P and thenAfrica. pressures ofmodernsociety. ThechapterwillfirstfocusonIndia colonialism impactedtheir lives,andhowtheyhavecopedwiththe societies likeIndiaand Africa. Youwillreadabouttheway In thischapteryouwillsee howpastoralismhasbeenimportantin place inmodernsociety. lives donotmatter.Asiftheyarefiguresfromthepast whohaveno you readaboutartisans;butrarelypastoralists. Asiftheir economics –youlearnaboutagricultureandindustry. Sometimes read abouttheeconomy–whetherinyourclasses ofhistoryor Pastoralists rarelyenterthepagesofhistorytextbooks. Whenyou earn? Whattheirpasthasbeen? from andwheretheyareheaded?Doyouknowhowlive camels andcattle.Haveyoueverwonderedwheretheyarecoming pastoralists onthemovewiththeirherdsofgoatsandsheep,or another toearntheirliving.InmanypartsofIndiawecanseenomadic are peoplewhodonotliveinoneplacebutmovefromareato In thischapteryouwillreadaboutnomadicpastoralists.Nomads P PPP By monsoon,thesepasturesarethickwithvegetationandcarpetedwildflowers. come tolifeafterApril.Atthistimetheentiremountainsideiscoveredwithavarietyofgrasses,rootsandherbs. Bugyals Fig.1 –Sheepgrazingonthe astoralists intheModernW astoralists intheModernW astoralists intheModernW astoralists intheModernW astoralists intheModernW are vastnaturalpasturesonthehighmountains,above12,000feet.Theyundersnowinwinterand Bugyals ofeasternGarhwal. 2021–22 orld orldorldorldorld 97 Pastoralists in the Modern World Pastoralists in the Modern World Chapter V and the Contemporary World passes wereclear,manyofthemmovedontohighermountain summer inLahulandSpiti.Whenthesnowmeltedhigh flocks inscrubforests.ByApriltheymovednorthandspentthe too spenttheirwinterinthelowhillsofSiwalikrange,grazing Himachal Pradeshhadasimilarcycleofseasonalmovement.They In adifferentareaofthemountains,Gaddishepherds in thelowhills. the highmountainswerecoveredwithsnow,herdsgrazed time ontheirdownwardjourney,backtowinterbase.When herds. ByendSeptembertheBakarwalswereonmoveagain,this grasses thatsproutedprovidedrichnutritiousforagefortheanimal snow meltedandthemountainsideswerelushgreen.Thevarietyof and enteredthevalleyofKashmir.Withonsetsummer, forming whatisknownasa grazing grounds.Severalhouseholdscametogetherforthisjourney, By theendofApriltheybegantheirnorthernmarchforsummer range. Thedryscrubforestshereprovidedpasturefortheirherds. snow, theylivedwiththeirherdsinthelowhillsofSiwalik grounds. Inwinter,whenthehighmountainswerecoveredwith and movedannuallybetweentheirsummerwintergrazing Gradually, overthedecades,theyestablishedthemselvesinarea, the nineteenthcenturyinsearchofpasturesfortheiranimals. herders ofgoatandsheep.Manythemmigratedtothisregionin Even todaytheGujjarBakarwalsofJammuandKashmiraregreat 1.1 IntheM 98 1 1111 P P P P P N astoral astoral astoral astoral astoral ountains N N NN omads andtheir omads andtheir omads andtheir omads andtheir omads andtheir kafila . TheycrossedthePirPanjalpasses 2021–22 M MMMM ovements ovementsovementsovementsovements Source Buffaloes cannotclimbany higher. mandaps directlyinbusesandtrucks. These recent yearstheyhavebegun totransportthe make gheewhichtheytook down forsale.In also aworkplace.HeretheGujjarusedto and grassfromthe mandaps The Gujjarcattleherdersliveinthese mountains incentralGarhwal. Fig.2 –AGujjar of Kangra,1850-55. From: G.C.Barnes, existence intheplains. from venomousfliesthattormenttheir temperate climateandtheimmunity time attainconditionfromthe the rainsbringforthandatsame buffaloes rejoiceintherichgrasswhich herds totheupperrange,where weather theGujjarsusuallydrivetheir for aday’smeal.Duringthehot pots containingtheproportionrequired butter-milk andghee,eachofthese with littleearthenpotsfilledmilk, morning withbasketsontheirheads, women repairtothemarketsevery in thewoodstendingtheirherds.The , andfrequentlylieoutforweeks of theirherds.Themengrazethe of themilk,ghee,andotherproduce their existenceexclusivelybythesale in theskirtsofforests,andmaintain consists ofbuffaloes.Thesepeoplelive and goatstheGujjars,wealth at all.TheGaddiskeepflocksofsheep a pastoraltribe–theycultivatescarcely ‘ of Kangra: the followingdescriptionofGujjars Writing inthe1850s,G.C.Barnesgave In thehillsGujjarsareexclusively A areatabout10,000to11,000 feet. madeof Mandap onthehigh ringal Bugyal SettlementReport –ahillbamboo . A ’ mandap was bugyals came downtothedryforestsof Further totheeast,inGarhwalandKumaon,Gujjarcattleherders , tothesummermeadows. Next April,onceagain,theybegantheirmarchwithgoatsand with theirflocktowintergrazinggroundontheSiwalikhills. their summerharvestandsowingwintercrop.Thentheydescended way theystoppedonceagaininthevillagesofLahulandSpiti,reaping meadows. BySeptembertheybegantheirreturnmovement.Onthe originally fromJammuandcametothe recover; itpreventedtheir overuse. continuous movementalso allowed thepasturesto moved theirherdsandflock tonewareas.This pasture wasexhaustedorunusableinoneplacethey of availablepasturesindifferentplaces.Whenthe to adjustseasonalchangesandmakeeffectiveuse Bhotiyas, SherpasandKinnauris.Allofthemhad communities oftheHimalayas,including and winterpastureswastypicalofmanypastoral This patternofcyclicalmovementbetweensummer the nineteenthcenturyinsearchofgoodpastures. winter, andwentuptothehighmeadows– Fig.3 –Gaddiswaitingforshearingtobegin.

