The Role of Farmers in Biodiversity Conservation of Maize Landraces Through Farming Systems in Kenya

Journal of Developments in Sustainable Agriculture/ : +//ῌ +11 ( ,*+* )

The Role of Farmers in Biodiversity Conservation of Maize Landraces through Farming Systems in Kenya

Benard Musyoka Mwololo*

Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki-*/ῌ 2/1, , Japan

Maize is a major Kenyan crop that contributes greatly to food and livelihood security. About3*ῌ of Kenya’s population depends on corn for their income. Small-scale farmers account for1/ῌ of Kenya’s total maize production. Maize accounts for-,/ῌῌ of Kenya’s GDP and of agricultural employment. Average yields are far below the regional level, creating serious food deﬁcits, especially when rain is limited. Kenya’s government has promoted the use of high-yield varieties (hybrids), but farmer needs have been ignored in developing these varieties. Farmers therefore continue to plant traditional landraces and varieties to reduce costs and harness the beneﬁts of locally evolved genetic traits. Here, I studied whether promoting hybrid varieties has improved livelihoods and food security, and estimated the value of the traditional landraces. I analyzed data from small-scale maize producers in the Taita District of Kenya’s Coast Province. The hybrids generally had superior quantitative traits (height, grain yield, stover yield, and grain size) when their agro-ecological requirements were met, but their potential cannot be achieved by rural farmers because of poor management, a lack of agricultural inputs, unfavorable biotic and abiotic factors, or a combination of these factors. In contrast, the landraces had superior qualitative traits (early maturation, drought tolerance, disease resistance, and good cooking and eating qualities). They are thus important sources of traits required for local adaptation, economic stability, and sustainability. Farmers conserve and sustain important genetic resources by maintaining maize landraces. This farm-level conservation allows continuing selection, environmental interactions, and gene exchange with wild species that sustain evolution of the landraces. Their performance demonstrates the necessity of strengthening and expandingin situ conservation programs to maximize the diversity and utility of these plants as source materials for crop-improvement programs. Involving farmers in managing a country’s indigenous genetic resources is essential, as is “participatory” plant breeding, in which farmers guide the selection of new varieties.

Key words: Biodiversity conservation, Maize landraces, Farming systems, Taita District

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+322 +330 Introduction (Galinat, ; Dowswellet al., ). Maize orig- inated in Mexico, and spread throughout the world Zea mays (maize or corn) is one of the oldest after Columbus’s voyage to America at the end of food grains. It belongs to tribe Maydeae of the the+/th century. The yield of maize is signiﬁcantly Poaceae (Gramineae) grass family, and is the only higher under temperate than under tropical condi- cultivated species in its genus. Cultivated maize is tions, and temperate maize has a longer cultivation a fully domesticated plant, since humans and maize cycle than most tropical maize (CIMMYT,+33. ). have lived and evolved together since ancient times. The situation for tropical maize is changing rapid- It does not grow in the wild, cannot survive in ly, and the potential for heterosis is beginning to be nature, and is completely dependent on humans exploited on a large scale in developing countries.

Received: October+ , ,*+* , Accepted: November + , ,*+* * Corresponding author: Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki -*/ῌ 2/1,, Japan. E-mail: [email protected] 156 J. Dev. Sus. Agr./, ( )

Maize grows in a wide range of environments, poverty, decreased farmer income, and led to a loss and can be classified into two types, depending on of employment and a shift from self-su$ ciency to the latitude and environment in which it is grown. reliance on imported food and food aid. Kenya’s Maize grown in warmer environments, typically average poverty rate now exceeds/*ῌ of the pop- between-*ῌῌ N and -* S is referred to as tropical ulation. The causes of this poverty and food in- maize; that grown under cooler climates at lati- security include low agricultural productivity, inad- tudes above-.ῌῌ N and -. S is classified as temper- equate access to productive assets (land, capital), ate maize (Dowswellet al., +330 ). Tropical maize inadequate infrastructure, limited marketing op- can be further sub classified based on its environ- portunities, high population pressure, inadequate ment: lowland, mid-altitude, and highland. access to appropriate technologies, the e# ects of global trade, and slow institutional and sectoral Maize Production in Kenya reform processes. Maize was introduced into Kenya in the+0th The most prominent maize kernel types around century by Portuguese traders on the east African the world (Dowswellet al.,+330 ) are flint ( Z. mays coast, from where it slowly moved inland along var.indurata ), pop ( Z. mays var. everta ), dent ( Z. with slave traders, who valued maize as an easilymays var. indentata ), floury ( Z. mays var. amy- storable and processed grain (Smaleet al.,,**0 ). lacea ), waxy ( Z. mays var. ceratina ), sweet ( Z. Maize is a strategic food security crop, and poormays var. saccharata ), and baby ear shoot ( Z. mays yields commonly result in food shortages and fam- var.tunicata ). In Kenya, the most economically ine. Today, it is Kenya’s major staple food crop important maize types grown for grain or fodder and is synonymous with food security, since about and silage production belong to the flint, dent, and 3*ῌ of the population depends on it for their sur- floury categories. However, some quality protein vival and as a source of income. As maize is maize (QPM) has been bred for improved protein Kenya’s staple food, high emphasis is placed on its quality, and is also important in some areas. Pop production. The area under maize cultivation is maize is of minor importance, but generates signifi- approximately+0 . million ha, but the potential for cant value-added when it can be sold. future expansion is limited because of high population pressures. The average maize yield is about , Uses of Maize in Kenya t/ha, which is much lower than the global average Maize in Kenya is used in various ways: as a of. . , t/ha (CIMMYT, +33. ). However, the yield human food source, livestock feed, and in industrial could potentially be increased to more than0 t/ha processing. As a source of food, it is used in many (CIMMYT,+33. ) through increased use of im- ways (Fig. + a-d). The green ears are roasted on proved seeds (excluding genetically modified seeds), coals or boiled in salty water, with or without the fertilizers, and good crop and water management. leaves, and are eaten immediately on the cob. Ma- Currently, small-scale farmers account for about ture dry grains are boiled and eaten whole, prefer- 1/ῌ of the total maize production in Kenya. Maize ably mixed with pulses and vegetables, to produce a is produced in most parts of the country for home dish known asgitheri. Dry grain is milled to pro- consumption, and the surplus is sold to meet house- duce a course maize meal or fine flour, which is hold cash needs. These sales account for-ῌ of used to make a cooked paste known asugali. The Kenya’s GDP and about,/ῌ of agricultural em- grain is also soaked and cooked in water, and is ployment. Kenya’s Ministry of Agriculture, the then ground to make dough that is converted into a National Cereals and Produce Board, and other sweet drink or an alcoholic drink by fermentation. sources estimate that maize consumption totals Maize flour is used to supplement wheat flour for around-* million 3* -kg bags per year (TDAO, ,**3 ). making bread and chapatis, at a maximum of +*ῌ During the past decade, Kenya’s agricultural per- to,*ῌ of the total flour. Pop kernels are subjected formance and that of the maize sector have been to high temperatures of about+11῍ (Watson, unsatisfactory, with the agricultural growth rate+322 ) in a hot plate to make them pop, since pop- lagging behind the population growth rate. This corn is a popular snack in Kenya. Baby ear shoots trend has increased food insecurity, exacerbated (baby corn) are harvested when the silk is about to Mwololo: Conservation of Maize Genetic Resources by Kenyan Farmers 157

eners (e.g., dextrose, fructose, glucose, and syr- ups), high-protein industrial starch, ﬁber, ethanol, maize oil, sweet corn milk, and creamed corn. Maize starch is the most important product of the wet milling process, and it is used for numerous food and industrial applications (Watson,+322 ). The dry milling process is used to produce corn meal and other whole maize meals that are rich in bran and germ. Whole kernels are also used in the brewing industry to produce beer and distilled liquors. This industry is the largest consumer of the dry milled products.

