denied. This process of splitting off and discarding unwanted experiences of the self and the other leads to distortions and thus difficulties in reality testing, especially in situations that are perceived by the individual as potentially threatening. This defense also hampers the individual’s capacity for understanding the consequences of their behaviours (Caligor et. al,
2007).
Projective Identification
Projective Identification is a defense mechanism that involves the discharge of unmanageable or intolerable qualities of the bad or aggressive self into an external object
(Kernberg, 1985). This is done in order to protect the vulnerable ’good self’ from contamination by the ‘bad self’ in doing so the intolerable projected aspects of the self are experienced as coming from an external object. Through the process of projecting the undesirable, threatening aspects of the self onto the external object the subject induces behaviours in the object to match the projection. They then identify and interact with the projected material (Caligor et al., 2007).
Splitting is a primary defence while projective identification, omnipotence, primitive idealization, omnipotent control, devaluation and denial are all secondary defences (Clarkin et al., 2007) used in support of the split.
Healthy Development 43
Normal personality development and the smooth progression through the aforementioned phases, leads to the development of an integrated sense of self and an integrated sense of other, that guides intra and interpersonal interaction. There are furthermore a range of outcomes of psychic development. Kernberg (1984) identified two key steps in the development of the healthy personality. Firstly, self - object differentiation must take place. Failure to achieve this results in psychotic potential in the developing personality. Secondly, the split ego moves to an integrated ego structure where defenses are organised around healthy repression. If this is not achieved the result is a weakness in ego and severe personality pathology (Summers, 2015).
Kernberg (1984) states that once the ego is integrated, as a result of the replacement of splitting with repression, neuroses is the worst possible outcome.
Clarkin et al. (2007) expanded on features that indicate optimal development, identifying an integrated concept of self and others, a broad range of emotional experiences and an internalised value system as features of healthy development.
Integrated concept of self and others
Individuals who have developed optimally are able to view both themselves and others as having good and bad parts that exist simultaneously (Clarkin et al., 2007). Clarkin et al. (2007) refers to this as “normal identity as opposed to identity diffusion” (p. 476). This allows the individual to have cognitive affective representations that are accurate as well as engage in behaviours that reflect this. Clarkin et al. (2007) identify this as being essential for the development of self-esteem, healthy independence as interdependence, as well as satisfying relationships with others.
Broad range of emotional experiences
Optimal development leads to affective experiences that are both broad as well as subtle
(Clarkin et al., 2007). Healthy individuals enjoy their emotional experiences without the loss of impulse control and are aware of their emotional world (Clarkin et al., 2007). This awareness 44 of and ability to modulate affective responses appropriately allows the individual to consistently and creatively express themselves emotionally in a variety of contexts (Kernberg
& Caligor, 2005).
Internalized value system
The presence of an internalised value system is another hallmark of healthy personality development Clarkin et al., 2007). The value system that began as parental prohibitions becomes internalised and does not remain rigidly tied to parental values. This individual, stable and consistent value system allows the individual to take personal responsibility for their actions, be realistically self-critical and make decisions based off internalised values that are realistically flexible (Clarkin et al., 2007).
Development of Psychopathology
When individuals do not progress through the developmental stages as they should, there are a variety of difficulties that may emerge.
Arrested development in the first stage results in the failure of development of the integrated self - object image and therefore an inability to form the necessary symbiotic relationship with the primary caregiver. This would result in autistic psychosis (Summers, 2015). Developmental disturbances in the second stage would result in the absence of distinct self-object boundaries.
Thus the individual either never emerges from, or regresses to the symbiotic phase when self and object representations were merged. Fixation at this stage would result in adult schizophrenia, psychotic depression, and childhood symbiotic psychosis (Summers, 2015).
Kernberg’s theory of psychopathology focuses on most difficulties originating in the third stage of development, and is centred around difficulties with the integration of good and bad object relations. He proposes a structural model that conceptualises levels of severity of personality pathology (Carsky & Ellman, 1985). Severity is based on the degree (or lack thereof) of shift from splitting to repression that are rooted in the extent of integrations 45
(Kernberg, 1984). When integrations do not occur, a variety of difficulties emerge including problems with reality test, identity integration(Carsky & Ellman, 1985), superego formation and guilt, impulse control and emotional regulation. Based on the degree of difficulty, three distinct categories emerge. These categories are the neurotic, borderline, and psychotic, personality organisations. Neurotic is the mildest, and psychotic is the most severe.
Diagram 1: Kernberg’s conceptualization of personality pathology in terms of severity and relationship to one another. Aggressivity, narcissism, and self destruction in the psychotherapeutic relationship: New developments in psychopathology and psychotherapy of severe personality disorders by O.F. Kernberg, p. 15.
The neurotic organisation of personality encompasses the mildest forms of personality pathology. Individuals functioning at the level possess sufficiently stable and well integrated intrapsychic structures as well as a normally developed ego identity with stronger and healthier ego boundaries than individuals at the borderline or psychotic levels. These allow the formation 46 of healthy object relations. Individuals at this level of functioning have a greater ability to tolerate anxiety and have higher levels of impulse control (Carsky & Ellman, 1985).
The neurotic personality is recognisable by the following features: defenses are primarily repression based, and as such splitting is seldom seen (Caligor et al., 2007), threatening, conflicting self representations are repressed into the id thus providing a more stable level of interpersonal functioning. According to Summers (2015) pathology at the neurotic level of personality organisation includes phobic, hysterical, depressive masochistic and obsessive compulsive personalities.
The borderline organisation of personality development is the intermediate level of personality pathology, and reflects greater difficulties, but is further subdivided into higher and lower levels. Individuals in the higher borderline level use predominantly repression based defences, including rationalisation, intellectualisation, sublimation and humour (Summers,
2015). Higher order defense mechanisms are predominantly employed but splitting occurs at times, when areas of conflict are triggered (Caligor et at., 2007) that hold object relations that are conflictual and unintegrated. As individuals have predominantly healthy integrations, the ego possesses more structure than those functioning at the lower borderline level. However, the problematic areas impede development, and introduce a level of rigidity into functioning.
They are associated with conflict between the ego and superego, resulting in conflict within the psyche of the individual. The superego is generally harsh (Summers, 2015) and the individual might be less inhibited, and might experience variations in mood (Summers, 2015).
Overall the ego is functional and organised but at the cost of emotional gratification due to the harsh superego (Summers, 2015). The ego of individuals functioning at this level has a greater degree of stability and organisation.
In the lower borderline level (i.e., more severe) of personality pathology the individual functions predominantly from part objects, as their positive and negative self and other object 47 representations are not well integrated. They employ predominantly splitting and associated defense mechanisms, when their bad representations are triggered. Because splitting is the primary psychological organiser for these individuals very little ego integration or object constancy is evident (Kernberg, 1985). In this way individuals experience themselves and others as inconsistent, and their representations are superficial. The ego structure of individuals at the level is both disorganised and unstable.
The superego at this level of pathology is harsh and not well integrated, and the individual oscillates between over idealized and extremely persecutory self and object representations
(Summers, 2015, Christopher et al., 2001). Individuals often present with paranoia (Summers,
2015). Impulsivity is also prominent, as the ego struggles to modulate emotions and control impulses, being weakened by the overuse of splitting. In this category Kernberg includes the diagnoses of “borderline personality organization, many narcissistic personalities, sexual deviancy, hypomanic disorders; most infantile personalities; antisocial, impulse-ridden, “as if”, and inadequate personalities; and prepsychotic character disorders” (Summers, 2015, p. 198).
The Borderline Personality Organisation
Borderline personality pathology is most relevant to the current research, so is explored in greater depth here. It emerges from the failure to resolve the developmental task of stage three, namely the integration of good and bad self and object representations (Kernberg, 1975). This results in the absence of an integrated self-concept as well as an absence of whole object representations. In Kernberg’s conceptualisation the lack of integration occurs when the number of negatively charged patterns overwhelm the fewer positively charged patterns. High numbers of negatively charged patterns could be the result of inborn excessive aggression and reduced ability to manage frustration, or could be due to exposure to severe trauma during the third stage of development, resulting in increased aggression (Kernberg, 2004). As a result of the increased aggression, individuals within the borderline personality organisation’s good self 48 and object representations are continuously under threat by bad self and object representations.
This leads to the continued splitting of good and bad self and object representations (Kernberg,
1985), beyond that which is developmentally appropriate. The ego is then unable to integrate because of the amount of bad patterns, and a variety of consequences emerge rooted in this pivotal difficulty.
The energy needed for repression is usually released by integrations, and this is not activated. As a result, repression as the primary defense fails to develop. This failure results in splitting continuing as the primary defense, leading to various structural abnormalities. The ego structure is required to manage the conflicts between environment, drives and superego, and as the ego and superego are underdeveloped, it is underequipped to do so. Instead of the structured and organised ego that is the expected outcome of development, we instead see arrested development and fixation on the primitive defensive organisation, in order to protect the positive experience of self. Splitting is supported by the secondary defences. splitting leads to an integrated ego and emerges in diffusion of ego identity. Splitting also leads to overall ego weakness. Splitting prevents the necessary neutralisation and integration into the ego structure leaving the individual to struggle to modulate their anxiety and impulses. Continued splitting of the ego weakens it more.
Another outcome of splitting is that positive representations “easily becomes an unrealistic, all-powerful, all-good object image” (Summers, 2015, p. 203), while overly aggressive representations are undiluted, and given their extremity, cause psychological discomfort and leads to the need to project them. This results in a strong tendency towards paranoia in individuals within the borderline personality organisation, as their projected bad representations are focused on the world, and could come at them at any point. The consequence of this projection is fear that the now dangerous object (as it contains all the projected aggression) will retaliate (Kernberg & Caligor, 2005). Kernberg referred to this as an 49 early form of projection. As a result of weak ego boundaries, individuals with borderline personality organisation engage in projective identification. They identify with the object they are projecting their aggressiveness onto, and try to protect themselves, attempting to control the object in an effort to avoid attack. This further weakens ego boundaries (Summers, 2015).
In their close interpersonal relationships individuals within the borderline personality organisation quickly and intensely swing between self and object images. This results in inconsistency in interpersonal relationships, as behaviour is determined by the object relation that happens to be active. This also impacts reality testing, as it is very difficult for the individual to accurately predict behaviour (Clarkin et al., 2007).
Pathology of the superego also emerges. Healthy superego development relies on the integration of the harsh, punitive superego forerunner with idealised object representations as well as realistic parental prohibitions. When splitting becomes solidified as a defensive organisation, instead of integration into the ego, and the rules which are present in the rudimentary superego remain primitive, persecutory, and sadistic (Clarkin et. al., 2007). The ego ideal does not form, so the individual is unable to hold an integrated realistic image against which to weigh their behaviour. Individuals exercise self control through harsh internal attacks, explaining their propensity for intense self-devaluation. In order to protect themselves from the pain of these self attacks, individuals within the borderline organisation identify with the idealised self image. This results in rapid switching between self aggrandising and self flagellation instead of realistic values and restraints (Summers, 2015). Rules are not depersonalised and abstracted, thus they remain identified (for example, mom says don’t lie), and this supports the individual's experience of being controlled from the outside. Overall
Kernberg states that individuals with this personality organisation present with a chaotic, confused and disorganised clinical presentation. A subgroup of the borderline organisation population is the narcissistic personality organisation. 50
The Narcissistic Personality Organisation
Summers (2015) noted that in Kernberg’s theory, narcissistic personalities are placed at different levels (higher and lower, within the borderline personality organisation) leading to a degree of confusion when attempting to categorise narcissistic cases. He provides clarification by referring to the developmental stage at which the individual’s emotional development was arrested. Summers (2015, p. 199) explains:
Pathological narcissism is placed on a spectrum ranging from stage three to four.
Kernberg categorises most narcissistic cases in stage four, with regression to stage
three. He views these cases as fluctuating between the two stages, since the
majority of narcissistic personalities are not completely fixated in stage three like
patients with borderline personality organisation, but have not advanced to
complete self and object integration.