– insummer.Manyofthemwere bhabar UP hillsin UhlvalleynearPalampurinHimachalPradesh. inthe wool iscut. their sheepsheared.The arebathedandcleanedbeforethe meadows ( By SeptembertheGaddishepherds comedownfromthehigh Fig.4 –Gaddisheepbeingsheared. 2021–22 Dhars ). Onthewaydowntheyhalt forawhiletohave mountains Bugyal –Vastmeadowsinthehigh foothills ofGarhwalandKumaun Bhabar –Adryforestedareabelowthe New words 99

Pastoralists in the Modern World India and the Contemporary World 1.2 Onthe 100 rabi were welcomedbyKonkanipeasants.Afterthe agricultural tractwithhighrainfallandrichsoil.Heretheshepherds of aboutamonththeyreachedtheKonkan.Thiswasflourishing harvested their grazing groundfortheDhangarflocks.ByOctoberDhangars bajra soil. Itwascoveredwiththornyscrub.Nothingbutdrycropslike monsoon. Thiswasasemi-aridregionwithlowrainfallandpoor shepherds stayedinthecentralplateauofMaharashtraduring blanket weavers,andstillotherswerebuffaloherders.TheDhangar estimated tobe467,000.Mostofthemwereshepherds,some In theearlytwentiethcenturytheirpopulationinthisregionwas wereanimportantpastoralcommunityofMaharashtra. found intheplateaus,plainsanddesertsofIndia. No plateau. Thesheepcould not toleratethewetmonsoonconditions. areas withtheirflocksand returnedtotheirsettlementsonthedry onset ofthemonsoon DhangarslefttheKonkanandcoastal shepherds tookbacktotheplateauwheregrainwas scarce. Withthe stubble. TheKonkanipeasantsalsogavesuppliesofricewhich the cut atthistime,thefieldshadtobefertilisedandmade readyforthe t allpastoralistsoperatedinthemountains.Theywerealsotobe harvest.Dhangarflocksmanuredthefieldsand fed onthe could besownhere.Inthemonsoonthistractbecameavast Plateaus, bajra andstartedontheirmovewest.Afteramarch P lains and D eserts kharif 2021–22

harvest was the groundafterharvesting Stubble –Lowerendsofgrain stalksleftin after March Rabi between SeptemberandOctober Kharif New words –Thespringcrop,usuallyharvested –Theautumncrop,usuallyharvested over averyextensivearea. enough feedtheyhavetograze be foundhere;buttoget dry andthornybushesthatcan Only camelscansurviveonthe . on theThardesertinwestern Fig.5 –Raikacamelsgrazing Source B and othergoodstovillagersinexchangeforgrainfodder. for theircattle,theymovedoverlongdistances,sellingploughcattle Madhya PradeshandMaharashtra.Insearchofgoodpastureland to befoundinthevillagesofUttarPradesh,Punjab,Rajasthan, Banjaras wereyetanotherwell-knowngroupofgraziers.They herds hadtobeshiftedthedryplateauatthistime. conditions ofthecoastalareasduringmonsoonmonths.Other left whentherainscame.Onlybuffaloeslikedswampy,wet dry season.Intheseasontheymovedtocoastaltracts,and their movement:ratheritwasthealternationofmonsoonand was notthecoldandsnowthatdefinedseasonalrhythmsof and tookcareoftheirherds.Unlikethemountainpastoralists,it cultivated smallpatchesofland,engagedinavarietypettytrades sheep andgoatssoldwovenblankets.Theylivednearthewoods, herders. TheGollasherdedcattle.KurumasandKurubasreared covered withstoneandgrass,inhabitedbycattle,goatsheep In KarnatakaandAndhraPradesh,again,thedrycentralplateauwas sheep andgoa (desert) Raikas–herded camels andanothergroupreared next monsoon.Onegroup ofRaikas–knownastheMaru of otherpastureandwater,returnedagainduring the grounds weredryandexhausted,theymovedout in search where pasturewasavailable.ByOctober,whenthese grazing Jaisalmer, JodhpurandBikanerstayedintheirhome villages, pastoralism. Duringthemonsoons,Raikasof Barmer, could begrown.SotheRaikascombinedcultivation with harvests fluctuatedeveryyear.Overvaststretches nocrop the regionwasmeagreanduncertain.Oncultivated land, I n thedesertsofRajasthanlivedRaikas.Therainfallin the CountriesofMysore,CanaraandMalabar(London,1807). From: the townswithfirewood,andstr the woods,whileremaindercultivatetheirfields,andsupply each beingcommon.T Their familiesareverynumerous,seventoeightyoungmenin cattle, sellinginthetownsproduceofdairy where theycultivatealittleground,andkeepsomeoftheir ‘Their familiesliveinsmallvillagesneartheskirtofwoods, Gollas duringhistravelthroughMysore.Hewrote: groups. Intheearlynineteenthcentury The accountsofmanytravellerstellusaboutthelifepastoral