Biotic and Abiotic Factors that A# ect Maize Production in Kenya Maize in tropical environments is attacked by a wide array of pathogens that cause significant eco- +31, +-* Fig.+ . Photos of some typical uses of maize in nomic damage. Wellman ( ) lists diseases Kenya. (a) roasted, (b) boiled, (c)ugali, (d) githeri. that a#2/ ect maize crops in the tropics, versus only in temperate environments. Yield losses as high as 1*ῌ have been recorded but typically range from emerge above the leaves, and are used fresh as a+/ to -*ῌ (Wellman, +31, ). salad vegetable. QPM has much better protein qual- Most Kenyan maize improvement programs have ity than normal maize, and its nutritional superior- concentrated on the development of genetically im- ity has been repeatedly demonstrated in the diet of proved high-yield maize varieties, with little empha- infants, small children, and also adults, particularly sis on developing stable resistance to most maize women (Vasal,+33. ). However, this type of corn diseases. However, large areas of Kenya are still is not yet a common crop in Kenya. planted with traditional landraces, including vari- The maize plant also provides excellent fodder eties developed by individual farmers and unim- for livestock, particularly from the tasseling stage proved seed. This is one reason why the disease onwards. Maize whose ears are at the doughy stage situation may be severe in Kenya. of grain development provides the best fodder; at Some common disease problems include root rot this stage, maize surpasses all other fodder crops in caused by fungal pathogens of theFusarium and dry matter production and digestible nutrients perpythium species, stalk rots caused by Helminth- hectare (Perry,+322 ). This is also the best stageosporium turcicum, leaf spots caused by Helminth- for preparing maize silage. Stover left after har-osporium carbonum, and common leaf rust caused vesting of the grain is also used as fodder. Maize byPuccinia sorghi. Storage molds, particularly As- gives a higher conversion ratio than other grains topergillus flavus, damage the grains during storage; produce meat, milk, and eggs (Lopez-Pereira,+33, ). fungi cause the most damage when the grain’s Its high starch and low fiber content make it a moisture content is between+.ῌῌ and +2 (D.R. highly concentrated source of energy for livestock. Smith and White,+322 ). Consumption of infected Precise statistics on the use of maize for livestock maize can cause severe infections and even death as and poultry feed are not available, but government a result of aflatoxin poisoning. researchers in the livestock industry believe that theStriga hermonthica is a parasitic weed that dam- largest proportion is used as poultry feed. ages maize crops by attaching itself to the roots of Industrial processing of maize through wet or the maize, thereby robbing the maize plant of water dry milling is used industrially to create various and nutrients. The parasite also exerts a potent food, feed, and industrial products. The wet mill- phytotoxic e# ect on the maize plants, further re- ing process is used to produce pure starch, sweet- ducing yields (Berneret al., +331 ). 158 J. Dev. Sus. Agr./, ( )

Many insects infest maize plants throughout served by individual farmers and local varieties, their life cycle and in storage. The most common were largely flint types, which generally produce insects are the seed maize maggot (Hylemya spp.), round, hard, and smooth grains. Flint maize ger- white grubs (Phyllophaga spp.), cutworms ( Agrotis minates better than other maize types, usually ma- ipsilon), the African maize stem borer ( Busseola tures earlier, and dries faster after reaching physio- fusca), and thrips ( Frankliniella spp.). Grain in- logical maturity. It is less prone to damage in the sects found in the field and in storage include the field and during storage. However, its yield is lower granary weevil (Sitophilus granarius ), lesser grain than that of dent types. Flint maize is preferred for borer (Rhyzopertha dominica ), larger grain borer human food and for corn meal. Most of the flint (Prostephanus truncatus ), red flower beetle ( Tri- maize grown commercially has a wide range of bolium castaneum), and the Angoumois grain moth colors, including yellow, orange, white or cream, (Sitotroga cerealella ). green, purple, red, blue, and black. Drought, excess moisture, nutrient deficiency The landraces that have been maintained and (N, Ca, Mg, and P), acidic soils, manganese toxic- improvedin situ by farmers based on their percep- ity, aluminum toxicity, and salinity are some of the tion of their own needs and their experience and most common abiotic stresses of tropical maize. natural skills have not been subjected to selection Drought a# ects agricultural production in about and improvement by professional breeders. The 0*ῌ of the land area of the tropics (Sanchezet al., landraces may not represent a reservoir of genetic +311). Drought sometimes reduces maize yields by diversity as large as the diversity present in pro- 0*ῌ, resulting in tremendous human su # ering as fessionally maintained germplasm banks, but they well as in economic and political problems. Natu- are nonetheless sources of traits that are important ral variability in the amount and distribution of to farmers for local adaptation, economic stabili- rainfall means that drought stress can occur at any ty, and sustainability. They may therefore contain point during the life cycle of the maize crop. Based many traits that are not available in the improved on statistics provided by the Kenya meteorological varieties developed by professional breeders, for station (www.climatetemp.info/kenya/), mean rain- whom yield is the most important trait; in addition, fall ranges from+3 to ,*0 mm per month with .*ῌ these commercial varieties are most suitable for use of the rain falling between March and May (long in favorable environments where better manage- rain season) and,*ῌ between October and De- ment and cultivation practices are available. Some cember (short rain season). However, intra-year local cultivars are excellent sources of genes for variability is high; rainfall can vary by as much as disease and insect resistance and for resistance to ,/*ῌ between years. other stresses. The current improved maize cultivars are mostly Diversity Within the Maize Crop dent types, and provide higher yield than other Maize has tremendous variability in kernel color, maize types. However, they tend to be more sus- texture, nutrient composition, and appearance. ceptible to insects and diseases in the field and in Maize exists in a continuum of plant types ranging storage, and dry much more slowly than kernel from wild relatives and primitive races to more types such as flint, which have a hard endosperm. advanced landraces, varieties maintained by farm- Most cultivated dent maize has either white grains ers for generations, genetically improved cultivars, (as for Kenyan hybrid varieties), which are pre- and professionally bred improved cultivars based ferred for human food, or yellow grains, which are on open pollination using many parent lines. There preferred for animal feed. The current improved is an increasing appreciation among maize profes- cultivars represent the most widely used resources sionals of the need to broaden the search for useful in most Kenyan maize improvement programs. Al- genes and to augment genetic variability to increase though such cultivars represent only a tiny fraction the likelihood of sustainable productivity. There is of overall maize genetic diversity, they provide high also an increased appreciation of the need to con- immediate yield gains. serve traditional genetic resources for future use. Unfortunately, though the government’s promo- The original landraces, including varieties pre- tion of hybrid varieties continues in Kenya, farmers Mwololo: Conservation of Maize Genetic Resources by Kenyan Farmers 159 have not been consulted during the selection of new The district has a population of about ,,/ 0-0 and improved varieties. Most of these hybrids (,**2 projection), and is predominantly inhabited require the use of chemical fertilizers as well as by the Taita ethnic community, with a small popu- insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides, which in- lation of other ethnic communities (mainly migrant creases the production cost beyond what small- workers and business people residing in towns). scale farmers can a#2* ord. These practices also have Aboutῌ of the population lives in rural areas negative environmental impacts on agricultural sys- and depends directly on agriculture. Data from the tems, and can reduce their sustainability. Farmers district development o$0-/ ce indicate that .ῌ of therefore continue to plant the traditional landraces the district’s population lives below the poverty line and varieties that have been preserved by local (TDDO,,**3 ). farmers to reduce costs and harness the benefits The district ranges in altitude from.2+ m above derived from the unique genetic traits of these sea level in the lowlands of Voi to,,** m above sea plants. The government has provided free hybrid level in the highlands of Wundanyi. The average seeds over the last+* years, but farmers who used annual rainfall ranges between .2* and +,** mm. them have faced frequent crop failures and been Rainfall is highest in the highlands and decreases forced to depend on food relief each year; because moving southward into the lowlands. The rainfall they cannot produce seed grains, these crop failures is bimodal, with the long rainy season between lead to a vicious cycle of dependency on govern- March and May and the short rainy season between ment handouts. However, there have been no October and December (Fig.- ). The short rainy studies on the social and economic value of the season is the main crop season in Taita because of landraces in terms of providing a sustained liveli- the higher total rainfall and better distribution of hood and food security. the rains. Temperatures range between+2 . , and The purpose of my study was to investigate-0 . 0῎ , with temperatures increasing as one moves whether the promotion of hybrid maize has signifi- from the highlands to the lowlands. The soils range cantly a# ected the livelihood and food security of from stony sandy clay loams with moderate fertility small-scale maize producers in the Taita District of in the highlands to well-drained, dark red, friable, Kenya’s Coast Province. In particular, I wanted to coarse sandy clay loams with high fertility in the document the value of growing traditional maize lowlands. varieties rather than the improved maize varieties The main economic activity is farming, with that are currently being promoted. I also wanted to small businesses and o# -farm employment. A multi- document the performance of the various maize cropping system of production is mostly practiced, varieties grown in the district’s di## erent ecological with di erent crops grown in the same plot of land regions and develop recommendations of specific under intensive cultivation. The main food crops varieties for use in specific agro-ecological regions are maize, beans (Phaseolus vulgaris ), garden peas based on their performance and farmer preferences. (Pisum sativum ), bananas ( Musa spp.), Irish po- Materials and Methods tatoes (Solanum tuberosum ), sweet potatoes ( Ipomea batatas), millet ( Eleusine coracana ), sorghum ( Sor- The Study Area ghum bicolor), cassava ( Manihot esculenta ), cow- Taita District is one of,+ districts in Kenya’s peas (Vigna unguiculata ), green grams ( Vigna ra- Coast Province. It is bordered by Tana River,diata ), pigeon peas ( Cajanus cajan ), pumpkin Kitui and Makueni districts to the north; by Kwale (Cucurbita spp.), and sugarcane ( Saccharum o$ - district to the East; by Kajiado District to thecinarum ). The main vegetable crops grown under northwest; and by Taveta District to the southwest irrigation are kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala ), (Fig., a). Taita District covers an area of more cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata ), spinach than+0 *** km, and lies between latitudes ,ῌ῍ .0 S (Spinacia oleracea ), tomatoes ( Lycopersicon escu- and.+*ῌ῍ S and between longitudes -1-0 ῌ῍ E andlentum ), onions ( Allium cepa ), eggplant ( Solanum -*ῌ῍ +. E. Administratively, the district is dividedmelongena ), cauliflower ( Brassica oleracea var. into the Wundanyi, Mwatate, Mwambirwa, Tausa,botrytis ), French beans ( Phaseolus vulgaris ), and and Voi divisions (Fig., b). chilies (Capsicum annuum ). The fruit trees that 160 J. Dev. Sus. Agr./, ( )