When explaining the narcissistic personality, Kernberg (1975) asserted that the lack of integration between good and bad self representations leads to the split and projection of bad representations out onto the world. Kernberg believed that the narcissistic personality forms a pathological, grandiose self image which it uses defensively. The grandiose self contains all good self representations with minimal negative self representations to tone it down; it is thus unrealistic. The grandiose self is designed to compensate for a weak ego and make the inability to manage states of tension less apparent. This allows for better social adaptation than is generally apparent in other borderline personalities. The narcissist is able to integrate the all good self representation into a stable structure, but still requires the environment to support and affirm the grandiose self. When the environment fails to do so, negative, devaluing self representations appear. As a result of this psychological set up, grandiosity and devaluation of the self alternate in the consciousness of the individual in an unintegrated, split manner. The extent to which the individual's environment fails to provide continuous affirmation correlates 51 directly with the degree to which the grandiose self fails to perform its function of providing stable, adaptive, functional behaviours. It then makes sense that individuals who possess a special skill, talent or attribute elicit supply from the external environment, and this enhances the grandiose self (Summers, 2015).
According to Kernberg (1984) upon the withdrawal of supply from the environment the narcissist is likely to regress. To acquire supply from the environment, the object relationships of narcissistic individuals tend to be exploitative and bolstering of the grandiose self. When they no longer serve this function they are devalued. The result of this is a lack of real warmth or depth in interpersonal relationships, as the personality organisation of the grandiose self necessitates a cold, exploitative and sometimes arrogant orientation towards others (Kernberg,
1984). Narcissistic individuals often use omnipotence as a defense to bolster the ego, and devaluation in the face of threat to the grandiose self. Due to the fact that the grandiose self is the result of the fusion of the ego ideal, the ideal self and the self concept, individuals present with very low levels of integration of the early sadistic superego forerunners with realistic parental prohibitions. The ideal self image is absorbed into the grandiose self. This absorption leads to the presence of “an almost total continuance of the early fantastical sadistic self- attacks” (Summers, 2015, p. 211). This is then frequently projected onto objects, resulting in frequently presented paranoia. Kernberg (1984) postulates that due to this, sociopathic tendencies are often stronger in individuals with narcissistic personality organisation than in other borderline individuals. He considered the presence of a degree of concern for the impact of the narcissistically organised individual on those around him to be a positive prognostic indicator.
Kernberg identified various levels of narcissistic defense. A subgroup within the narcissistic personality structure that is the most extreme form of narcissism, he identified as malignant narcissists. Here we find narcissistic personalities whose grandiose self does not facilitate 52 adequate social functioning. These individuals present with the same diffuse ego weakness as other borderline individuals, resulting in a presentation of generalised chaos with frequent outbursts of oral rage. Since these individuals are additionally narcissistically demanding of admiration they are prone to outbursts of narcissistic rage when these needs are not met.
According to Summers (2015) “this dynamic of projection and attack is Kernberg’s formulation of the frequent paranoid transference regressions seen in cases of malignant narcissism” (p. 211). In these individuals the idealised object representations that would normally be introjected into the superego are instead absorbed into the grandiose self.
According to Kernberg (2004) a degree of this absorption is present in all narcissistic personalities, although in the majority of cases a remnant remains outside of the grandiose self thus allowing some degree of superego functioning. Since this remnant does not exist in cases of malignant narcissism both ideal self as well as ideal object representations become part of the grandiose self. The result of this is that the aggressive sadistic superego precursors present unchecked aggression which is completely contained within the grandiose self. Kernberg
(1984) states
The pathological grandiose and sadistic self replaces the sadistic precursors of the
superego, absorbs all aggression, and transforms what would otherwise be sadistic
superego components into an abnormal self structure that then militates against the
internalization of later more realistic superego components (p. 298).
Kernberg considered this subgroup to have the poorest prognosis in treatment especially if antisocial tendencies are present (Summers, 2015).
In regards to the reason why some individuals with a borderline personality organisation develop narcissistic defenses while others do not, Kernberg offers no definitive answer
(Summers, 2015). He does however postulate that certain patterns are evident in the upbringing of narcissistic individuals. A cold parent who is both cruel and indifferent towards the child 53 results in an increase in oral aggression in the child, exacerbating envy and hatred. Envy is defended against by eliciting envy in others. Here is where the possession of a special talent or attribute plays a key role in the development of the narcissistic personality organisation.
Kernberg asserted that at least one parent used this special quality to elicit compensatory admiration. As a result of this the individual would occupy a special role in the family, for example: The Little Genius. This setup forms the centre of the grandiose defense against oral rage (Kernberg 1975). While Kernberg acknowledges that this family pattern does not fully explain narcissistic pathology it is evident that once the grandiose self is crystallised as a defense mechanism, a cycle of grandiosity and devaluation of others is clearly evident
(Summers, 2015).
In Kernberg’s view, the development of the pathological grandiose self is the result of excessive aggression and envy and is a defense formed to protect against these. The intense nature of the envy and aggression result in an inability to depend on others for fear of inciting oral rage and envy. These individuals would therefore feel forced to adopt an arrogant, callous and devaluing orientation towards others, thus signalling their lack of need of others (Kernberg,
1975). As a consequence of this orientation, individuals “spoil all they receive from others to defend against envy from them. Any gratification from another is an acknowledgement of dependence, an intolerable feeling to the narcissistic patient” (Summers, 2015, p.212).
According to Kernberg (1975) the enraged, hungry, empty self forms the deepest level of self concept for narcissistic personality pathology. It stands to reason then that individuals with narcissistic personality organisation will idealise individuals who possess what they perceive themselves to be lacking. According to Kernberg (1985) this idealisation is not to be confused with genuine admiration or appreciation of another. Summers (2015) explains it as “a projection of the grandiose self onto an object who is perceived to possess wished for qualities”
(p. 213). As a result of this, these objects are not seen as they truly are because they represent 54 the narcissist. If the object were to fail to serve the narcissistic purpose, for example by disappointing the narcissist or losing the quality admired by the narcissist, they would easily be discarded, devalued or both (Kernberg, 1985). This dynamic reflects the absence of any true attachment to the object. Idealisation ultimately does not provide the narcissistic individual with any true gratification from the object, resulting in even idealised relationships having an empty quality (Summers, 2015). Given the root in part object relating, narcissistic individuals lack the capacity for empathy and consequently the ability to truly mourn the loss of the object, what is experienced instead is the lack of narcissistic gratification the (part) object provided
(Kernberg, 2004).
Critique of the Theory
Kernberg’s (1975, 1976, 1980, 1992) Object Relations theory has had a profound influence on psychoanalytic thinking. Particularly with regards to personality development and personality pathology (Christopher et al., 2001). Critiques of Kernberg's theory are generally not conceptual in nature but rather compare his theory to other psychodynamic schools of thought (Christopher et al., 2001; Klein and Tribich, 1981). There are however a few pertinent criticisms which will be outlined below.
Kernberg’s concept and understanding of the building blocks that make up an individual's internal object relations has been criticised. These building blocks are also referred to as
“affective memories” or “memory traces” which contain high valence, self and object images, and begin to develop during early infancy (Kernberg, 1998, 1966, 1976). Kernberg’s hypothesis has been criticised as being “inconsistent with cognitive developmental research”
(Christopher et al., 2001 p. 697). This opposition is based on the fact that personal memories pertaining to life events are generally understood to only develop after the age of three or four years (Tulving, 1983). 55
Another critique of Kernberg’s theory is his neglect to describe in detail the contribution of the mother or primary care giver in his theory. Kernberg outlines the necessity of the relationship between child and mother but fails to explain what about the relationship is so essential as well as what is needed from the mother when interacting with her child (Klein and
Tribich, 1981).
Kernberg’s theory is also criticised for its description of intrapsychic organisation and the role emotional valence plays in this organisation. Kernberg explained that neutralisation of valances occurs when integration of self and object images occurs. This neutralization is meant to free up psychic energy that can be used for healthy repression (Kernberg & Caligor, 2005).
This goes against the traditionally accepted laws of both physics and chemistry. In Physics, positive and negative charges cancel one another out, while in chemistry the coming together of atoms results in the loss of energy. In both these instances no energy is released or created.
This contradicts Kernberg's idea that integrated valences can produce energy that can be used for repression (Christopher et al, 2001; 1992)
Finally, another critique of Kernberg’s work is that while he provides labels for his concepts he neglects to provide logical in depth explanations for them (Christopher et al, 2001). Despite these criticisms Kernberg’s work remains highly influential and relevant and provides a valuable framework for understanding personality development and psychopathology.
Conclusion
In this chapter the researcher explored Otto Kernberg’s Object Relations Theory. A broad outline of the theory was provided followed by a discussion of the development of object relations, including his model of stages of development. Following this, levels of personality development as well as defense mechanisms were covered. A detailed exploration of healthy development as well as the development of psychopathology according to Kernberg was provided. Lastly, the Borderline and Narcissistic Personality Organisation were highlighted. 56
Chapter Four
Research Methodology
Chapter Overview
This chapter explores the specific methodology that was used to guide the researcher throughout the course of the study. This includes the present study’s research aim, research design, validity and reliability concerns, sampling, data collection and analysis, and ethical considerations. This chapter serves to describe these facets of the present study’s methodology in detail.
Research Aim
The aim of the present study was to explore and describe the personality development of
Gavin Maxwell using Kernberg’s (1972,1974,1980,1992) Object Relations Theory. In doing so the author hoped to gain understanding of the personality dynamics that led to Maxwell’s relational difficulties and eccentricities.
Research Design
The research methodology chosen for this study is a qualitative, single case study design strategy. Qualitative studies explore verbal data rather than numerical data, which permits the researcher to make use of a subjective framework of analysis when working with data (Shank,
2002). According to Shank (2002), this approach may be described as empirical, systematic, and an inquiry into meaning. It is empirical due to its focus on experiences that are observable.
Its systematic nature is derived from its commitment to using a shared methodology that has been collectively agreed upon by a qualitative research community, as well as using a planned and ordered method of research. The research process involves creating meaning out of analysing the observable experiences within the collected data. The researcher sought to 57 subjectively interpret and make meaning out of the reported experiences and life history of
Gavin Maxwell, in a planned and orderly manner, using an established psychological theory, namely Kernberg’s Object Relations Theory.
Opportunities for rich and descriptive data collection abound within qualitative methodologies. The researcher is permitted flexibility in gathering information due to the qualitative framework’s presupposition of the existence of multiple social realities. As such, contextual sensitivities, such as culture or period of history, are taken into account, and more abstract or symbolic aspects of information, as well as social meanings, may be investigated and interpreted (Bryman, Bresnen, Beardsworth and Keil, 1988). As could reasonably be argued with all research designs, disadvantages of the qualitative design do exist and should be kept in mind throughout the course of a research undertaking. Relevant to the current study is the fact that it is nearly impossible to generalise the findings outside of the chosen sample, due to the focus of the study being on the life experiences of a specific individual (Maree, 2007).
Fortunately however, the current study’s aim does not include the generalising of findings to a larger population. A disadvantage more relevant to the current study is that researcher bias may interfere with the validity of findings, should the researcher not carefully monitor their own personal expectations around the research outcome, or their own subjective impressions or preconceptions when interpreting collected data. Therefore, it is of crucial importance that the researcher make all possible efforts to be aware of potential bias, and minimise or prevent bias from influencing the findings or interpretations of research (De Vos, Fouche, Strydom &
Delport, 2005).
Case studies fall within the broader qualitative paradigm. Yin (2009) describes the case study research method “as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (p. 23). As such, this method was appropriate to the study of the life experiences and personality development 58 of Gavin Maxwell. In undertaking this case study, the researcher kept in mind that it is impossible to know the full extent of Gavin Maxwell’s life experiences, inner workings, or context. The researcher therefore strove to represent the facts of the present study in as comprehensive and detailed manner as possible, using as many sources as possible, while keeping in mind the subjective nature of the research findings and interpretations.
Although the research design is case study, it is described further as a psychobiographical design.
Definition of Psychobiography
According to Elms (1994), psychobiographies can best be described as biographies that rely heavily on psychological theory and knowledge. Psychobiographies are generally idiographic and confirmatory in their aim and rely on indirect methods to access information about the psychological characteristics of their subjects (Simonton, 1999). According to McAdams
(2005) psychobiographies study the entire life of an individual and in doing so formulate a central story around psychological theory. Psychological descriptions of behaviours, decisions and achievements, with the intention to provide a deeper understanding of the research subject, are provided (Elms, 1994). These descriptions are viewed in the social, cultural and historical context that the subject lived (Carlson, 1988), which allows for unique insight into the development of individuals (Carlson, 1988).
