Party Outcasts
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View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Memorial University Research Repository Party Outcasts The Underrepresentation of Female Parliamentarians in Belize by Jessica Habet A Thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Political Science Memorial University of Newfoundland November, 2014 St. John’s Newfoundland and Labrador i Abstract Adding to the feminist literature on women’s underrepresentation in parliaments around the world, this thesis presents Belize as an elucidative case. Primary and secondary data were used to identify the barriers to women’s electoral success. Interviews were conducted between May 2013 and February 2014 in Belize. An extensive review on feminist literature outlined three types of barriers: (1) cultural; (2) structural; and (3) institutional. The literature and primary data led to the conclusion that the largest barrier in Belize is institutional where the political party is the critical gatekeeper to women’s success. ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank the School of Graduate Studies at Memorial University of Newfoundland who allowed me to pursue research in an area dear to me through their fellowship programme. I especially want to thank Dr. Amanda Bittner, who has guided me throughout the writing process. Igniting my interest in women’s studies during my undergraduate degree, directing me towards literature, reviewing my work meticulously, and offering support and advice, Dr. Bittner’s supervision has been instrumental in producing this thesis. I would also like to thank the women I interviewed for their insight into Belize’s political landscape. Their participation has helped me demystify the intricacies of Belizean politics. Because they have shared their experiences, they have allowed me to offer that knowledge to the public through this thesis. For that, I am grateful. Lastly, I would like to thank my friends and family who have kept me grounded with check-ups and words of encouragement. iii List of Acronyms BWPC Belize Women’s Political Caucus CARICOM Caribbean Community CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women CEO Chief Executive Officer FPTP First-Past-the-Post GOB Government of Belize International IDEA International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance IPU Inter-Parliamentary Union LAPOP Latin American Public Opinion Project NWC National Women’s Commission OAS Organization of American States PRC Political Reform Commission PR Proportional Representation PUP People’s United Party SIB Statistical Institute of Belize SMD Single-Member District UDP United Democratic Party UNDP United Nation Development Programme UNIBAM United Belize Advocacy Movement UWG United Women’s Group WIN Women Issues Network WIP Women In Politics iv Table of Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... iii List of Acronyms ...................................................................................................................... iv Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 3 Her Stories ....................................................................................................................................... 3 Making Space ................................................................................................................................... 7 Chapter 1: The Belizean Context ......................................................................................... 8 Organization and Methodology ..................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 2: Understanding Women’s Underrepresentation around the World 12 Cultural Barriers ............................................................................................................................. 13 A tool-kit .................................................................................................................................... 13 Religion ...................................................................................................................................... 15 Structural Barriers .......................................................................................................................... 16 Education ................................................................................................................................... 17 Employment ............................................................................................................................... 20 Income ....................................................................................................................................... 21 Institutional Barriers ...................................................................................................................... 21 Electoral System ........................................................................................................................ 21 Gender Quotas ........................................................................................................................... 24 Political Parties .......................................................................................................................... 25 Chapter 3: A Gender-Equality Culture ............................................................................ 29 Chapter 4: Structurally Unsound ..................................................................................... 41 Education ....................................................................................................................................... 41 Educated and Unemployed ............................................................................................................ 44 Financially Insecure ........................................................................................................................ 45 Chapter 5: Political Institutions ....................................................................................... 47 Belize’s Pseudo-democracy ............................................................................................................ 48 Political Parties: Setting the Tone .................................................................................................. 49 The FPTP: Facilitating the Old Boys’ Club ....................................................................................... 56 The Foot Soldiers ........................................................................................................................... 60 Corruption: The Password to the Old Boys’ Club ........................................................................... 61 1 Chapter 6: Disempowering the Selectorate .................................................................. 74 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 78 Appendices .............................................................................................................................. 86 Appendix I ...................................................................................................................................... 86 Appendix II ..................................................................................................................................... 91 Appendix III .................................................................................................................................... 95 2 Introduction The fight for gender-equality worldwide has substantially improved the status of women. But women’s journey from marginalization to lionization continues to be a formidable struggle. Politics epitomizes the hardship. Women’s achievement in other fields reveals a drastic contrast to their paucity in parliament. While glass ceilings continue to challenge women in many areas, politics is the “hardest, highest glass ceiling” (Hilary Clinton, Concession Speech, 7 June 2008). Globally, women are severely underrepresented in nationally elected office. The lack of women at the highest levels of decision-making has triggered worldwide concern because it threatens democratic legitimacy. Democracy operates on the central principle that the decisions made on behalf of people must be made by people that represent their interests. Although international discourse, such as the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), cites the importance of women in parliament, countries continue to share a lack of women in the highest stage of decision-making. The global phenomenon has spurred extensive research which has offered a multitude of explanations. Many place the onus on women. With only one woman elected to the House of Representatives, a case study of Belize provides insight into modern-day obstacles to women in politics, reaffirming and defying the existent literature. Her Stories During the August 7, 2013 sitting of the House of Representatives, Honourable Dolores Balderamos-Garcia, an Opposition member, questioned the Sergeant