Fig., . (a) The location of Taita District in Kenya, and (b) the di# erent land use and cover type zones and data collection points; Wundanyi, Mwatate, Tausa, Mwambirwa, and Voi. (Source: Arid Lands Resource Management Project, Taita o$ ce for map (a) and FAO/CEO for map (b).

grown in this area, including co# ee (Co# ea ar- abica), sisal ( Agave sisalame ), macadamia ( Macad- amia integrifolia), and coconut ( Cocos nucifera ). Livestock are kept by many households, including the indigenous species of cattle (Bos primigenius indicus), goats ( Capra aegagrus hircus ), and poultry (Gallus gallus domesticus ). Sales of crop and livestock products provide the major source of income for most households. Maize is the most important staple food crop in Taita District. The Kenya Seed Company has steadily increased the production of certified seed from hybrid varieties that are suitable for all of Fig.- . Average monthly rainfall from,*** to Kenya’s agro-ecological zones. For example, Hy- ,**3 (Source: Voi Meteorological Station, Kenya). brid0+. and Hybrid /+- have been developed for use in high-altitude areas (more than+*** m above sea level), whereas Pwani Hybrid+ and Pwani are grown include avocado (Persea americana ), Hybrid. are suitable for the hot and humid coastal mangoes (Mangifera indica ), oranges ( Citrus sinen- lowlands and Dry Land Hybrid*. has been de- sis), pawpaw ( Carica papaya ), water melon ( Citrul- veloped for use in arid and semi-arid regions. lus lanatus), passion fruit ( Passiflora edulis ) and These hybrids have been promoted in Taita District guavas (Psidium guajava ). A few cash crops are because of their high yield. However, local farmers Mwololo: Conservation of Maize Genetic Resources by Kenyan Farmers 161 have maintained and improvedin situ some of their (Table+ ), population densities, farming systems, local varieties for many years, and continue to grow and farm sizes. A variety of maize crops are grown them alongside other crops (Fig..# a-d) despite a in the di erent eco-zones. I selected these focal lack of selection and improvement by professional areas based on the lack of development programs, maize scientists. high human population densities, and high poverty levels. Data Collection The questionnaire was divided into four major I used a survey design based on a structured parts. Part A covered the personal profile of the household questionnaire (Appendix+ ). Eight agri- respondents (name, gender, education level, locali- cultural extension o$ cers in the study area helped ty, and family characteristics). Part B covered farm to administer the questionnaire during+ week of information, including size, land preparation method, the February,*+* maize harvesting season. I fertilizer use, crops grown, and livestock owner- randomly selected/* farmers in each of four divi- ship. Part C covered maize quantitative traits, sions, for a total sample size of,** interviews. The particularly plant height, grain yield, grain size, and four regions were stratified by ecological zones stover yield. The last part (D) covered maize qualitative traits, including drought tolerance, disease resistance, maturation durations, eating and cooking qualities, and response to low soil fertility. I analyzed the data using two way ANOVA, with one factor (division). Where significant di# erences were identified among divisions, i compared the divisions using Bonferroni post-tests using Graphpad prism version/ for windows software, California, USA. www.graphpad.com Results and Discussion Socioeconomic and Demographic Factors Overall,/+ . /ῌ of the farmers who participated in most agricultural activities and who were involved in making important farm decisions were women(Fig.a,b).Thisisinagreementwith/ Karanja (+330 ), who reported that Kenya’s women Fig.. . Photos of some of the maize landraces are responsible for most of the agricultural ac- grown in Taita District. (a) Mdawida, (b) Kiduruma, tivities in rural areas. This emphasizes that rural (c) Kiteka, and (d) Mulunguja. women play a vital role in the conservation and

Table +. Ecological Zones of Taita District

Ecological factors Mean altitude Mean DivisionEcological (meters above temperature Mean annual zonesea level) (ῌ ) rainfall (mm) Wundanyi LH, -UM - +-1*ῌῌῌ +02* +24, ,*4+ 3** +-** Mwatate LM. -LM / 13*ῌῌῌ +,,* ,*43 ,,43 1** 3** Tausa LM/ -LH 0 13*ῌῌῌ 32* ,,4. ,-4/ .2* 0,* Voi L/ -L 0 .2*ῌῌῌ 13* ,-4/ ,.40 .2* 0** Note: LH, Lower highland; UM, Upper middle; LM, Lower middle; LH, lower highland; L, Lowland (Source: Voi Meteorological Station, Kenya). 162 J. Dev. Sus. Agr./, ( )

Fig./ . Proportions of survey respondents by (a) gender and (b) decision-making status.

Table, . Education Level of Respondents

Number of respondents (ῌ of total) Region Not Educated Primary Secondary College & University Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Wundanyi+ῌ῍ , +. ῌ῍ ,2 . ῌ῍ 2 ,, ῌ῍ .. * - ῌ῍ 0 - ῌ῍ 0 , ῌ῍ . + ῌ῍ , Mwatate*ῌ῍ * , ῌ῍ . ,* ῌ῍ .* * +. ῌ῍ ,2 +- ῌ῍ ,0 + ῌ῍ , * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Tausa +ῌ῍ , - ῌ῍ 0 +/ ῌ῍ -* +2 ῌ῍ -0 / ῌ῍ +* 0 ῌ῍ +, + ῌ῍ , + ῌ῍ , Voi 3ῌ῍ +2 2 ῌ῍ +0 +. ῌ῍ ,2 +* ῌ῍ ,* 0 ῌ῍ +, - ῌ῍ 0 * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Totals ++ῌ῍ /4/ ,1 ῌ῍ +-4/ /- ῌ῍ ,04/ 0. ῌ῍ -, ,1 ῌ῍ +-4/ +- ῌ῍ 04/ - ῌ῍ +4/ , ῌ῍ + Note: Asterisk symbol (*) in the same column indicate that values di#**/ er signiﬁcantly (p῎ . ). sustainable use of biodiversity and that full partici- remained uneducated (+- . /ῌῌ ) than men ( / . / ). pation by women at all levels of policy-making and A National Adult Literacy survey conducted in implementation is needed in future maize bio-,**1 revealed that 0+ . /ῌ of the adult population diversity conservation programs. had attained the minimum desired literacy level, The majority of the farmers had attained at least leaving-2 . /ῌ of adults illiterate; the majority of the minimum basic primary education;/,ῌ women the illiterate were women living in rural areas and+2ῌῌῌ men in Wundanyi, -* women and /- (http://www.iiz-dvv.de). This may explain why men in Mwatate,/*ῌῌ women and ., men in most farmers have continued to maintain the maize Tausa, and lastly,0ῌῌ women and .* men in Voi landraces using their traditional experience and (Table, ). The number of respondents (both male natural skills: most are not aware of the technol- and female) who had attained at least a primary ogies that are required to cultivate hybrid maize education was signiﬁcantly greater (p῎**/ . ) than varieties because they have not attained su $ cient the number who remained uneducated in Wundanyi education. (women) and Mwatate (men) divisions. This can be attributed to the free basic primary education Livelihood and Farming Systems that has been compulsory in Kenya since+31* s. Small-scale farming remains the largest form of However, the results also showed that more women employment in Taita, and is central to the em- Mwololo: Conservation of Maize Genetic Resources by Kenyan Farmers 163