Five characteristics have been identified as being present in all psychobiographies (Fouchȇ
& van Niekerk, 2010):
• The use of qualitative data
● Utilization of in depth and holistic analysis of data
● Identification of the subject being studied by name
● The use of data collected on the subject by other researchers
● The data that is collected is “inherently interesting and valuable” and contains “historical and personal significance” (Fouchȇ and van Niekerk, 2010, p. 496). 59
History of Psychobiography
Psychobiography has progressed from a little known methodology, to becoming far more popular. Its roots can be traced to Freud’s 1910 publication Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of his Childhood, a biography which emphasised psychobiography as a method of inquiry.
Freud sought to generate insight into the life of an individual in a way unfamiliar to other biographies (Scalapino, 1999). Before this event, it was considered rare for any single biography to focus on psychological constructs as a way of understanding the life being investigated and described (Muller, 2010). Freud’s psychobiography is argued to be the stimulus that inspired others interested in the then emerging psychoanalytic field to begin writing about the psychological lives of a number of historical figures (Elms, 1994). Freud was in fact the first individual to coin the term psychobiography and emphasised the scientific aims of the endeavour through highlighting the importance of gathering sufficient data to substantiate findings, and to avoid the author’s strong idealisation or devaluing of the research subject (Elms, 1988). Despite this, Freud’s study of Da Vinci has been criticised as being somewhat contaminated by Freud’s projection of his own unconscious conflicts and psychological issues onto the life of Da Vinci (Elms, 1988). In addition, Kȍvẚry (2011) claims that authors of psychobiographies following Freud’s innovation tended to focus on the psychopathology of the research subject, to the exclusion of other factors, due to pathography’s relevance to traditional psychoanalytic theory. Nevertheless, since the inception of the psychobiography, psychoanalytic theory has persisted as the dominant framework from which psychobiographies were approached, and Freud’s contribution may be considered vital in bridging the gap between biography, history, and psychology, as well as emphasising the importance of in depth knowledge of theory and its relevance to the lives of subjects under study (Ponterotto, 2015). 60
Psychobiography continued to prosper throughout the beginning of the 21st century, before experiencing a brief lull in the 1940’s, explained by Elms (1994) as largely due to an increase in academic interest in experimental and quantitative methods. Allport, Murray and Erikson may be attributed to the resurgence of psychobiographies in the 1960’s, based on their contributions to the field of personology, which focused on the life narrative (Kȍvẚry, 2011;
Ponteretto, 2015). Allport and Murray notably introduced a broader lense from which to examine individual lives, through the addition of such tools as autobiographies, analysis of personal documents, and psychological assessment. These authors notably investigated the lives of average individuals, which stood in contrast to the work of psychoanalytic psychobiographies before this time, which had a heavier focus on pathology (Ponterotto,
2015). Their contributions also increased the quantity of theoretical viewpoints available to psychobiographies outside of the traditional psychoanalytic theory (Ponterotto, 2014). From these developments, an increase in psychobiographical publications took place, and the field of personology was gradually institutionalised. This was evidenced through the growing number of organisations, journals, dissertations and conferences pertaining to the field
(Runyan, 1988). Roberts (2002) claims that a few key factors were largely responsible for the rise in publications. These included increasing concern around lived experience, renewed interest in qualitative research methods, a decline in interest in static data collection strategies, and positive public perception of psychobiographical publications. According to Fouchȇ and van Niekerk (2010), the total number of psychobiographies published annually within South
Africa has steadily increased over time. Fouchȇ and van Niekerk (2010) posit that the increase in psychobiographical research with South Africa can be attributed towards several events.
These include an awareness of administrative and logistical benefits, the migration of supervisors between different Psychology departments, psychobiography being recognised as an area of focus academically, an increase in demand for enquiry driven by theory, the 61 influence of positive psychology, and increasing interest in notable or well known South
African personalities.
Value of Psychobiography
There are a variety of factors that have influenced the perceived value of this form of study.
The current section seeks to outline the benefits of psychobiographies in detail. This will be done through examining five specific areas of value.
The uniqueness of the individual case. Psychobiography allows for a multilayered, in depth analysis of the individual. Their motives, desires, internal conflicts and unconscious ideation are all plumbed to create an intimate understanding of the individual, including their contradictions, within a specific context and time period. Ultimately, it seeks to understand how these factors interact to shape the unique individual being studied (Schultz, 2005). As such, individualism can be argued to be a guiding principle of the psychobiography, and psychobiographies themselves allow for the complex relationship between the internal traits of an individual to be explored and described (Runyan, 1984).
Processes and patterns over time. A traditional hallmark of the psychobiography is its emphasis on exploring individuals that have completed lives. An advantage of this is that individual lives are able to be compared to prevailing theories of development across the lifespan, and events and themes unique to the individual are able to be understood (Carlson,
1998). This longitudinal approach to the individual life allows the researcher to confirm the existence of certain themes in the life cycle, as well as discovering new themes (Schultz, 2005).
The socio-historical context. Psychobiographies aim to understand the individual within their particular historical and social contexts. Various factors outside of the individual’s internal subjectivity are examined in order to fully understand the individual’s unique experience within their particular timeframe and cultural context (Patton, 2002). Broadly speaking, psychobiographies allow for a greater and more holistic understanding of an 62 individual through the examination of factors that have directly or indirectly influenced their personality development, such as sociocultural experience, family history, and methods of socialisation (Roberts, 2002). This can be argued to create a deeper and more detailed understanding of the individual under study.
Subjective reality. The internal world of the individual is of importance within the context of the psychobiography. Subjectivity can be described as the meaning the individual makes of their experiences and behaviour (Kȍvẚry, 2011). The individual’s cognitions, emotions, and broader internal experiences of events are revealed to the author of the psychobiography
(Babbie & Mouton, 2001). An experience of empathy or understanding of the individual may be elicited through the exploration of their own perceptions and understandings of their lives
(Runyan, 1984). Attunement to the individual’s subjective experience and meaning making is arguably the basis upon which the researcher may provide a compelling and insightful exploration of the life of the individual (Schultz, 2005).
Theory testing and development. In the process of conducting a psychobiography, the theoretical framework applied should provide a valid explanation for the life under examination
(Schultz, 2005). Thus, psychobiographies may present a challenge of testing and developing theories for the purpose of understanding real lived experiences (Carlson, 1988). According to
Schultz (2005), new insights and themes discovered during a psychobiography may lead to hypotheses to be tested against larger populations. This in turn may necessitate the improvement, modification, or even creation of theories for the understanding of human behaviour and development. Psychobiographies therefore allow researchers to contribute towards the body of knowledge around specific theories, or even assist in the creation of new theories for the purpose of understanding individuals.
63
Methodological Considerations of Psychobiography
It is important to note that psychobiographies are not designed to diagnose, but are focused on understanding the development and psyche of the individual under observation (Elms,
2007). This is in line with the current research project’s aim, which sought to understand the personality development of Gavin Maxwell. While the researcher was interested in discovering the root causes of eccentricities and relational difficulties, the focus of the research was not on diagnosis of pathology or reducing the research subject to a diagnostic label. During the course of such as exploration, several methodological considerations need to be taken into account.
These considerations are outlined below.
Analysing of Absent Subject. In psychobiographical studies, the majority of information available is from historical texts rather than from the original subject. Consequently, important information could be lost, leading to inaccurate interpretations. In order to counter this possible error, numerous sources of primary and secondary data were collected, triangulated. This allowed the data to be assessed for trustworthiness (Anderson, 1981), and highlighted points of confirmation, as well as interesting alternative explanations (which were noted as alternate, and not confirmed). According to Elms (2007), an important strategy for discerning the trustworthiness of a source includes obtaining information about the research subject from their contemporaries or secondary sources. Should information from one source contradict that of a primary source, or another secondary source, the researcher should trust sources where the author has the least to gain from the information shared about the subject.
Cross Cultural Differences. A criticism of psychobiographies is that they apply twentieth century cultural and psychological concepts to subjects that have lived in the past and would have experienced several cultural differences from the era in which the study is being conducted (Anderson 1981). In order to avoid this error the researcher consulted multiple sources of historical information from the period in which the subject lived. In doing so the 64 researcher was better able to identify the cultural and historical context of the subject and therefore minimise the cross-cultural impact on the research project.
Inflated Expectations. Researchers can lose focus on other possible explanations of behaviour when they emphasise certain psychological interpretations (Anderson, 1981).
Throughout the course of the present study, the researcher held in awareness that although the study is conducted through the lens of a specific psychological theory, other theories and approaches could also be used to gain a different perspective on Maxwell’s life.
Reductionism. According to Anderson (1981), a potential pitfall of the psychobiographical approach includes the temptation to narrowly apply one psychological theory as the sole basis of explaining the research subject’s personality characteristics or life experiences, while neglecting to keep in mind factors not pertaining to psychological constructs, such as sociological, historical, and cultural influences. In applying the chosen psychological theory to the life experiences of the research subject, the researcher was careful to also include the cultural and historical context of the individual being studied. The reason for doing so was to avoid reducing the research subject to a theory and to acknowledge the fact that human development is not influenced solely by psychological factors but by the above mentioned cultural, sociological and historical factors as well.
Additionally, Anderson (1981) claims that reductionism may apply to the overemphasis of certain psychological characteristics or themes at the expense of others. For example, psychobiographies may overemphasise pathology while providing comparatively little information on the subject’s strengths, or there may be undue focus on a specific life stage of the research subject. It is therefore important for the researcher to obtain as much information as possible to present a balanced view, and to ensure that the facts upon which the findings are based are true and valid across multiple domains. As such, the researcher attempted, throughout 65 the present study, to present as many different facets of Gavin Maxwell’s experience, in a historically accurate method.
Anderson (1981) further warns that the use of psychological jargon should not be seen as a replacement for evidence supporting claims. For example, describing the subject as having a borderline personality organisation is not, in and of itself, enough information to convince the reader of the claim. The researcher needs to be able to point to sufficient evidence within the literature to back up the terminology that they use to describe the research subject. As such, the researcher strove to present sufficient evidence for the findings of the present study.
Research Bias. Psychobiographical study requires in depth exploration of the subject’s life.
In doing so, researchers may find themselves making subjective and automatic presumptions about the life of the subject (Anderson, 1981). The researcher remained aware of the tendency towards bias and managed this so that it did not skew the research project. Continuous awareness of subjective evaluation was maintained throughout the research project by the researcher reflecting on their own emotional responses towards the research subject. This was done in order to prevent overly favourable or unfavourable subjective interpretations of the research findings.
Trustworthiness of Data
According to Guba’s (1981) model of trustworthiness, four criteria can be used to assess the quality of social research, and enhance the trustworthiness of data. These are: credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability. These criteria are outlined below.
Credibility. Credibility aims to establish the congruence of research findings in real life settings (Shenton, 2004). As such it outlines how believable or truthful the findings of the study are when they are compared to perceptions and views of the research participants. In essence credibility shows whether the research content accurately supports the conclusions drawn by the researcher from the data gathered (Gilgun, 1994). One method used to obtain credibility is 66 triangulation. Data triangulation refers to the gathering of multiple data sources and using these to validate a fact or piece of information (Denzin 1978). In order to ensure credibility, the researcher triangulated data and compiled a case study database.
Yin (2009) argues for the importance of compiling a case study database, and creating a chain of evidence, which documents the raw data gathered during the course of a study, and provides evidence to be available for the purposes of understanding how a researcher came to their conclusions. This allows other researchers to investigate the data that preceded a researcher’s report or interpretations. The narrative presented by the researcher may be compared to this database for any signs of inconsistency or unreliability, and as such, a case study database may increase the reliability of a study. Therefore, the researcher created a case study database for the purpose of making available both their report, and the raw data collected, in the form of case study notes. An extract from the database is attached here as Appendix A.
Transferability. Transferability refers to the degree to which the findings of the current research study can be generalised or transferred to broader contexts (De Vos et al., 2011).
According to Lincoln and Guba (1985) the best way to achieve transferability is to provide rich descriptions. This allows the reader to evaluate the research context and its similarity to another context, in order to assess the likelihood of transferability to another context. Although the researcher strove to provide thick descriptions throughout the research process, so that this contextual assessment could be possible, she did not see generalisability as an important facet of the current study.