Table- . Main form of employment

Proportion of respondents (ῌ ) Self -employment Employment by Employment by an Region Farming within the someone else within external agency community the community (NGO & GOK)a Wundanyi 22 +* * , Mwatate .2 /* * , Tausa 2* . 0 +* Voi 0. ,. 0 0 (a ); NGO, non-governmental organization; GOK, government of Kenya.

Table. . Ownership of land in Taita District

Number of respondents (ῌ of total) by area category (ha) Region* to + ++ . to , ,+ . to - -+ . to .῏ . Wundanyi -*ῌ῍ 0* +* ῌ῍ ,* 1 ῌ῍ +. , ῌ῍ . + ῌ῍ , Mwatate-.ῌ῍ 02 * +, ῌ῍ ,. - ῌ῍ 0 + ῌ῍ , * ῌ῍ * Tausa +3ῌ῍ -2 ,, ῌ῍ .. 2 ῌ῍ +0 + ῌ῍ , * ῌ῍ * Voi 0ῌ῍ +, ,+ ῌ῍ ., 3 ῌ῍ +2 +* ῌ῍ ,* . ῌ῍ 2 Note: Asterisk symbol (*) in the same column indicate that values di# er significantly (p῎**/ . ). powerment of women, who form the bulk of the of the homestead, the maize crop often occupies workforce, estimated at2,ῌ (World Bank +330 ). only a small portion of the farmland. Moreover, Most of the farmers (22ῌῌ in Wundanyi, .2 in owing to rapid increases in population and the Mwatate,2*ῌῌ in Tausa, and 0. in Voi) derived cultural practice in which farmers subdivide their their livelihood mainly from farming (Table- ). farmland into smaller portions for their children, Although annual crops can potentially generate large farms have become progressively smaller, fur- income, they were mostly used for consumption by ther reducing the area in which maize is grown in the farmer and were only sold when there was a individual farms. Karanja (+330 ) observed that surplus (seldom) or a sudden need for cash (data the population increase has been a leading factor in not shown). The income generated by these sales the declining amount of land available for crop paid for food, education, clothing, and medicine. production in Kenya. Farmers with small holdings The agriculture in Taita District is dominated by a remain resource-poor because they lack o# -farm growing small-scale sector that accounts for1/ῌ income sources. As a result, most farmers cannot of the total agricultural output and1*ῌ of the a # ord to plant maize hybrids, which require costly marketed agricultural produce (TDAO,,**3 ). inputs such as fertilizer and chemicals to sustain Production is carried out mostly on small farms; their high yields. 2*ῌῌof the farmers in Wundanyi, 3, in Mwatate, Farmers grew maize in a complex, intensively 2,ῌῌin Tausa, and /. in Voi owned less than , managed system in which the maize is one crop ha of farmland (Table. ). The number of farmers among many other crops grown throughout the who owned less than+ ha of land was significantly year to achieve high overall productivity and there- higher for Mwatate than in all other divisions (p῎ by reduce the risk of crop failures and the resulting **/. ). This is because Mwatate is more densely lack of food. Tausa Division had the second-largest populated than the other divisions. Since farmland area of maize (/, . - hectares), which was signifi- is also used for other purposes, such as construction cantly higher than the area of other crops in that 164 J. Dev. Sus. Agr./, ( )

Table/ . Crops grown during the short rain season (October-December,**3 )

Area Planted (hectares) Pigeon Green Sweet Region Maize Millet Beans Cow peaspeas grams Cassava potato Wundanyi -,40 * 142 * * * * * Mwatate ,14* * 34/ +40 +4, * /43 *41 Tausa/,4- * *43 * -.4+ * 14, * * Voi3/4, *** .4- +4* -/40 * -.4/ * * Note: Asterisk symbols (*) and (***) in the same column indicate that values di#**/ er signiﬁcantly at (pῌ . ) and (pῌ* . **+ ) respectively.

division (pῌ* . */ ); Voi Division had the highest in Mwatate, +**ῌῌ in Tausa, and 3, in Voi) con- area of maize cultivation (3/ . , hectares), which sidered fertilizer use to be unsustainable. Further- was signiﬁcantly higher than the area of other crops more, few farmers actually used fertilizers (organic in the same division (pῌ***+ . ). These divisions or inorganic) during the short rainy season from have lower population densities and larger areas of October to December,**3 (the primary cultiva- farmland than the other divisions. As the staple tion season); most did not use any fertilizer (00ῌ food crop, maize generally occupied more land in Wundanyi,0*ῌῌ in Mwatate, 32 in Tausa, and than the other crops (Table/12 ). This can be attri-ῌ in Voi). buted to the government’s strong support for maize The low use of inorganic fertilizer can be attri- compared with other traditional food crops. More- buted to its high cost. In Taita, fertilizer costs over, the traditional belief that maize cultivation about+, /** Kenya shillings (about US$ +/* ) per equals food security has signiﬁcantly increased hectare. Given that0- . /ῌ of the population lives planting of maize and steadily decreased planting of below the poverty line of less than US$+ income per other food crops. Maize has therefore become the day, inorganic fertilizers are una# ordable to most dominant food crop, whereas sorghum and millet farmers. To obtain organic fertilizer (manure), a are disappearing from the study area. Eyzaguirre farmer must own su$ cient livestock. However, and Iwanaga (+330 ) noted that maize in Kenya had more than 2*ῌ of the farmers own only + or , continued to replace other crops for more than+* cows (TDLPO, ,**3 ) because of the limited area years owing to the government’s promotion of available to sustain the animals. The amount of hybrid varieties. The combination of the govern- organic manure generated by these livestock is in- ment’s emphasis on maize and the food security su$ cient to sustain maize production. perceptions of local farmers therefore seem to have These results indicate that it is nearly impossible reduced crop diversity both in terms of the di# erent to achieve the full potential of improved cultivars in kinds of plants that are grown and in the area of Taita District. For hybrids to achieve their poten- each crop under production. tial, they should be grown in pure plantings and provided with high levels of management, particu- Fertilizer Use and Sustainability larly the use of fertilizers combined with pest and To sustain the high yields associated with im- disease control. Given the multi-cropping system proved maize varieties, small-scale farmers must practiced by the farmers and the lack of manage- buy inorganic fertilizers to compensate for the low ment inputs due to high poverty levels, current soil fertility in the study area. Table0 shows farmer hybrids are likely to exhibit reduced grain yields. perceptions of fertilizer use and sustainability. The Under the current management system, however, majority of the farmers (10ῌῌ in Wundanyi, 10 in the landraces respond well with minimal or no Mwatate,32ῌῌ in Tausa, and 3. in Voi) did not fertilizer inputs, as discussed later in this paper. use any kind of fertilizer during the planting sea- This is because they are better adapted to exploiting son. Similar proportions (2*ῌῌ in Wundanyi, 12 the available resources. When grown with legumes Mwololo: Conservation of Maize Genetic Resources by Kenyan Farmers 165

Table0 . Farmer perception of fertilizer use and sustainability

Number of respondents (ῌ of total) Seasonality of sustainability of Fertilizer Use Fertilizer Use Actual fertilizer use Use Each Do not Use Not RegionSeason Each Season Sustainable Sustainable Organic Inorganic None Wundanyi +,ῌ῍ ,. -2 ῌ῍ 10 +* ῌ῍ ,* .* ῌ 2* ῍ +0 ῌ῍ -, + ῌ῍ , -- ῌ῍ 00 Mwatate +,ῌ῍ ,. -2 ῌ῍ 10 ++ ῌ῍ ,, -3 ῌ 12 ῍ +2 ῌ῍ -0 , ῌ῍ . -* ῌ῍ 0* Tausa +ῌ῍ , .3 ῌ῍ 32 * ῌ῍ * /* ῌ +** ῍ + ῌ῍ , * ῌ῍ * .3 ῌ῍ 32 Voi -ῌ῍ 0 .1 ῌ῍ 3. . ῌ῍ 2 .0 ῌ 3, ῍ ++ ῌ῍ ,, * ῌ῍ * -3 ῌ῍ 12

Table1 . The maize varieties preferred by farmers, the period they have been grown and the regions where they are grown

Number of Period they have Region mostly Maize Variety farmers been grown (years) grown Pwani Hybrid. -2 .4. W, M Pwani Hybrid+ 0- 040 W, M, T, V Hybrid 0+. * * * Hybrid/+- - /4* W, M Dryland Hybrid*. , ,4/ T Mdawida,0 24- W, M Kiduruma/. +04* T, V Makueni, .4* T Kiteka 3 +,4* V Mulunguja ** * Mwezimwenga+ 14* V Kito + +*4* V Note: W, Wundanyi; M, Mwatate; T, Tausa; V, Voi.

such as cowpeas, the maize can benefit from the was preferred because of its ability to withstand nitrogen fixed by the legume. Based on the present drought. These two hybrids have been grown for results, the use of local maize landraces should be about/ years. All other hybrids that have been promoted, possibly enhanced by the use of im- promoted in the area had generally low levels of proved soil and water management systems. acceptance by farmers. The Mdawida landrace (mostly grown in Wundanyi and Mwatate) and the Maize Varieties that are Grown and Farmer Kiduruma landrace (mostly grown in Tausa and Preferences Voi) were preferred by many farmers and had been Table1 categorizes the maize varieties that are maintained and conserved for a long time (more grown (i.e., farmer preferences), the period during than2 years) using local knowledge and experi- which they have been grown, and regions where ence. Table1 shows the diversity of the maize land- they are grown. Pwani hybrid. was the preferred races that have been grown and maintained by improved variety at high altitudes in Wundanyi and farmers, especially at medium and low altitudes Mwatate, whereas Pwani hybrid+ was preferred in (Mwatate, Tausa and Voi). The Mulunguja land- all four regions. Pwani hybrid. was particularly race seems to have disappeared from most farms. liked because of its high yield, and Pwani Hybrid+ The government’s promotion of hybrid varieties 166 J. Dev. Sus. Agr./, ( ) in an e# ort to increase yields seems to have resulted introgression of genes can be a good thing if it in a rapid loss of genetic diversity (i.e., reduced results in the improvement of the local varieties, numbers of landraces). The breakdown of tradi- but it also creates a risk of loss of beneficial locally tional cultivation systems and loss of local plant evolved gene combinations. This aspect of maize varieties, and the associated loss of cultural knowl- growing has been used by ethno-botanists to stress edge, can be blamed for the loss of maize bio- the importance of and need forin situ conservation diversity among rural farmers. of diversity (Worede,+33- ; Brush, +33/ ). It is also Kenya’s government believes that most of the being used to emphasize the need for “participato- landraces have been collected and are being pre- ry” plant breeding in which farmers participate in servedex situ in maize banks for future use. How- the process of selecting new varieties (Hardon, ever,ex situ conservation should be, at best, a sup-+33/ ). plement toin situ conservation of landraces and the varieties conserved by farmers, not a substitute for Maize Production Statistics in situ conservation. Farmers want to accumulate The area cultivated with di# erent maize varieties and conserve such diversity and to continue using di# ered significantly among the varieties and re- the resulting crop structure because their experi- gions (Table2 ). The area cultivated with hybrid ence has shown that these plants and plant combi- maize varieties was greater at higher altitudes nations are best adapted to local conditions. There (Wundanyi and Mwatate), whereas the local land- is a growing appreciation of the need forin situ races dominated at lower altitudes (Tausa and conservation of landraces and “primitive” local Voi). The Kinduruma landrace occupied the big- cultivars that could continue to evolve in associa- gest area (21 . 0 hectares). This area was signifi- tion with the actual stresses faced by these crops cantly higher (pῌ**+ . ) in Voi Division than in the and in response to farmer needs (Worede,+33- ; other divisions. The area that was fertilized de- Brush,+33/ ). pended on the maize variety being grown (Table The farmers often grew both improved varieties3 ). The Kiduruma landrace had the highest area and local landraces or varieties that they and other under fertilization (-0 . 2 hectares), and was signifi- farmers had conserved adjacent to each other, cantly higher in Voi Division than in all other di- resulting in the creation of new varieties with desir- visions (pῌ***+ . ). Other varieties had much lower able gene combinations from both sources. This areas under fertilization. Both the area of maize

Table2 . Maize cultivation (area and varieties) in the four regions during the short rain season in ,**3

Area (hectares) Total Maize Variety Wundanyi Mwatate Tausa Voi (all regions) Pwani Hybrid . 342 +/4. -41 ,4/ -+4/ Pwani Hybrid + +242 +,4* ++41 +142 0*4. Hybrid 0+. +4, *40 * * +42 Hybrid /+- *4/ +4. * * ,4* Dryland Hybrid *. *4, * *4, *4. *42 Mdawida +4. 24, +4, +42 +,40 Kiduruma* +40 --42 /,4, ** 2140 Makueni * * /42 04* ++42 Kiteka * * * +*4. +*4. Mulunguja * * * ,42 ,42 Note: Asterisk symbol (**) in the same column indicate that values di# er signiﬁcantly (pῌ **+.). Mwololo: Conservation of Maize Genetic Resources by Kenyan Farmers 167

Table3 . Area of cultivated maize that was fertilized during the short rain season in ,**3

Area fertilized (hectares) Total Maize Variety Wundanyi Mwatate Tausa Voi (all regions) Pwani Hybrid . ,4/ 04, * *42 34. Pwani Hybrid + 142 .40 * -4. +/42 Hybrid 0+. *4. * * * *4. Hybrid /+- * +4. * * +4. Dryland Hybrid *.**** * Mdawida * -40 * *42 .4. Kiduruma* *42 ,4* -.4* *** -042 Makueni **** * Kiteka **** * Mulunguja **** * Note: Asterisk symbol (***) in the same column indicate that values di# er signiﬁcantly (p ῌ*.). **+

Table+* . Comparison of maize yields in the four regions during the short rain season of ,**3

Total yield (t) Total Maize Variety Wundanyi Mwatate Tausa Voi (all regions) Pwani Hybrid . -4- /4- ,42 +4- +,41 Pwani Hybrid + 04+ /40 /4/ ,140 ..42 Hybrid 0+. *42 *4. * * +4, Hybrid /+- *4- +4- * * +40 Dryland Hybrid *. *4*. * *4*3 *4*3 *4,, Mdawida *43 /41 *4- *4, 14+ Kiduruma* *42 +-4, +/14* *** +1+4* Makueni * * +4+ -+4/ -,40 Kiteka * * * /4* /4* Mulunguja * * * *40 *40 Note: Asterisk symbol (***) in the same column indicate that values di# er signiﬁcantly (p ῌ*.). **+

cultivation and the portion of this area that was relationship between farmer preference for particu- fertilized signiﬁcantly a# ected the yields that were lar maize varieties and the land area cultivated with achieved. Table+* shows that the Kinduruma those varieties, with the area fertilized, and with the landrace had the highest yield (+1+ tonnes). The yield provided by the varieties. This explains why yield in Voi Division was signiﬁcantly higher than Kinduruma was the most preferred maize variety, that in the other divisions (pῌ* . **+ ). Thus, maize with the highest areas planted and fertilized and the contributed more to food security than the other highest yield. Farmers tended to invest more in varieties. growing the Kinduruma landrace because they These results indicate that there was a strong believed it was mostly likely to provide food securi- 168 J. Dev. Sus. Agr./, ( )