Dependability. Dependability refers to the research findings ability to remain consistent if repeated over time when replicated by other researchers and is equivalent to reliability in qualitative research (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Shenton (2004) asserts that, from a scientific perspective, if a research study were to be repeated using the same participants, context and methodology the result would be expected to be replicated. However, due to the fluid nature of 67 the phenomena being studied in qualitative research this becomes more complicated (Shenton,
2004). According to Lincoln and Guba (1985) dependability and credibility are linked, in that ensuring credibility helps to ensure dependability.
Lincoln and Guba (1985) assert that dependability can be assessed by evaluating the research findings against the research question or aim, data collection and analysis methods.
Dependability can be increased by outlining the process of the study, namely data gathering and analysis in detail, thus allowing future researchers to repeat the study as closely as possible
(Shenton, 2004).
The researcher endeavoured to ensure the maximum degree of dependability by providing a detailed description of the research aim, data collection and analysis methods used, thereby allowing her study to be replicated by future researchers as well as providing readers of the research study with clear outline of the methods used.
Confirmability. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985) confirmability refers to the degree to which the research findings are the product only of collected and analysed data and are thus as free as possible from researcher’s biases, expectations and motivations. Shenton (2004) links confirmability with objectivity. In order to achieve confirmability, the researcher needs to strive remain neutral during the research process, although Patton (2002) maintains that it is inevitable that some researcher bias be present in qualitative research. Shenton (2004) emphasises the role of triangulation in ensuring confirmability. Limitations of the research study should also be provided and the researcher biases should be included in these (Miles &
Huberman, 1994). Shenton (2004) again emphasises the importance of providing clear and detailed information on the research aim, data gathering and analysis techniques employed in the study to improve confirmability.
In striving to meet the aforementioned criteria, the researcher strove to present a clear and logical sequence of her work, from the research aim, through a case study database, to 68 ultimately presenting the findings based on collected valid evidence. Data gathered from primary and secondary sources were triangulated throughout the data gathering process. The researcher explored the limitations of the study in Chapter six and included researcher biases among them.
Sampling
The present study used non probability purposive sampling to select the case used. Non probability sampling indicates that the sample chosen is not to be representative of the broader population (De Vos et al., 2005). According to Maree (2007), purposive sampling removes irrelevant items from entering the sample, while providing an opportunity for in-depth investigation into a specific individual or population. Purposive sampling involves choosing a specific case, which allows the researcher to select a case that provides the specific features the researcher wishes to study (De Vos., et al., 2005). The case selected for the current study is the life of author Gavin Maxwell. This case was selected because of the researcher’s enjoyment of his writing and his unusual life experiences. Important experiences in Maxwell’s life were explored with the intention of gaining an understanding of his personality development. This was done through the collection and analysis of data.
Data was obtained from both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are seen as the original written material of the author’s own experiences and observations, while secondary sources consist of material that is not the original source (De Vos et al, 2005). The list of sources used is attached here as Appendix B.
Data Collection and Data Analysis
The data collected in the current study was information relative to the aim of exploring the personality development of Gavin Maxwell. Data was collected from various sources and screened for significance by critically evaluating the collected data. Yin (2009) emphasises the three principles for data collection, which were used within the present study to aid this 69 screening. These principles include using multiple sources of evidence, creating a case study database, and maintaining a chain of evidence. The researcher used multiple sources, both primary and secondary, and triangulated information capturing this information within a database. The process of triangulation formed a data reduction technique, reducing the data to that which could be trusted. Anomalies in the data were also noted. They were captured into the database, but identified as unconfirmed.
Miles and Huberman’s (1994) technique for data collection and analysis was employed.
This technique consists of three stages, namely data reduction, data display and conclusion drawing and verification. According to Miles and Huberman (1994), data reduction refers to the process of “selecting, processing, simplifying, abstracting and transforming data” (p. 10).
Decisions are made about what data to focus on. In essence, data is reduced to a manageable format. Data reduction started in the formulation of the database, but occurred continuously throughout the research project. Primary and secondary sources were identified and evaluated for usefulness in relation to the present study. Kernberg’s Object Relations theory further focused the researcher to the types of data to include into the data base.
Data display refers to an “organised, compressed assembly of information” (Miles and
Huberman. 1994, p. 11). It is concerned about how data is packaged or displayed, in order to make it accessible to the reader. Deciding on what data to display and how to do so was a process, and this was made easier during Conclusion drawing and verification, the final stage, when final themes were identified, and then presented in tabular form. Miles and Huberman
(1994) state that “regularities, patterns, explanations, possible configurations, causal flows and propositions” (p. 11) are noted in data, and over time themes and patterns are identified, and conclusions are drawn. This is the process that was followed to get to the final themes. Some themes were more directly evident from the start of the process, and some emerged over time. 70
It is important to note that the three stages are interactive and occurred recursively throughout the analysis process of the present study, until the themes were confirmed and verified.
Ethical Considerations
A proposal for the present study was submitted to the Faculty of Health Science Research and Innovation (FRTI), Committee and Research Ethics Committee - Human (REC-H) for approval before the researcher began the study. This was subsequently approved before the researcher began conducting the study.
The present study made use of a variety of sources, both primary and secondary, about the subject over the course of his life. The researcher exercised caution to ensure that the information extracted and documented from these sources was treated with respect and dignity, following best practice guidelines and using sources already made public.
According to the American Psychological Association (APA) there are several ethical considerations to be taken into account when conducting psychobiographies (Anderson,
1981).Most emphasised among these is that the subject of the psychobiography is preferably deceased. The APA emphasises that the rights, privacy and welfare of the subject should be projected, and that the study should not have a negative impact on surviving relatives. If relatives can be identified, their informed consent should be attained (Berg, 2001). The subject of the current study is long deceased and the study is unlikely to have any impact on the subject or his next of kin. No, additional informed consent was deemed necessary. All information gathered was clearly referenced as per APA guidelines.
Conclusion
This chapter has provided information on the specific methodology used to guide the study.
Included in this chapter was information pertaining to the study’s research aim, research design, including a detailed exploration of psychography, validity and reliability, sampling, data 71 collection and analysis, and ethical considerations. The following chapter presents the study’s findings and discussion.
72
Chapter Five
Findings and Discussion
Introduction
The following chapter will present the findings and discussion. The aim of this study was to explore Maxwell’s life to gain insight into his personality development. This was achieved by applying Otto Kernberg’s (1975, 1976, 1980, 1992) Object Relations Theory to his life experiences. In doing so the author hoped to gain understanding of the personality dynamics that led to Maxwell’s relational difficulties and eccentricities. This chapter first presents data on Maxwell’s early life experiences in infancy and young childhood, in order to gain an understanding of his early development, and the environment in which his early object relations unfolded. Thereafter, it presents the object relations patterns and themes that are apparent over the course of Maxwell’s life. Particular focus is placed on Maxwell’s use of both mature and immature defense mechanisms in various contexts as well as Maxwell’s positioning in terms of Kernberg’s levels of personality functioning.
Development of Object Relations
Kernberg’s (1975, 1976, 1980, 1992) Object Relations Theory is a systemic model of the development of the personality of an individual (Kernberg, 1984). Object Relations are described as psychic units that represent an individual’s image of self and image of other, with an affective charge (or valence) linking them (Clarkin, Lenzenweger, Yeomans, Levy, &
Kernberg, 2007). These representations form the primary building blocks that make up an individual’s personality (Christopher, Bickhard, & Lambeth, 2001).
Maxwell’s early experiences would have influenced the kind of object relations formed, and thus were pivotal to the foundation of this development. There are many different influences to the patterns that emerged in his infancy and early childhood. These patterns and influences will now be explored: 73
Genetics
Genetic factors contribute to the degree of intensity with which an individual will experience the affective charge of object relations. They also influence whether individuals respond to, or develop, particular emotions more strongly than others. In light of this it is necessary to examine Maxwell’s temperament as well as hereditary factors that could contribute to his experience of himself and others, and the propensity towards the development of positive or negatively charged object relations.
Botting (2017, p.35) asserted that Maxwell inherited a genetic predisposition to “bipolar illness”. Maxwell is described as a sensitive child (Botting, 2017; Maxwell, 2015) and experienced depressive episodes later in life (Botting, 2017; Frere, 1976). Botting (2017) stated that Maxwell’s paternal grandfather was reported to have exhibited symptoms that may have met the criteria for Bipolar Mood Disorder although there is insufficient evidence to verify this.
Maxwell stated that his father was very much like him in temperament, moody and sensitive
(Maxwell, 2015) This information suggests a pre-existing tendency to experience events in a manner that may be more slanted toward the negative than the positive or neutral. Thus
Maxwell may likely have been genetically inclined to form object relations with a more negative valence attached to them.
In Maxwell’s early childhood we see a potential disruption in his development because of his mother, Lady Mary’s, identification of him as sickly and needy. It can be inferred that
Maxwell felt shame around his ill health and ‘otherness’, and would have developed negative charged patterns around this. Maxwell was quoted by Botting (2017) as stating that the five red marks left on his forearm following his birth were a great source of shame to him.
Ancestral lineage
Maxwell was described as inordinately proud of his lineage and was said to have used it to manipulate, avoid the consequences of his actions and reject others (Botting, 2017). It is 74 unclear where the emphasis on the importance of his heritage came from, but is likely that
Maxwell’s family told him, either directly or indirectly, that his aristocratic lineage made him special. He may have internalised and used it as a counterbalance of sorts, to protect against feelings of shame and ‘otherness’, as his lineage would have provided him with a sense of
’specialness’ and entitlement. It is unclear from which age this occurred, but it is likely to have been present in early childhood.
Early loss
Maxwell’s father died when he was only three months old. This had a profound effect on
Maxwell’s early life. It resulted in his only early attachment figure being with his mother, thus limiting his emotional interactions in infancy. Maxwell’s mother’s grief was reportedly deep, profound and prolonged (Botting, 2017; Maxwell, 2015). It is reasonable to expect that this would have had an effect on Maxwell. Maternal depression is well known to affect attachment between mother and infant (Toth, Cicchetti, Rogosch & Sturge-Apple, 2009). It is thus likely that she was less emotionally available, and that this impacted Maxwell’s ability to form a secure attachment to her in early infancy. This difficulty may have been compounded by
Maxwell’s mother's adoption of her husband's mannerisms, dress and hobbies following his death. The persona adopted by Lady Mary may have made her less authentic caregiver, and thus more inaccessible.
Smothering
Botting (2017) indicates that Lady Mary responded to her grief by directing all her instincts for love and affection onto her youngest, sickliest and neediest child who she perceived as being her husband's final gift to her. Lady Mary stated “I kept Gavin very much a child of my anguish and he stayed in my bedroom until he was eight years old” (Botting, 2017, p. 37). Lady
Mary did not experience Maxwell as a separate object and was enmeshed with him. It is likely that through omnipotent control, she experienced Maxwell as part of her, as an extension of 75 her, and it is unlikely that Maxwell’s self was mirrored to him very well. Lady Mary is also described as being dominating, religious and overly moralistic (Botting, 2017). The persona that is illustrated in the literature is as a dominating, moralistic and suffocating figure. It is reasonable to deduce that Maxwell would have experienced his mother as powerful, threatening and controlling, and his self as unimportant and unseen, His identification of his mother as dominating, moralistic and smothering all indicate object representations that are threatening and intrusive, and it is likely that many of the patterns formed under these circumstances would have had a negative charge infused.
Positive family members
Maxwell was strongly influenced by several family members. Sir Herbert Maxwell, his paternal grandfather, was well known as a natural historian. For Maxwell his grandfather was a model of writing, painting and natural history as well as historic enquiry (Botting, 2017).
Although contact was limited between the two there is evidence that Maxwell liked and aspired to be like his uncle (Botting, 2017). Maxwell’s aunt, Lady Muriel Percy, also had a significant impact on young Maxwell. According to Maxwell she was an exceptionally good general naturalist as well as a serious research zoologist who specialised in the fauna of pond and rock pools. Under his Aunt’s guidance Maxwell developed as a young naturalist, illustrator and author (Maxwell, 2015; Botting, 2015). Maxwell’s uncle, Lord William Percy, acted as a father substitute for Maxwell and he developed a lasting admiration of the man. Maxwell affectionately knew him as Uncle Willie, and revered him as an explorer, soldier, secret agent and ornithologist. Positive feedback from these family members would have served to enhance
Maxwell’s perception of himself as special, especially considering the fact that they were all either talented or well known in their fields, and between them seemed to affirm Maxwell as talented with animals and having an affinity with nature.