Fig.0 . Proportions of farmers who (a) preferred specific maize traits and (b) most desired improvements in certain maize traits. ty owing to its high adaptability and lower input wanted to improve the disease resistance levels. requirements. The results show that the hybrids have not met farmer expectations in terms of food and livelihood Variation of Maize Genetic Traits and Farmer security, since they have been developed to priori- Preferences tize yield and require a favorable environment with Maize varieties di# er in the levels of the genetic a better quality of management. This explains why traits they express as a result of evolution caused by Pwani hybrid+ is preferred in all four ecological continuous selection and breeding by plant breeders zones: it combines high drought tolerance with (for the hybrids) or by local farmers (for the land- high yield. Pwani hybrid. has very good yield, but races). Local farmers have specific preferences for matures late, cannot withstand drought, and is these traits, depending on how a variety meets their susceptible to storage pests. In contrast, the land- demands in terms of food and livelihood security. races are excellent sources of genes for disease and Figure0/* a shows thatῌ of the respondents insect resistance, drought tolerance, good taste, and preferred varieties with medium height and above, early maturity. This explains why the local farmers 0*ῌ preferred varieties with an intermediate matu- have continued to conserve and maintain these ration period (between,/ . and - months), and landraces: because of their significant contribution 0-ῌ preferred maize varieties with white grains. to food security. These results also demonstrate the Only.,ῌ preferred maize varieties with big grains. need for further research to improve the current However, all respondents preferred maize varieties hybrid varieties so that they account for farmer with high grain yields, high stover yields, good needs and preferences. This finding agrees with cooking and eating qualities, and high disease and Hardon (+33/ ), who indicated that where variabil- pest resistance, as well as high drought tolerance. ity in micro-environment and farmer selection cri- Figure0 b shows the maize traits farmers most teria are too great to be adequately addressed desired to be improved in their current maize va- through centralized crop breeding, close interaction rieties. All the respondents (+**ῌ ) expressed a with farmers to account for their local crop and need to improve yields, maturation period, and environmental knowledge may improve the ability drought tolerance. In addition,0/ῌ wanted to im- of breeders to account for genotypeῌ environment prove the eating and cooking qualities and3*ῌ interactions and develop varieties that are more Mwololo: Conservation of Maize Genetic Resources by Kenyan Farmers 169

Table++ . Comparison of maize quantitative traits among the four regions

Number of respondents (ῌ of total)

Pwani Pwani Hybrid Hybrid Dry land MdawidaKiduruma Makueni Mulunguja Region Hybrid. Hybrid + 0+. /+- hybrid *. Kiteka Plant height (medium versus tall) Wundanyi -/1*+,0+,+,+,-0+,******ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ Mwatate -+ῌ῍ 0, ,, ῌ῍ .. + ῌ῍ , . ῌ῍ 2 + ῌ῍ , ,, ῌ῍ .. - ῌ῍ 0 * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Tausa 3+2.2******,.-312.2****ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ Voi /+*-.02*ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ , ῌ῍ . +3-2 ῌ῍ -0 ῌ῍ +,,. ῌ῍ -0 ῌ῍ High grain yield Wundanyi --ῌ῍ 00 . ῌ῍ 2 0 ῌ῍ +, + ῌ῍ , + ῌ῍ , - ῌ῍ 0 * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Mwatate -*ῌ῍ 0* . ῌ῍ 2 + ῌ῍ , , ῌ῍ . * ῌ῍ * +2 ῌ῍ -0 - ῌ῍ 0 * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Tausa 3+2+0-,*ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ +, ῌ῍ , ῌ῍ . -11. ῌ῍ ,. ῌ῍ * ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ Voi .ῌ῍ 2 ,3 ῌ῍ /2 * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * + ῌ῍ , +. ῌ῍ ,2 - ῌ῍ 0 1 ῌ῍ +. , ῌ῍ . High Stover yield Wundanyi -/ῌ῍ 1* , ῌ῍ . 0 ῌ῍ +, + ῌ῍ , + ῌ῍ , - ῌ῍ 0 * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Mwatate -*ῌ῍ 0* . ῌ῍ 2 + ῌ῍ , , ῌ῍ . * ῌ῍ * ,* ῌ῍ .* - ῌ῍ 0 * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Tausa 3+2ῌ῍ 2+0* ῌ῍ ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ , ῌ῍ . -11. ῌ῍ ,. ῌ῍ * ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ Voi .ῌ῍ 2 ,3 ῌ῍ /2 * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * + ῌ῍ , +. ῌ῍ ,2 - ῌ῍ 0 1 ῌ῍ +. , ῌ῍ . Large Grain size Wundanyi-.ῌ῍ 02 * ,0 ῌ῍ /, / ῌ῍ +* , ῌ῍ . , ῌ῍ . - ῌ῍ 0 * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Mwatate ,3ῌ῍ /2 +- ῌ῍ ,0 + ῌ῍ , , ῌ῍ . * ῌ῍ * ,+ ῌ῍ ., + ῌ῍ , * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Tausa 3+2+.,2*ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ +, ῌ῍ + ῌ῍ , -+0,- ῌ῍ ῌ῍ 0 * ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ Voi -ῌ῍ 0 -* ῌ῍ 0* * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * + ῌ῍ , . ῌ῍ 2 ,+ ῌ῍ ., / ῌ῍ +* 1 ῌ῍ +. - ῌ῍ 0 Note: Asterisk symbol (*) in the same column indicate that values di#**/ er signiﬁcantly (p῎ . ). acceptable to farmers and suitable for their needs. high and medium altitudes (i.e., in Wundanyi and Mwatate), but that the Kiduruma landrace was Regional Comparison of Maize Quantitative Traits superior at lower altitudes (i.e., Tausa) and that The maize varieties grown in Taita District vary Pwani hybrid+ was superior in drier areas at low greatly in their expression of quantitative traits. altitude (i.e., Voi). Pwani hybrid. had signiﬁ- Most farmers preferred maize varieties that en- cantly larger grain size in Wundanyi than in other sured food and livelihood security. Table++ shows divisions (p῎ * . */ ). farmer assessments of the maize varieties in terms These results indicate that the hybrids generally of their expression of quantitative traits. Pwani had a higher expression of the quantitative traits hybrid. was perceived by many farmers as being than the landraces. This has resulted from contin- the tallest variety at medium and high altitudes uous improvement by breeding programs with (1*ῌῌ in Wundanyi and 0, in Mwatate), whereas higher yields as the driving factor. Dowswell et al. the heights of Kiduruma and Pwani hybrid+ were ( +330 ) indicated that the immediate gains from preferred by more farmers at lower altitudes, in maize breeding for high yield are much higher us- Tausa (12ῌῌ ) and Voi ( 02 ) divisions, respective- ing current elite cultivars. These cultivars will there- ly. Similar variation among divisions and varieties fore continue to be important genetic resources for can be seen for the other quantitative traits (high maize improvement, particularly if breeders have grain yield, high stover yield, and large grain size). access to a good collection of such germplasm from Most farmers believed that Pwani hybrid. had various sources. However, the Kinduruma land- higher expression of these quantitative traits at race was perceived as having a higher expression of 170 J. Dev. Sus. Agr./, ( )

Table+, . Comparison of maize qualitative traits among the four regions

Number of respondents (ῌ of total)

Pwani Pwani Hybrid Hybrid Dry land MdawidaKiduruma Makueni Mulunguja Region Hybrid. Hybrid + 0+. /+- hybrid *. Kiteka Early Maturation Wundanyi -ῌ῍ 0 -+0,* ῌ῍ ῌ῍ * +, ῌ῍ -0 ῌ῍ 0+, ῌ῍ + ῌ῍ , * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ Mwatate +,ῌ῍ ,0/,** ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ +, ῌ῍ ,,..-0 ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ Tausa *ῌ῍ * +/ ῌ῍ -* * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * + ῌ῍ , - ῌ῍ 0 .+ ῌ῍ 2,** 0 ῌ῍ +, * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Voi *ῌ῍ * 2 ῌ῍ +0 * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * + ῌ῍ , . ῌ῍ 2 ,+ ῌ῍ ., / ῌ῍ +* +. ῌ῍ ,2 - ῌ῍ 0 High disease tolerance Wundanyi +ῌ῍ , -,0.* ῌ῍ ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ -0 ῌ῍ 0+, ῌ῍ + ῌ῍ , * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ Mwatate **ῌ῍ ,..2** ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ +, ῌ῍ ,,..-0 ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ Tausa *ῌ῍ * ++ ῌ῍ ,, * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * + ῌ῍ , - ῌ῍ 0 .+ ῌ῍ 2, 0 ῌ῍ +, * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Voi +,ῌ῍ +, ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ +, ῌ῍ .2,,...2 ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ +.,2-0 ῌ῍ ῌ῍ High drought tolerance Wundanyi +ῌ῍ , -*0** ῌ῍ ῌ῍ * +, ῌ῍ -0 ῌ῍ /+* ῌ῍ + ῌ῍ , * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ Mwatate **ῌ῍ ,//*** ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ +, ῌ῍ ,,..-0 ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ Tausa *ῌ῍ * ++ ῌ῍ ,, * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * + ῌ῍ , - ῌ῍ 0 .+ ῌ῍ 2,** 0 ῌ῍ +, * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Voi +,ῌ῍ +, ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ .2,,...2 ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ +.,2-0 ῌ῍ ῌ῍ Good eating quality Wundanyi-0ῌ῍ 1, * -. ῌ῍ 02 / ῌ῍ +* + ῌ῍ , - ῌ῍ 0 0 ῌ῍ +, + ῌ῍ , * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Mwatate -*ῌ῍ 0* ,0 ῌ῍ /, + ῌ῍ , , ῌ῍ . + ῌ῍ , ,, ῌ῍ .. - ῌ῍ 0 * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Tausa 3+2+0-,*ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ +, ῌ῍ - ῌ῍ 0 .*2*/+* ῌ῍** ῌ῍ * ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ Voi -ῌ῍ 0 -+ ῌ῍ 0, * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * + ῌ῍ , . ῌ῍ 2 ,. ῌ῍ .2 / ῌ῍ +* +. ῌ῍ ,2 - ῌ῍ 2 Good cooking quality Wundanyi -.ῌ῍ 02 -. ῌ῍ 02 . ῌ῍ 2 + ῌ῍ , - ῌ῍ 0 0 ῌ῍ +, + ῌ῍ , * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Mwatate -+ῌ῍ 0, ,1 ῌ῍ /. + ῌ῍ , , ῌ῍ . + ῌ῍ , ,, ῌ῍ .. - ῌ῍ 0 * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Tausa 3+2+0-,*ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ +, ῌ῍ - ῌ῍ 0 -210/+* ῌ῍ ῌ῍ * ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ Voi -ῌ῍ 0 -+ ῌ῍ 0, * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * + ῌ῍ , . ῌ῍ 2 ,. ῌ῍ .2 / ῌ῍ +* +. ῌ῍ ,2 - ῌ῍ 0 Best performance with no fertilizer application Wundanyi ,*.*+3-2**ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ +, ῌ῍ ,. ῌ῍ -0 ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ Mwatate +*ῌ῍ ,* 1 ῌ῍ +. * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * +- ῌ῍ ,0 * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * * ῌ῍ * Tausa .ῌ῍ 2 /+** ῌ῍ ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ , ῌ῍ . -/1*/+* ῌ῍ ῌ῍ * ῌ῍ * ** ῌ῍ Voi **ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ ** ῌ῍ -0,2/0** ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ῌ῍ ,,.... ῌ῍ ῌ῍ Note: Asterisk symbols (*) and (**) in the same column indicate that values di#**/ er signiﬁcantly at (p῎ . ) and (p῎**+ . ) respectively.

the quantitative traits than the other varieties at their expression of qualitative traits. At lower al- low altitudes (i.e., Tausa). This has resulted from titudes (i.e., Tausa), most farmers believed that the continuous selection and improvement by farmers Kinduruma landrace had excellent traits in terms based on their knowledge of and experience with of early maturity (2,ῌῌ ), disease tolerance ( 2, ), local conditions. drought tolerance (2,ῌ ), good eating qualities (2*ῌῌ ), good cooking qualities ( 10 ), and high Regional Comparison of Maize Qualitative Traits performance with no fertilizer application (1*ῌ ). Table+, compares the maize varieties based on Its maturation period and drought tolerance in Voi Mwololo: Conservation of Maize Genetic Resources by Kenyan Farmers 171