Seclusion 76
Maxwell’s early years were spent in relative seclusion. It is reported (Maxwell, 2015;
Botting, 2017) that before the age of eight he had very little interaction with people outside of his household and that the only children he interacted with were his siblings. Maxwell was kept isolated from others and had very little interaction with children his own age. This would likely have had a negative effect on Maxwell, hampering the establishment of meaningful relationships with others, and limiting the kinds of self and object representations formed, and enhancing the time spent in the confines of his enmeshed relationship with Lady Mary.
Object Relations in Middle Childhood, Adolescence and Adulthood
The manner in which these patterns of interaction formed and were expressed in Maxwell’s life will be the researchers focus for the remainder of this discussion. The object relations patterns the researcher has identified as the most pertinent are outlined in Table 1 below.
Object Relations Patterns
‘Otherness’ and ‘Specialness’
Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Turmoil
Entitlement and Peter Pan Complex
Self Doubt
Suspicion and Paranoia
Manipulation and Control
Idealisation of Nature
Table 1. Gavin Maxwell’s Object Relations Patterns
’Otherness’ and ’Specialness’
Maxwell was kept apart from the rest of society during his early years, and treated differently from his siblings, as their mother’s favourite. From here we see the beginnings of 77 otherness. It is well documented that Maxwell was very isolated as a young child (Maxwell,
2015; Botting 2017). In young childhood he met fewer than ten other children and three of those were his siblings. His exposure to others was limited to his mother, siblings, staff and the occasional visiting relative (Botting, 2017; Maxwell, 2015). He would have built representations of what he is like and what others are like in relation to these individuals. Lady
Mary was incredibly controlling, unreasonably limiting what he could read, and where he could sleep. The enmeshed relationship with Lady Mary led to little positive mirroring and affirmation of a positive self. Maxwell’s interest in nature and animals was the only area of his being that emerges in data as clearly positively mirrored to him, particularly from important aunts and uncles. His talents here were reflected as special, and he developed a self view of someone who had a special skill here. The data seems to represent him as having a special affinity for the natural world that set him apart from his siblings.
When sent to boarding school, Maxwell had difficulty making friends and saw the other boys as ’alien’. He had great difficulty connecting to his peers. Maxwell’s isolation was forced in early childhood, but the continued use of this object representation led to his isolation becoming self-imposed. Maxwell reportedly dealt with the sheer volume of people at school
(secondary school), which overwhelmed him, by retreating into the woods. His social isolation was also imposed by his peers through their rejection. The available literature on Maxwell provides numerous examples of him being different to his peers. His vocabulary and handwriting were advanced for his age and he was set apart by his aristocratic lineage. Up until
Maxwell went to school these were celebrated, but at boarding school they became the target for mocking and bullying (Maxwell, 2015). Maxwell was mocked because of his birthmarks, his inability to swim or box and his lineage. Overall, he was identified as odd by the other boys, to the extent where a well-meaning older boy advised him to be more like other people (Botting,
2017). Kernberg (2004) explained that exposure to a broader social world during middle 78 childhood is necessary as interactions with others assist the individual in refining their patterns through the consistent feedback on what others are like, and what the self is like. It is evident that the advice from the older boy was in fact encouraging this, that is, for Maxwell to adjust some of his representations, as could be expected for a boy being socialised into a particular social system. However, Maxwell struggled to refine his representations. The reflection of his oddness resulted in him becoming insecure which further negatively impacted his ability to relate to others.
Maxwell is reported to have viewed his move to boarding school in a very negative light, and once there, Botting (2017) indicates that he experienced his peers as overwhelmingly violent, aggressive and treacherous and that “everywhere he turned was confronted by images that shocked or terrified” (Botting, 2017, p. 45). His extreme negative experience of his peers supports the idea that Maxwell’s use of splitting as a primary defense mechanism. It is likely that a predominance of negatively charged object relations placed him in a defensive position, and that he defended his positive experience of self by splitting off his bad representations, and projecting them onto his peers, experiencing them more negatively. Splitting also introduces rigidity into an individual’s patterns, and can further account for Maxwell’s inability to adjust some of his patterns, to form healthy emotional bonds with his peers. The inability to adjust further suggests to the researcher the presence of a poorly developed ego. A poorly developed ego indicates a lack of integration and lack of whole object representations. Botting (2017) describes Maxwell in middle childhood as a “crab without a carapace - vulnerable and ill prepared for the wider world” (p. 37). Maxwell’s overprotected and isolated childhood seems to have generated more negative than positive patterns, and resulted in an unintegrated, fragile ego that was seen by some as ‘vulnerable’. This too supports a view of Maxwell as different.
Maxwell’s brothers both attended Eton but his mother and uncles decided that the highly ritualised and academically focused environment would be an unwise choice for Maxwell so 79 he was sent to a less prestigious but more liberal school. This decision again highlighted
Maxwell’s ‘otherness’ as a quality that was enduring throughout his middle childhood. By the start of his teenage years Maxwell had developed a reputation among both his peers and adults as being ‘difficult’ (Botting, 2017), and it is evident that his otherness began to have a further negative quality reflected back by the objects in his world.
It is likely that the continued experience of differentness and otherness would have had a variety of connotations for him. Before leaving for boarding school Maxwell was repeatedly given the message that he was special and needed to be treated as such. He was referred to as his mother’s favourite (Maxwell, 2015; Botting 2017), to the extent that he slept in his mother’s bed. Along with messages about his lineage, Maxwell was able to counter his negative feelings about his self with these special reflections. His difference from other boys may have also reflected a view of self as inadequate. Back home he had been seen as a sickly and needy child requiring extra care and nurturance (Maxwell, 2015; Botting 2017), creating the experience of being weak and in need of care. At boarding school Maxwell was treated just like all the other boys, an experience for which he was ill prepared. The lack of recognition at school of
Maxwell's ‘specialness’ could have resulted in a lack of supply to his good self-representations and created further motivation to continue splitting, to rid him of the discomfort of his negative representations, projecting the intolerable emotions outwards towards the school and peers. It is likely that Maxwell dealt with the discomfort of the harsh reality that he was in fact like everyone else, one of many, by splitting off and projecting his negative feelings onto his peers who he perceived as hostile, alien and vile. In doing so he protected his all-good self through using devaluation as a defense mechanism. Thus, Maxwell was likely unconsciously motivated to keep them in the bad position to keep protect his idealised self (Caligor et al 2007). It is unlikely that he was able to maintain this position, and due to splitting, more likely that his 80 representations were alternately activated, vacillating to between feeling special and doubting his overall worth.
This pattern continued into adulthood. A notable example is when Maxwell told his wife that she was incapable of understanding his complexities. This indicates that in adulthood his self representations reflected his ‘specialness’, again serving to protect his idealised self image.
The researcher also notes that devaluation is employed in the aforementioned example.
Maxwell considered Renton to be incapable of understanding his complexities, despite evidence (Botting, 2017) that she possessed a great deal of insight and understanding into
Maxwell’s character. By deeming her incapable he devalued her insights and understanding of him and subsequently neutralised any threat to his idealised self image they may have posed.
Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Turmoil
It is well documented that Maxwell perceived his mother to be controlling and smothering.
This undoubtedly had a strong impact on Maxwell’s development. Botting (2017, p. 37) said she channelled all her instincts for love and nurturance onto Maxwell, who she perceived to be her husband’s final gift to her and is quoted as stating “I kept Gavin very much a child of my anguish, and he stayed in my bedroom until he was eight years old” The above descriptions paint a picture of an enmeshed and unhealthy attachment between Maxwell and Lady Mary.
The researcher posits that Lady Mary saw her youngest son as a source of emotional supply and an extension of herself, rather than an individual with his own needs and desires. In this we see reflected her use of primitive idealisation and omnipotent control. Although she was focused on Maxwell, due to the enmeshment, it is likely that Lady Mary was interacting with her own projected needs in him, rather than what he needed. It is likely that she prevented and controlled his behaviour, limiting his autonomy and individuation. Despite Maxwell’s fondness for his paternal grandfather, Lady Mary did not allow him to have much contact with him
(Botting, 2017), as she did not like him. Lady Mary was reported to be moralistic and 81 domineering. Maxwell stated to a friend in his later years that he was suffocated by his mother’s love. The continuation of these dynamics beyond Maxwell’s infancy and formative years would undoubtedly have cemented object relations patterns centred with Maxwell associating nurturance with control. Maxwell reports that his separation from his mother at age ten to go to boarding school to have been the most traumatic event of his life (Maxwell, 2015), and it is quite possible, after building up his sense of self under conditions of enmeshment, that his sense of self was rudimentary and unintegrated, and quite possibly left him further unequipped to interact with his peers. It is likely that Maxwell, given the enmeshed identity, felt abandoned when he found himself alone, at school without her.
By his adolescence, Maxwell must have differentiated, as the tone of his relationship with
Lady Mary changed. He began to resent his mother’s hovering presence and their relationship became very confrontational (Botting, 2017). Maxwell’s resentment towards the end of his teenage years as well as his statement regarding his mother’s smothering made in his middle years indicate a high degree of negative valence attached to these object relations patterns.
The patterns of interaction formed between Maxwell and Lady Mary played out in many of his romantic relationships. He became interested in long-time friend Raef Payne whom he idealised. Given Maxwell’s experience of Payne as an idealised object, through primitive idealisation he would have experienced Payne as an extension of himself (Kernberg, 2004), an inversion of the dynamic that he experienced with his mother. Maxwell struggled to accept that his feelings weren’t reciprocated and repeatedly pressurised Payne, resulting in the temporary dissolution of the friendship; this left Maxwell depressed and suicidal (Botting, 2017).
Maxwell’s pressuring of Payne points towards omnipotent control in an attempt to control the idealised object (Payne). It is easy to see how Maxwell would struggle when his object did not allow him control. 82
Maxwell’s idealisation dynamics were also seen in his romantic relationship with Clement
Glock. Botting (2017) states that Maxwell’s feelings were more admiring and covetous than genuinely loving. Maxwell used primitive idealization in interaction with Glock, viewing her as all good and experiencing her as an extension of himself, therefore extending that goodness into him. This served to protect his vulnerable ego and keep it safe from threatening external objects (Caligor, et al 2007, Kernberg, 1985). Maxwell’s brother Aymer also developed romantic feelings for Glock which distressed Maxwell, and he is quoted as saying “why can't
Aymer find a Clement and an object of his own? - why must it be my Clement and my object?”
(Botting, 2017, p. 156). Maxwell’s use of the word object here is interesting. Maxwell’s response to the situation points towards a failed attempt to employ the defense mechanism omnipotent control. Aymer and Glock would not allow Maxwell to control them. In doing so they challenged the notion that Glock was an extension of Maxwell, thus forcing him to see them both as separate. Within this scenario, we also see evidence of the denial. Maxwell discounts the information that challenges his emotional position on the situation – that Glock was married when she started seeing Maxwell, and discounts the reality that he did to Glock’s husband exactly what Aymer did to him. Rather, Maxwell experiences himself as wronged by them. This is done to protect his all good self-representation.
Maxwell became romantically involved with Tomas, who is quoted by Botting (2017, p.
157) as stating “I was a complete fantasy of his. He wished to mould me, dog-train me, correct my english and try improve me socially and culturally”. Here we see strong evidence of primitive idealisation and omnipotent control. Maxwell seems to have believed that he could control and mould Tomas, potentially so that his idealised object would be even more desirable and therefore further bolster Maxwell’s greatness (Caligor et al. 2007). Again, we see an individual resisting that control, and the relationship disintegrating. 83
Maxwell established another enmeshed relationship with poet Kathleen Raine (Raine,
1977; Botting, 2017). Although this relationship was not romantic, Raine referred to Maxwell as a genius and her spiritual soulmate “as if one consciousness lived in them both” (Botting
2017, p. 150). It seems that Maxwell felt similarly. This said, Botting (2017) wrote that
Maxwell did not love Raine but admired her accomplishments and wished to learn from her and use her connection to further his own career. This speaks to primitive idealisation.