Division were significantly higher than in other Farmers must therefore continue planting local divisions (pῌ**+ . ). Mdawida was perceived as landraces and varieties developed by individual having better expression of these traits in Mwatate farmers to reduce costs and harness the benefits (at medium altitude), whereas Pwani hybrid+ was derived from the genetic traits possessed by these the only hybrid perceived as having a high expres- local varieties. sion of early maturity (0,ῌ ), disease resistance In this study, I analyzed household survey data (0.ῌῌ ), and drought tolerance ( 0* ) at high alti- from small-scale maize producers in Taita District tude (i.e., Wundanyi). However, Pwani hybrid. to learn whether the promotion of hybrid cultivars at high altitude had good eating and cooking qual- has significantly a# ected their livelihood and food ities (1, and 02ῌ , respectively), and the eating security, and to learn the perceived value of grow- quality was significantly higher in Wundanyi than ing traditional maize varieties rather than the cur- in other divisions (pῌ**/ . ). The Kinduruma land- rently promoted improved varieties. race was reported as having better performance Most of the farmers (῍/*ῌ ) involved in making than the hybrids without fertilizer. important farming decisions and who participated These results indicate that the local landraces are in most agricultural activities were women, many sources of traits that farmers perceive as being im- of whom were illiterate. They were thus not aware portant for local adaptation, economic stability, of the technologies that must be used to cultivate and sustainability. Some of the landraces appear to hybrid maize varieties, and instead conserved and be excellent sources of genes for disease and pest utilized local genetic resources based on their tradi- resistance and genes for tolerance of other stresses, tional knowledge and experience. and thus represent important resources for maize More than1*ῌ of the farmers derived their breeders. Through continuous selection, the local livelihood mainly from farming, and cultivated less farmers have been able to maintain these traits in than, ha. These farmers remained resource-poor the local varieties. This indicates the need for and could not a# ord to use maize hybrids that re- continued improvement and conservation of the quired additional costly inputs. Most of the farm- local maize varieties. Worede (+33- ) indicated that ers ( 20ῌ ) had not used fertilizers during the plant- there is a growing appreciation of the need forin ing season and considered the use of these fertiliz- situ conservation of landraces and “primitive” local ers to be unsustainable. The full potential of im- cultivars that can continue to evolve in association proved cultivars cannot be achieved under such with crop stresses and farmer needs. conditions, and the landraces were believed to per- Conclusions form better under these conditions. The Kinduruma landrace appears particularly promising, with a Maize is a major staple food crop grown by the large area planted (/, . / hectares) and a high total farmers of Taita District in Kenya’s coastal region, yields (+1+ t), thereby contributing most to food and contributes greatly to their food and livelihood security. security. Unfortunately, average yields are far be- The hybrids generally had a higher expression of low the region’s potential, creating serious food quantitative traits (plant height, grain yield, stover deficits, especially when rain is limited. Kenya’s yield, and grain size) than the landraces, though government has promoted the use of hybrid vari- the Kinduruma landrace had higher expression of eties to increase yields, but adoption of these va- these parameters at low altitudes. Most farmers rieties has decreased genetic diversity by decreasing indicated that maize landraces, and particularly the use of local landraces. To sustain their high Kinduruma and Mdawida, performed better than yields, hybrids require chemical fertilizers as well as the hybrids in terms of qualitative traits such as insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides, which in- early maturation, disease tolerance, and drought crease the costs beyond what most farmers can tolerance, and that they had better cooking and a# ord, while also having adverse environmental im- eating qualities. They also performed better at low pacts on agricultural ecosystems. Unfortunately, soil fertility. The landraces thus appear to be im- the needs of Kenyan farmers have been mostly ig- portant sources of qualitative traits that are impor- nored in the process of developing new varieties. tant for local adaptation and for the economic 172 J. Dev. Sus. Agr./, ( ) stability and sustainability of the farmers. ize. In many cases where maize has been a traditional On the basis of the present results, I propose the crop for a long time, landraces or varieties de- following recommendations for further develop- veloped by individual farmers continue to be main- ment of maize varieties for farmers in Taita: tained and improved by the farmers. These vari- Breeders must develop germplasm that will be eties possess traits that are important to the farmers acceptable to the farmers and that will provide for economic stability and sustainability. In any them with adequate harvests in terms of both the breeding scheme for maize improvement in the quantity and the quality of the corn. Breeders must tropics, a wide range of varieties must be consid- look beyond high yield to consider traits that will ered to meet the needs of farmers under diverse improve the adaptability, stability, and economic situations. Understanding the current crop diver- performance of maize under local conditions. This sity at the level of individual farmers is a good will require an approach based on “participatory” starting point for identifying appropriate actions to plant breeding, in which farmers guide breeders in conserve this diversity. Worede (+33- ) reported a the process of selecting and improving varieties growing appreciation of the need forin situ conser- (Hardon,+33/ ). This is crucial because the micro- vation of landraces and primitive local cultivars environmental variability and wide range of farmer that can continue to evolve in association with crop selection criteria are too great to be adequately stresses and farmer needs. addressed through centralized crop breeding. For The potential of many improved cultivars that such a scheme to succeed, breeders must work with have been adopted by farmers in this region has not farmers to understand the environmental and soci- often been achieved, mostly because of poor man- oeconomic conditions the farmers face, and the agement, a lack of inputs such as fertilizer, unfa- breeding work must be done in the environment vorable biotic and abiotic factors, or a combination where the cultivars will be grown rather than at a of these problems. In this context, the use of indi- centralized facility. genous maize varieties (landraces and varieties I recommend that Kenya’s Ministry of Agricul- developed by farmers) must be considered in the ture begin to promote the maize varieties that have development of any solution to the problem of pov- been shown to perform well in each agro-ecological erty and food security in Kenya. zone and that have met the criteria of local farmers; .+ Recommendations these include Pwani hybrid and Pwani hybrid in Wundanyi; Pwani hybrid.+ , Pwani hybrid , and Increased maize productivity, production, and the Mdawida landrace in Mwatate; and Pwani utilization in Taita District are essential because of hybrid+ , and the Kinduruma and Kiteka land- the heavy population pressure and high rate of pop- races, in the Tausa and Voi divisions. In addition, ulation increase. It is insu$ cient to support thou- the government should support breeding programs sands of people at a sustenance level; there is an that will cross these landraces with existing hybrids urgent need to improve the nutrition level, particu- in an e# ort to make those hybrids more suitable for larly among the rural poor. An increased emphasis the study area and for the ability of the farmers to on developing varieties that are suited to specific provide the necessary inputs of fertilizer and other farming situations rather than focusing solely on agrochemicals. yield is a good start, but better post-harvest man- The Ministry of Agriculture should also promote agement (e.g., storage), the development of an technologies that can conserve moisture and fertil- improved marketing infrastructure, and greater uti- ity to compensate for the decreasing soil fertility lization of maize by the livestock feed industry and and inadequate rains being experienced in the study other industries will boost the level of farmer in- area. come. M.E. Smith & Paliwal, R.L. (+330 ) reported The Ministry of Agriculture should also develop that, there are positive indications that production the skills of farmers though training so the farmers could be increased to meet these challenges through can learn how to conserve rare maize varieties that a revolution of corn, which can be glimpsed on the may survive only in small quantities. The govern- horizon and need to be stimulated-side to material- ment should, through the Kenya National Seed Mwololo: Conservation of Maize Genetic Resources by Kenyan Farmers 173

Bank, support e# orts atex situ conservation of these also thank Dr. Syed Abdullah Gilani a Post-Doc rare maize varieties and other indigenous crop fellow, Gene Research Centre, University of Tsukuba, varieties that may otherwise disappear. The gov- for his guidance during the analysis of my research ernment should also help farmers to develop com- data. Many thanks to Professor Hiroshi Gemma of munity seed banks that can be used to produce the Graduate School of Life and Environmental high-quality seeds. Training should be carried out Sciences, University of Tsukuba, for his kindness to empower local farmer committees to run and and endless advice. I am grateful for the assistance manage community seed banks e## ectively. Incen- of all sta of the Japan International Cooperation tives to support on-farm management of crop diver- Agency (JICA) and Japan International Coopera- sity would include community seed fairs, formal tion Center and particularly Ms. Kimiko Shinoda, training programs, ﬁeld days, and demonstrations, Ms. Sakuma Naoko, Ms. Sachiyo Akiyama, Ms. and should link farmers to appropriate markets for Nakata Yukimi, and Mr. Eishi Aizawa, for their their produce so that once crop yields begin to assistance with my research. improve, farmers will have opportunities to sell I thank the Government of Kenya for providing surplus harvests to generate income. Additional re- approval and funding for me to attend this course search should be conducted to learn how agricul- of studies and JICA for providing ﬁnancial support tural extension service sta# can improve their un- that enabled me complete my research and studies derstanding of the roles of men and women in the in Japan. management of plant genetic resources. I thank the farmers of Taita District for their Farmers in Kenya play an important role in the willingness to share information and the sta# of conservation and sustainable use of local plant ge- Kenya’s Ministry of Agriculture, for their support netic resources. Conservation at the farm level al- during my data collection. Lastly, I thank my fam- lows for continuing farmer selection of promising ily for their constant moral support during my studies. genetic resources based on close observation of the References interaction between landraces and the environment, and allows for gene exchange with wild spe- Berner, D., Winslow, M., Awad, A., Cardwell, K., Mohan Raj, D. and Kim, S. (+331 ): Striga research methods - cies to sustain evolution of the landraces. There- , # A manual. nd Edition. International Institute for fore,ex situ conservation e orts must be designed Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria. to complementin situ e# orts, thereby maximizing Brush, S.B.+33/ . In situ conservation of landraces in the retention and continued evolution of important centres of crop diversity.Crop Sci. -/ , -.0ῌ -/. . +33. +33- 3. local genetic resources and mitigating the loss of CIMMYT. . CIMMYT / World Maize Facts and Trends. Maize seed industries, revisited: Emerging variation that occurs during the sampling and main- roles of the public and private sectors. Mexico, D.F.: tenance that occur in formal breeding programs. CIMMYT. The present results emphasize the necessity of Dowswell, C.D., Paliwal, R.L., Cantrell, P.P.+330 . Maize strengthening and expandingin situ conservation in the third world. Westview Press, Boulder, CO. +330 programs across a broad range of agro-ecological Eyzaguirre, P. and M. Iwanaga. . Farmers’ contribution to maintaining genetic diversity in crops, and its conditions to maximize the diversity and utility of role within the total genetic resources system. In Partic- these source materials and encourage their use in ipatory plant breeding. Proceedings of a workshop on future crop-improvement programs. This will re- participatory plant breeding,,0ῌ ,3 July+33/, Wagen- quire participation by the farmers who manage the ingen, The Netherlands, P. Eyzaguirre and M. Iwanaga (eds.). Rome: IPGRI. bulk of Kenya’s indigenous crop genetic resources, Galinat, W.C.+322 . The origin of corn. In: Sprague, G.F, and who currently practicein situ conservation as a Dudley, J.W. (Eds.) Corn and corn improvement. part of their traditional management strategies. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI. pp. +ῌ -+. Acknowledgements Hardon, J.+33/ . Participatory plant breeding. Proceedings of a workshop on participatory plant breeding, ,0ῌ ,3 I thank Professor Kazuo Watanabe of the Grad- July+33/ , Issues in Genetic Resources No. - Wagen- uate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, ingen, the Netherlands (P. Eyzaguirre and M. Iwanaga, University of Tsukuba, for his tireless advice and eds.). IPGRI, Rome, Italy. pp.+0ῌ . supervision, which let me complete my research. I Karanja, D.D.+330 . An Economic and Institutional Analysis 174 J. Dev. Sus. Agr./, ( )

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