Maxwell genuinely believed that Raine possessed occult powers, calling upon her to perform a healing spell to save the life of his pet bird. We see in this description his assignment of special powers to Raine, enhancing her worth more. Overall, it is clear that primitive idealisation and omnipotent control featured strongly in Maxwell’s relationships. However,
Maxwell also strongly tended toward the use of devaluation.
Despite idealising Raine, the literature indicates that Maxwell could be brutally critical of her. He would intermittently criticise her looks, dress sense, talent and highlight her mistakes as he perceived them. Maxwell is also reported to have harshly referred to Raine as a witch.
Here we see evidence of Maxwell splitting of his bad representations and projecting them onto
Raine, making her bad so that he did not have to be. Maxwell and Raine’s friendship was characterised by many cycles of bitter arguments followed by warm reunions where they would swear never to doubt one another again followed by another intense altercation (Botting, 2017).
The primitive idealisation and devaluation thus point to alternatively activated representations.
Maxwell’s brief marriage to Lavinia Renton holds very similar dynamics to that seen with
Raine. According to Renton, Maxwell referred to her as the perfect woman and built her up into “sort of a goddess creature” (Botting, 2017, p. 386), and gave her full credit for his ability to write and feel hopeful after a period of writer's block, with primitive idealization clearly seen in this accreditation. Maxwell identified Renton as all good and idealized her. By associating with her he shared in this goodness and was subsequently protected from his threatening bad 84 representations (Kernberg, 2004). Maxwell’s devaluation of Renton is also clearly evident. He could be incredibly cruel to Renton, calling her destructive and a killer, accusing her of jealousy, madness, hysteria and Jekyll and Hyde behaviours. Highly relevant to this study is the fact that Maxwell himself was described by numerous sources as possessing the unpleasant characteristics he described in Renton (Botting, 2017; Raine, 1977; Frere, 1976). Maxwell appears to have engaged in a cycle of primitive idealisation and devaluation with Renton.
Maxwell’s all good self representation would have been enhanced through his association with his idealised object and the ensuing devaluation of the object would have functioned to protect him from the threat posed to his all good self representations by the all bad, persecutory object representation along with the projected aggressiveness it held (Summers, 2015).
Renton described an episode Maxwell experienced which she called a nervous breakdown which left Maxwell bedridden and withdrawn for several days. Immediately following this episode Maxwell suggested to Renton that she seek psychiatric help, even going so far as to write to the psychiatrist outlining Renton’s case as he saw it (Botting, 2017). It is clear that he assigned his bad presentations here to Renton; unable to tolerate his own negative attributes and behaviours, he projected them onto her. More so, within this incident is evidence of projective identification, with Maxwell trying to control his bad in Renton by labelling her as mad, and trying to send her to a psychiatrist. The literature on their marriage also describes various cycles of idealisation and devaluation of Renton, leading up to their divorce in 1963.
It is interesting to note that Maxwell appears to have felt suffocated and trapped by both
Raine and Renton (Botting, 2017). This appears to have reinforced the feelings he expressed regarding his relationship with his mother (Botting, 2017). This pattern of feeling trapped and smothered in intimate relationships likely points to Maxwell’s difficulty maintaining differentiation in intimate relationships. Intimacy and nurturance could have represented external control which Maxwell resented and felt the need to escape from. 85
The first person to identify Maxwell’s pattern of swinging between different psychological positions was Dr James McDougal, the S.O.E medic who looked after the mental health of recruits. He labelled Maxwell a creative psychopath, which he described as a personality structure composed of a series of opposite characteristics “friendly and unfriendly, truthful and untruthful, bold and fearful, loyal and disloyal, thick-skinned and thin-skinned, considerate and callous” (Botting, 2017, p. 88). It was McDougal’s view that these traits were in constant internal conflict resulting in a disorganised and unpredictable presentation and an inability to maintain stable adult relationships. Other S.O.E reports provide contradictory information, he is referred to as cheerful, pleasant and likable by some and self centred and childish by others.
This information points towards the same pattern of alternatively activated representations as detectible in Maxwell’s early twenties. Although the intensity and cycling through positions wasn’t as extreme in the military, possibly as the relationships within the military were less intimate and intense, and unlikely to elicit such a clear cycling pattern. Rather it was seen in different individuals experiencing Maxwell differently.
The cycling between different representations points to a poorly developed and unintegrated sense of self with different qualities emerging, depending on which object relation was active at any point. This points toward the tendency toward splitting as the primary defense, and to being emotionally reactive. Kernberg (1975) states that the borderline personality organisation results in a chaotic, confused and disorganised clinical presentation.
This matches McDougal’s descriptions of Maxwell's personality, leading the researcher to place Maxwell in Kernberg’s borderline level of personality organisation. Summers (2015) explains that the ego structure of individuals at this level is both disorganised and unstable. The failure to integrate self and object representations leads to general ego weakness as the ego structure required to manage conflicts between drives, ego and superego is absent (Kernberg
& Caligor, 2005). 86
Entitlement and Peter Pan Complex
There is evidence in the literature that Maxwell exhibited signs of entitlement during his childhood and adolescence. He demanded to be removed from schools, and neglected his schoolwork in favour of excursions into the woods but blamed his low academic performance on the British education system which failed to recognise the potential in boys such as himself
(Botting, 2017). Maxwell felt slighted when he was not sent to more prestigious Oxford college even though he did not apply himself in high school (Botting, 2017; Maxwell 2015). Maxwell refused to adjust in order to fit in, rather expecting his environment to adjust to him. Maxwell denied the uncomfortable reality that his choices and behaviours, rather than external factors, decided his academic outcomes. He discarded the reality that he did not apply himself academically and spent much of his time at school skipping classes or daydreaming, and then devalued the British schooling system. This was done in an attempt to neutralise the threat it posed to his all good self-representation. These defenses protected Maxwell’s all good self representation around his intellect from contamination by bad self representations (perhaps around laziness and inconsistent work ethic). It also indicates denial of the reality that his mother and uncles deemed him unable to cope with the formal environment of the more prestigious Eton.
Maxwell was unable to settle in one occupation. Over the course of his life he was a salesman, painter, poet, race car driver, writer, explorer and conservationist. He appears to have switched between careers in search of gratification, moving from one to another as soon as things became difficult. These behaviours would have been facilitated by omnipotence which would justify Maxwell’s demand for gratification and adoration from external objects
(Kernberg, 1985). They could further be supported by a diffused identity, with Maxwell having difficulty with what to focus on that he would enjoy. He held only one formal job and left after a year because he couldn't stand “taking orders from idiots in authority over me” (Botting, 87
2017, p.72). Omnipotence is evident in this statement, with Maxwell believing himself to be more intelligent than his superiors. There are numerous other reports of Maxwell having difficulty with authority and being most comfortable when he himself was giving orders to others (Botting, 2017; Frere, 1976), which point to the same defense. Maxwell’s first expedition as a young explorer (he was 20 at the time) was a solo expedition to the arctic
(Botting, 2017). In this too, we see omnipotence, with Maxwell believing himself to be capable of an unrealistic expedition. Maxwell was described as impulsive and financially reckless. He started the basking shark fishery on the island of Soay although he was ill prepared and made unwise financial decisions. Later in life he bought lighthouses, boats and luxury cars when he was barely solvent and against the advice of his financial advisors, and was completely uninsured when Sandaig burnt down. Maxwell saw financial difficulty as an inconvenience rather that a real concern (Frere, 1976; Botting, 2017; Maxwell, 2015). His omnipotence supported his view of himself as above fulltime employment, as per other ordinary people, and as above any financial difficulty. He used denial to block out the importance of such difficulties, and seemed to get by from windfall to windfall so that the financial difficulties didn’t have too much of an impact on him overall.
Maxwell resented adult responsibilities and there is abundant evidence that he expected those around him to carry these burdens (Botting, 2017; Frere, 1976; Maxwell, 2015; Raine,
1977). Maxwell’s publisher, Rupert Hart Davis described him as the most difficult client he’d ever had, demanding reassurance, admiration and money (Botting, 2017). In this description we again see Maxwell’s omnipotence, and the expectation to be admired and have his needs met. Employment of the defense would serve the function of protecting Maxwell’s fragile ego enhancing his experience of his good self. The continued use of omnipotence would result in
Maxwell having a very poor grasp of his own flaws, inadequacies and limitations and continued omnipotence facilitated his belief that he was capable of each of the roles and occupations he 88 adopted (Vaknin, 2015). This explains the impaired reality testing seen in Maxwell’s decisions and plans. Maxwell’s reliance on splitting as his primary defensive organization would result in low levels of integration in both self and object representations. The lack of ego integration would have presented as impulsivity (Kernberg, 1985), which is part of what drove his erratic decisions and sudden career changes.
The term Peter Pan Syndrome was coined by psychologist Dan Kiley and describes a group of behaviours and traits including reluctance to find or maintain stable employment, difficulty engaging in the normal give and take of adult relationships, reluctance to take part in adult activities of daily living as well as relying on others to take care of practical and financial responsibilities (Kiley, 1983). In descriptions of Peter Pan syndrome a general picture of a lack of responsibility and entitlement permeates. Although Peter Pan syndrome is not the focus of this study, the behaviours and traits (primarily lack of responsibility taking and entitlement) are prominent themes throughout Maxwell’s life.
Self doubt and Critique
There is ample evidence that Maxwell was at times gripped with self doubt and insecurity.
This is seen first when Maxwell did not fit in at school and is described as being insecure, preferring to retreat into the surrounding woods rather than engage with his peers (Botting,
2017, Maxwell, 2015). The researcher postulates that the jarring contrast of being identified as talented and special at home and then being different and unable to fit in at school, which would have amplified Maxwell’s insecurity.
During Maxwell’s time shark fishing he is reported to have grappled with the contradiction between his love of animals and the slaughter of them (Botting, 2017). He eventually made his peace with the situation by stating that sharks were unlikely to feel pain in the way that mammals do due to the small size of their brains compared to their bodies. Here we see an example of the mature defense rationalization. Maxwell used his knowledge of biology to 89 justify his actions. He described an overwhelming sense of failure when the fishery closed
(Botting, 2017; Maxwell, 2015), reflect strong difficulties around doubting his competence thereafter. He also struggled with his sense of competence when portrait painting and claimed he could only paint well if he didn’t care what anyone thought (Botting, 2017). This later incident is another example of Maxwell employing rationalisation to explain away his discomfort.
When Maxwell’s first otter Chahala died, we see his self-doubt and critique, when
Maxwell blamed himself stating that through his stupidity he had murdered an innocent creature who had trusted him. Thessinger reported that Maxwell was hysterical and inconsolable (Botting, 2017). Here we see evidence of Maxwell employing omnipotent control as a defence mechanism resulting in the belief that all good in his life came from his efforts alone, it didn't seem to occur to him that certain things were simply outside of his control.
The aforementioned examples point to a harsh and punitive superego. Kernberg (1975) explained that on the borderline level of functioning individuals exercise self control is by engaging in harsh internal attacks. The absence of integration and repression of the persecutory, sadistic superego forerunners (Clarkin et al. 2007), leave the images to be conscious, volatile and irrational. They are split off and projected outwards, but may be re-introjected and focused against the self, possibly to protect an idealised object. We see this specifically with Chahala, where Maxwell accepts the bad and in so doing preserves the image of the otter as good and pure. Generally, borderline individuals identify with the idealised self image, turning towards grandiosity to protect themselves from the pain of these self attacks. This results in rapid switching between self aggrandising and self flagellation instead of realistic values and restraints (Summers, 2015). This pattern is strongly evident in Maxwell’s life.
Suspicion and Paranoia 90
Suspicion and paranoia as themes are present throughout Maxwell’s life. In boarding school he experienced the other boys as overwhelmingly hostile. This object representation of others as predominantly hostile extended into adulthood. He even entitled one of his books God protect me from my friends (1956) which is suggestive of negative object relations patterns regarding relationships.
Maxwell was said to have been deeply insecure in his friendships and was preoccupied with being betrayed by his friends even though his suspicions were groundless (Botting, 2017;
Frere, 1976). Frere (1976) reports that as Maxwell grew older his paranoia increased and he would accuse those around him of treachery and betrayal and would react suddenly, harshly and aggressively to perceived slights or a careless word. Maxwell believed that Raine had magical powers and that her curse was the reason for much of his misfortune, referring to her as a witch (Botting, 2017). Maxwell became jealous of Renton’s friendships with Watt and
Nutkins and even her bond with the otters (Botting, 2017). Maxwell accused Scott (his assistant) of pulling a knife on him and threatening to kill him. Frere believed that Maxwell had invented the incident, and felt that given a real or imagined grudge against Scott, there would be no limits to Maxwell’s powers of invention.
In the above instances we see Maxwell use splitting and devaluation to get rid of intolerable or unmanageable qualities about his negative or aggressive self representations and project these into an external object. This resulted in the external object appearing aggressive and threatening as they would now contain Maxwell’s projected aggression (Kernberg, 1985).
The function of this was to protect Maxwell’s fragile good self which now remained uncontaminated by bad self representations as these were experienced as coming from an external object (Caligor et al., 2007). However, given that these qualities were projected out onto the world, they could come for him at any point, and Maxwell experienced paranoia in the face of this potential threat, and the need to protect himself against it. 91
A consequence, in many of the examples provided above, is a sense of poor reality testing.
By seeing Raine as a witch who cursed him, for example, Maxwell denied her other positive qualities. When projecting into the future regarding what to expect from her, he was unable to take these positive qualities into account.
An additional consequence of splitting, highlighted by Kernberg and Caligor (2005) is that some of the secondary defences (namely primitive idealisation and omnipotent control) result in the fusing of self and object representations, especially in close relationships. This fusing can result in decompensation that presents as passing episodes of psychosis. This seems accurate for Maxwell, with some moments, for example, his assertion that Renton needed to see a Psychiatrist after his own poor mental health episode, seeming to border on psychotic.
Control and Manipulation
Attempts to control and manipulate others is present throughout Maxwell’s life. He is well reported to have had strong difficulty accepting authority. His time in the S.O.E. as a trainer was noted as being probably one of the happiest of his life. The researcher suspects that this was in part as he had power over others and felt superior. He was also operating within a set role, where his feelings of competence were maximised. The combination of these two factors affirmed his positive view of self. Maxwell is mentioned numerous times as being most comfortable around adolescent boys, perhaps because he could again take on the position of most senior and knowledgeable as well as receive admiration from the boys (Botting, 2017,
Frere, 1976). The power position in these roles allowed Maxwell to be in control.
In Maxwell’s brief relationship with Clement Glock we see evidence that Maxwell saw
Glock as an object to possess rather than as a separate human being. Maxwell became infatuated with her. When his brother Aymer also became involved with Clement, Maxwell was unhappy and is quoted by Botting (2017) as stating: “why can't Aymer find a Clement and an object of his own? - why must it be my Clement and my object?” (p. 156). The phrasing 92
Maxwell uses strongly indicates that he viewed Clement as his, and tried to control the environment to maintain his object.
When the film rights to A Ring of Bright Water were purchased in 1967 Maxwell was in dire need of the financial relief the film would have brought. Frere (1976) indicated that
Maxwell wanted complete control over the creative process of the film, being unwilling to compromise even though he desperately needed the revenue. Frere was eventually able to persuade Maxwell and stated about the matter “compromise never suited him. He preferred to scrap an idea rather than modify it” (Botting, 2017, p. 505). Through primitive idealisation,
Maxwell viewed his books as an extension of himself and as such the idea that someone else could control the portrayal of them would have been alien to him.
The need to control is also underlined by Maxwell’s use of omnipotence, which allowed him to experience his self in a grandiose manner. He felt entitled to control his objects, through his enmeshment with them. The omnipotence protected his weak and fragile ego which was unable to withstand contact with negative self representations (Summers, 2015).
Within the need to be in control, we also see the tendency to manipulate. At the age of thirteen Maxwell wrote to his mother asking her to intervene and take him out of school. It is possible that this was a reasonable request from an unhappy child, but given the demanding wording of the letter to Lady Mary (i.e. “for God’s sake, take me away from this awful place”
Botting, 2017 p. 46) more likely interpretation is that Maxwell used his position as his mother’s favourite and most vulnerable child to manipulate her into removing from a school environment he found unpleasant.
There is evidence of manipulation in Maxwell’s relationship with Kathleen Raine.
Maxwell greatly admired Raine’s success, and it has been suggested that he used their friendship to further his own career (Botting, 2017). Although other evidence points towards a more complex relationship between Maxwell and Raine (Botting, 2017 Frere, 1976; Raine, 93
1977), pointing to the relationship being based on more than just benefit to Maxwell, it seems that Maxwell did also attempt to exploit his association with Raine for his own benefit. He asserted their bond to the world, publicly, by using a line from one of her poems as a title to his book, A Ring of Bright Water. Through doing so, he was able to ride on her success.
It could be argued that Maxwell’s divorcing Renton yet wanting to maintain regular contact with her teenage sons as well as continue to receive emotional support from Renton (Botting,
2017) was a manipulative act. Maxwell was unhappy in the marriage but did not want to lose the parts of the arrangement that benefitted him in some way, so he attempted to manipulate the situation by orchestrating an arrangement that served him at the expense of the other parties involved. Maxwell’s tendency to manipulate in these various instances seems to point toward part object relating. He manipulated others as parts, placing them where they best suited him, without being able to consider the impact that this has on the other. His part view challenged his ability to generate real empathy for others, that generally emerges in whole object relating.
Grandiosity
When Maxwell tried his hand at society portrait painting, he was looked after by a young woman, who appears to have been infatuated with him. He described his feelings for her as follows:
Her reign of a month here has been heaven - she dotes on me and anticipates my
every need. Alas she is supposed to go and be trained to be a doctor or theatre nurse
or something soon, and I can think of no remedy but marrying her, which is perhaps
a little drastic (Botting, 2017, p. 133).
Here we see potential evidence of Maxwell’s grandiosity. Maxwell refers to the young woman in a way that strongly suggests that he felt it was his due to be doted upon and to have his needs anticipated. Maxwell indicated that he valued what the young woman provided him 94 with but could not be bothered to give anything in return, including remembering what she was training to be.
Maxwell’s reports that Mijbil gave him complete and utter trust and lavished him with affection (Maxwell, 1974). While in London Maxwell had Mijbil examined by the Zoology department of the British Museum and it was stated that Mijbil belonged to a new species of otter, the discovery was attributed to Maxwell and the species named after him: Lutrogale perspicillata maxwelli (Maxwell, 1974). Maxwell was reported to have been inordinately proud to have the species named after him and saw it as a form of immortality. On his deathbed
Maxwell was to proclaim that the discovery of Maxwell’s otter was the greatest achievement of his life (Botting, 2017; Frere, 1976). Maxwell’s omnipotence here points to grandiosity, with the identification of a species, based purely on luck, seen by him as his achievement.
During Maxwell’s marriage to Renton, he wrote her a letter stating that he didn't think she was capable of understanding just how complex he was (Botting 2017). This points to an inflated grandiose self view. The couple tried to start a family but were unsuccessful, Maxwell held Renton solely responsible for this. With Renton reporting that Maxwell felt that his
“perfect woman had let him down by not conceiving” (Botting, 2017, p. 385). Here we see further evidence of omnipotence. It appears to be inconceivable to Maxwell that he could potentially be a contributor to the couples’ difficulty in conceiving. Even though realistically his desire for geographical distance would certainly not have helped matters we see a complete absence of acknowledgement of any part he may have played in the situation. In doing so
Maxwell places himself in an all powerful position where any failure would need to be solely attributed to Renton. We also see the use of denial. Renton already had two children, so it could reasonably be assumed that she was able to bear children. Maxwell however had no children, but denied the possible reality that the fault lay with him. This would threaten his grandiose 95 all-good, all-powerful, all-capable self representation. Through placing all blame on Renton he was able to preserve this positive experience of self.
Another example of Maxwell’s grandiosity and use of omnipotence is seen in his communicating to friends that he was planning another book, a work of philosophy and psychology called The Heritage of Fear. He explained this it would explore the roots of human and animal behaviour which he claimed to be “his great discovery” and “an entirely new idea”
(Botting, 2017, p. 441). The book was never completed (Botting, 2017).
Maxwell’s grandiosity indicates a merging of the ideal self and normal self representations.
Negative self representations were projected outwards onto others in order to protect his fragile ego, leading to the inability to accurately view himself.. The defenses employed against negative material that could threaten his all positive self representations served to strengthen the unrealistically positive view he had of himself (Summers, 2015).
Idealisation of Nature
It is repeatedly mentioned in the data that Maxwell loved nature and had intimate knowledge of native flora and fauna from a very early age (Maxwell, 2015; Botting, 2017;
Frere, 1976). Due to his isolation in early childhood, he would spend his time exploring the fields and woods on his family estate, Elrig. His keen eye for the natural world was further developed through his contact with his favorite aunt, Lady Muriel Percy. According to Maxwell she was an exceptionally good general naturalist as well as a serious research Zoologist
(Botting, 2017). The validity of her qualification and ability isn't mentioned by any other sources and the language used by Maxwell points to a possibility that he could be exaggerating his favorite Aunt’s abilities. Maxwell’s paternal grandfather, Sir Herbert, who was a well- known natural Historian, also had an impact on the young boy’s affinity with the natural world and Maxwell was reported to have greatly admired his grandfather. Sir Herbert served as a 96 source of affirmation for Maxwell, specifically regarding his in interest in and knowledge of flora and fauna.
Maxwell was distraught at leaving his beloved home to go to boarding school. Elrig was described by Maxwell as his Avalon and according to Botting (2017) he spent the rest of his life trying to return to or recreate it. Here we see evidence of primitive idealisation. Elrig, Aunt
Muriel, Sir Maxwell and perhaps nature in general were all idealised. Their goodness was magnified and any flaws or limitations ignored. This would serve the function of providing protection for Maxwell’s weak ego by associating with all good objects so that he would transfer their goodness into himself.
Maxwell’s affinity and ability with regards to nature provided him with positive feedback from his family. According to Maxwell (2015) birds would perch on his arms whenever he ventured outside and according to his cousin, Lady Elizabeth Percy, “a mouse had only to run across the floor and in no time Gavin had befriended it” (Botting, 2017, p. 43). He was admired for these qualities and this reinforced his good self-representations. However, due to arrested development and subsequent lack of integration it is the researchers view that this led to self- aggrandisement, with Maxwell enhancing his abilities with nature somewhat.
Maxwell references Sandaig as Avalon, Xanadu, an idyll, an absolute paradise, something out of a dream (Botting, 2017; Maxwell, 2015; Frere, 1976; Raine, 1977). After Maxwell acquired Mijbil, he stated that with this his life entered a new phase, “a thraldom of otters, an otter fixation” (Maxwell, 1974, p. 104). Maxwell told Botting that with an otter for company he could forgo all human love and affection. After Mijbils death Maxwell acquired two more otters, first Edal, then Teko. He envisaged the two otters frolicking together but this was never to be. Presumably, this dream was in line with the Avalon that Maxwell believed existed.
Maxwell used primitive idealization in the above examples. He didn't perceive Sandaig or the otters as separate entities but rather as all good extensions of himself. He ignored or minimised 97 faults or flaws and through association with these all good objects Maxwell was able to enhance his all good self representation
However, the otters could not tolerate one another and had to be kept separate at all times.
Edal and Teko both exhibited aggressive behaviour which resulted in them being kept in zoo- like enclosures. Over time, but particularly after their dislike for each other, Maxwell began to perceive that his Avalon had lost its charm, and Watt began to take over more and more responsibility for the upkeep of Sandaig (after Terry Nutkin left in 1963) (Frere, 1976).
. In Maxwell’s relationship both with Sandaig and his otters, we see another example of the idealisation-devaluation cycle. He held them as all good and when they were (inevitably) unable to live up to his phantasy they were devalued and discarded (emotionally if not physically). According to Caligor et al. (2007) devaluation is the antithesis of idealisation. Instead of an idealised wholly good and flawless object there is a persecuted object onto which negative attributes are projected. This is done in order to protect the individual employing the defense from experiencing threatening or negative aspects of the self which could threaten the grandiose ’all good’ self image. Devaluation also functions to weaken the bond with a once idealised object (Kernberg, 2004).
Discussion
Maxwell presented with grandiosity but vacillated to insecurity and self doubt at times. He relied on his environment to support his view of himself as all good, and to secure the supply of the all good feedback he would merge with external objects through idealisation, and engage in manipulative behaviours to place them optimally in support of self. When this failed he would decompensate, and engage in devaluation of the objects that failed to support his all good self representations. His close relationships were thus rooted in cycles of idealisation and devaluation. These relationships were emotionally volatile and thus often held the dynamics of 98 manipulation and control, suspicion and paranoia. These patterns reflect a chaotic internal world.
In the explored object relations, it is evident that Maxwell used primitive defences.
Primitive idealization, denial, projective identification, omnipotence, omnipotent control and devaluation are all evident, and are based on splitting and the separation of the all good and all bad self and object representations. Based on the above information the researcher can with confidence place Maxwell in Kernberg’s borderline level of functioning. Furthermore there is evidence that Maxwell falls into the narcissistic subgroup of the borderline level. Kernberg believed that the narcissistic personality uses a pathological, grandiose self image to defend negative representations. He saw the narcissistic personality organisation as a superficially more adapted form of borderline personality organisation (Summers, 2015). Kernberg (1976) also stated that there is a group of individuals who fall into the narcissistic personality organisation who lack adaptive mechanisms and function at a more overtly borderline level, identifying them as malignant narcissists. The researcher believes that Maxwell falls into this most extreme subgroup. This subgroup is more chaotic than other narcissistic subtypes
(Kernberg, 1984). According to Summers (2015) these individuals can be distinguished from other borderline individuals by “their frequent outbursts of narcissistic rage and by their inability to depend on others, in contrast to the excessive clinging of most borderline patients”
(p. 207). This description fits with Maxwell’s personality patterns.
Conclusion
In this chapter the author explored and discussed the personality development of Gavin
Maxwell through the lens of Otto Kernberg’s (1974,1975,1980,1992) Object Relations
Theory. Maxwell’s life experiences and relationships were analysed using Kernberg’s theory with particular emphasis placed on his relational difficulties and eccentricities. The following 99 chapter with conclude the study, and provide the limitations and recommendations for future research.
Chapter Six
Conclusion, Limitations, and Recommendations
Chapter Overview
The final chapter of this study provides an overview of the research study and its aim. The conclusions of the findings are then presented, as well as the limitations of the study, and recommendations for future research.
Overview of the Study
The primary aim of the present study was to explore and describe the personality development of Gavin Maxwell using Otto Kernberg’s Object Relations Theory. The study hoped to generate new insight into Maxwell’s personality development as well as create an understanding of his relational difficulties and eccentricities. This research study was a psychobiographical exploration. Chapter 1 provided a brief overview of the study. Chapter 2 explored Maxwell’s life. Chapter 3 provided information on Otto Kernberg’s Object
Relations Theory. This was followed by Chapter 4 which provided an overview of the methodology employed in this study. Chapter 5 provided the findings and discussion of this study.
Conclusions
This section serves to provide a summary of the findings of this study.
Data on Maxwell’s formative years point to maternal enmeshment and the disruption of stage three of Kernberg’s developmental model. This would have hampered Maxwell’s ability to integrate good and bad self-representations as well as good and bad object representations, resulting in an absence of whole object representations, a reliance on splitting based defenses beyond the point of developmental appropriateness. This lack of integration emerged in a 100 weak and fragile ego, Maxwell continued to rely primarily on spitting based defenses that further weakened his ego. He engaged mostly in part object relating. His fragile ego was bolstered by merging his ideal and realistic self representation to form a grandiose self, with little realistic self evaluation to temper this. Maxwell formed enmeshed relationships, and through primitive idealisation relied heavily on his environment to support his grandiose view of himself; through omnipotent control he engaged in the manipulation of others to secure the supply and of confirmation of his all good self. When Maxwell’s grandiosity was not supported by his environment he would descend into harsh self criticism and insecurity.
Negative self representations that would threaten this all good self image and were projected outwards, resulting the suspicion and paranoia. Overall Maxwell’s close relationships were rooted in cycles of idealisation and devaluation. This pattern led to chaotic interpersonal relationships, and a chaotic internal world. Splitting also interfered with the healthy development of Maxwell’s superego. While Maxwell’s superego development was not completely lacking we do see a degree of impairment. There is evidence that it remained harsh and punitive throughout his life and was experienced as an external punishing withholding force rather than an internalised set of values and beliefs.
The research study provided evidence that Maxwell’s personality structure fell with
Kernberg’s borderline level of functioning and that his development of a grandiose self to protect his weak and fragile ego points towards Maxwell having a narcissistic personality.
Limitations of the Study
There are a number of limitations to this study. Due to the fact psychobiography is a single case study, the findings are generalised to Otto Kernberg’s Object Relations theory, are as such, external validity is limited. This is mitigated by the fact that the aim of the study was not to provide generalisable findings but rather to provide information on Maxwell’s personality development. Limitations regarding internal validity, particularly explaining 101 causal relationships, were also present. These were addressed by using multiple data sources and triangulating information wherever possible. It should also be noted that it was not the purpose of this study to describe a causal relationship but rather to explore Maxwell’s personality development using Otto Kernberg’s (1966) Object Relations Theory.
A limitation also includes the challenges faced by the researcher in terms of the theory used.
Kernberg's (1966) Object Relations Theory emphasises childhood and could potentially over represent its influence on Maxwell’s personality. Kernberg's theory is in itself limiting within the scope of this study as it’s depth and complexity make application difficult and time consuming. A further limitation includes the amount of data. Numerous data sources, both primary and secondary, provided a large amount of information to condense and analyse.
Finally, while every effort is made to remove researcher bias, the inherent subjectivity of psychobiographical research must be acknowledged as a limitation.
Recommendations for Future Research
The researcher proposes the following recommendations for future research studies. It would be beneficial for more studies to be done on individuals who present with borderline level personality organisations to generate a greater breadth and depth of understanding into the personality development and intrapsychic structure of individuals on this level. Research studies on Maxwell using an alternative psychodynamic and other theoretical orientation would provide broader information on his interpersonal and intrapersonal functioning. The researcher is of the opinion that a comparative study applying multiple theories to Maxwell’s life would provide valuable information on narcissistic personality organisation from multiple viewpoints.
Conclusion
This chapter provided a conclusion to the research study. The purpose of the study and its aim was revisited. The conclusions of the study were then provided, followed by a brief discussion of the limitations of the study, and recommendations for future research. 102
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https://rauli.cbs.dk/index.php/assc/article/download/4611/5042 108
Thesiger, W. (1964). The Marsh Arabs: Wilfred Thesiger. London: Longmans.
Undiscovered Scotland. (2018). Gavin Maxwell: Biography. Retrieved from
https://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/m/gavinmaxwell.html
Toth, S., Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F., Sturge-Apple, M. (2004). Maternal Depression,
Children’s Attachment Security, and Representational Development: An
Organizational Perspective.
Watts, J. (2003). Obituary: Kathleen Raine. Retrieved from
https://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/jul/08/guardianobituaries.books
Vaknin, S. (2015). Malignant self-love: Narcissism revisited. Retrieved from
http://samvak.tripod.com/personalitydisorders21.html
Vaillant, G. (1992). Ego Mechanisms of Defense: A Guide for Clinicians and Researchers.
American Psychiatric Publishing.
Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods. Los Angeles, California: Sage
Publications
109
Appendix A:
Extract of Triangulated Data Sources
Statement Confirmatory Sources
Maxwell was of aristocratic descent Botting (2017); Maxwell (2015); Maxwell &
Straiton (2016); Lister-Kaye (2014)
Maxwell's lineage influenced his personality Botting (2017); Frere (1976); Liste-Kaye
(2014)
Maxwell inherited a genetic predisposition Botting (2017); Parrinder (2014) to Bipolar from the Maxwell side of the family.
Born on the 15th July 1914 on the estate of Botting (2017); Maxwell (2015); Frere
Elrig near Dumfries and Galloway in (1976); Parrinder (2014); Boothby (2016);
Scotland Field (2014); Maxwell & Straiton (2016) the youngest of four children born to Mary Botting (2017); Maxwell (2015); Frere and Aymer Maxwell. (1976); Parrinder (2014); Boothby (2016);
Field (2014); Maxwell & Straiton (2016)
Maxwell's birth was reported to have been Maxwell (2015); Botting (2017) difficult and prolonged and left him with five strawberry birthmarks on the inside of his right forearm
Maxwell perceived these marks as a symbol Maxwell (2015); Botting (2017) 110
of shame
Maxwell is reported to have been a delicate Maxwell (2015); Botting (2015) and sickly child
Three months after Maxwell’s birth his Botting (2017); Maxwell (2015); Frere father was killed during the first German (1976); Parrinder (2014); Boothby (2016); artillery barrage of World War I Field (2014); Maxwell & Straiton (2016) with little prospect of remarrying due to Botting (2017) religious constraints, Lady Mary is said to have dealt with the prospect spending for life in solitary widowhood by rejecting her sexuality
She adopted a more masculine manner of Maxwell (2015); Botting (2017) speaking and dressing as well as the masculine hobbies (hunting and fishing) enjoyed by her late husband
Lady Mary directed all her instincts for love Botting (2017) and affection onto her youngest, neediest and most vulnerable child who she perceived as her husbands final gift Botting (2017) to her
Maxwell slept in mothers bedroom until 8 Botting (2017); Parrinder (2014) 111
Maxwell blamed his mother for his Botting (2017); Frere (1976); Boothby interpersonal difficulties - saying that he was (2016) suffocated by love
112
Appendix B:
List of Primary and Secondary Source Material
Primary Sources:
Maxwell, G. (1974). Ring of bright water. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin.
Maxwell, G. (2001). The ring of bright water trilogy. London: Puffin.
Maxwell, G. (2003). A reed shaken by the wind. London: Eland.
Maxwell, G. (2007). Raven seek thy brother. Long Preston: Dales.
Maxwell, G. (2007). The rocks remain. Long Preston: Dales.
Maxwell, G. (2013). Harpoon at a venture. Edinburgh: Birlinn.
Maxwell, G. (2015). The house of Elrig. London: Slightly Foxed.
Secondary Sources:
Botting, D. (2017). Gavin Maxwell - a life. Eland Publishing.
Boothby, D. (2016). Island of dreams: A personal history of a remarkable place. London:
Picador.
Field, M. (2014). Gavin Maxwell's bitter legacy: Was the otter man the wildlife champion.
Online available from https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/gavin-
maxwells-bitter-legacy-was-the-otter-man-the-wildlife-champion-he-appeared-to-be
9595629.html
Frere, R. (1976). Maxwell's ghost. An epilogue to Gavin Maxwell's Camusfearna.
Edinburgh, Birlinn.
Garavelli, D. (2014). Gavin Maxwell's love of nature. Online available from
https://www.scotsman.com/news/opinion/dani-garavelli-gavin-maxwell-s-love-of-nature-
1-3452667 113
Lister-Kaye, J. (2014, July 04). The genius of Gavin Maxwell.
Online available from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/wildlife/10943319/The-
genius-of-Gavin-Maxwell.html
Lister-Kaye, J. (1972). The white island.
Maxwell, M., & Straiton, D. (2016). Gavin Maxwell.
Parrinder, P. (2014). The violence of the innocent: Gavin Maxwell and his otters.
Quaderni di Palazzo Serra 25, 227-234. ISSN: 1970-0571
Potter, C. (2016). On an ancient isle: Kathleen Raine, Gavin Maxwell and
Mijbil. Online available from http://asketchofthepast.com/2013/05/12/on-an-ancient-isle-
kathleen- raine-gavin-maxwell-and-mijbil/
Raine, K. (1977). The lion’s mouth. London, England: Hamish Hamilton
Syse, K. (2007). Gavin Maxwell - the lonely naturalist. Online available from
https://rauli.cbs.dk/index.php/assc/article/download/4611/5042
Thesiger, W. (1964). The marsh arabs: Wilfred Thesiger. London: Longmans.
Undiscovered Scotland. (2018). Gavin Maxwell: biography. Online available from
https://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/m/gavinmaxwell.html
Watts, J. (2003). Obituary: Kathleen Raine. Online available from
https://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/jul/08/guardianobituaries.books
114
Appendix C: Turnitin Originality Report