Francis HamiltonBuchanan, t. wo orthreeoftheseattendtheflocksin A JourneyfromMadrasthrough a w forthatch. , Buchananvisitedthe ’ 2021–22 Raikas, andtheirsettlement is calleda The camelherdersoftheregion areMaru(desert) This isontheThardesertnear JaisalmerinRajasthan. Fig.6 –Acamelherderinhis settlement. . Activity Ø Ø Read Sources live ontheedgesofforests? Why doyouthinkpastoralgroupsoften and womeninpastoralhouseholds. the natureofworkundertakenbymen Write brieflyaboutwhattheytellyou A andB. dhandi . 101

Pastoralists in the Modern World India and the Contemporary World How didthelifeofpastoralistschangeundercolonialrule? and herding–tomaketheirliving. soil. Theycombinedarangeofdifferentactivities–cultivation,trade, way, sothattheherdscouldgrazeinharvestedfieldsandmanure territories. Theyhadtosetuparelationshipwithfarmersonthe movements, andensurethattheycouldmovethroughdifferent find waterandpasture.Theyneededtocalculatethetimingoftheir long theherdscouldstayinonearea,andknowwherethey careful considerationofahostfactors.Theyhadtojudgehow So weseethatthelifeofthesepastoralgroupswassustainedbya 102 Raikas alsodisplaytheirexpertiseintrainingcamels. Fig.7 –AcamelfairatBalotrainwesternRajasthan. Camelherderscometothefairsellandbuycamels.TheMaru 2021–22 Horses fromGujaratarealsobroughtforsaleatthisfair. Fig.8 –AcamelfairatPushkar. Fig.10 –Maldhariherdersmoving insearchofpastures. These oraltraditions The genealogistrecountsthehistoryofcommunity.Suchoraltraditionsgivepastoralgroupstheirownsense identity. Fig.9 –AMaruRaikagenealogistwithagroupofRaikas.

can tellusabouthowagrouplooksatitsownpast. TheirvillagesareintheRann ofKutch. 2021–22 103

Pastoralists in the Modern World India and the Contemporary World a permitforentry.The timing oftheirentryanddeparturewas were allowedentry,their movements wereregulated.Theyneeded provided valuableforage fortheircattle.Evenintheareasthey now preventedfromenteringmanyforeststhat hadearlier These ForestActschangedthelivesofpastoralists. Theywere This preventednewtreesfromgrowing. herds trampledoverthesaplingsandmunchedaway theshoots. young shootsoftreesthatgerminatedontheforest floor.The colonial officialsbelievedthatgrazingdestroyedthe saplingsand granted buttheirmovementswereseverelyrestricted. The In these,some access totheseforests.Otherforestswereclassifiedas‘Protected’. deodar some forestswhichproducedcommerciallyvaluabletimberlike also beingenactedinthedifferentprovinces.ThroughtheseActs Second, bythemid-nineteenthcentury,variousForestActswere and aproblemforpastoralists. expansion ofcultivationinevitablymeantthedeclinepastures were actuallygrazingtractsusedregularlybypastoralists.So in thenewlyclearedareas.Inmostareaslandstakenover to settletheselands.Someofthemweremadeheadmenvillages These individualsweregrantedvariousconcessionsandencouraged uncultivated landsweretakenoverandgiventoselectindividuals. Rules wereenactedinvariouspartsofthecountry.Bythese under cultivation.Fromthemid-nineteenthcentury,WasteLand produce. Itwasseenas‘wasteland’thatneededtobebrought be unproductive:itproducedneitherrevenuenoragricultural England. Tocolonialofficialsalluncultivatedlandappearedto wheat andotheragriculturalproducethatwererequiredin collection. Itcouldatthesametimeproducemorejute,cotton, of itsfinance.Byexpandingcultivationitcouldincreaserevenue into cultivatedfarms.Landrevenuewasoneofthemainsources First, thecolonialstatewantedtotransformallgrazinglands declined andtheirtradescraftswereadverselyaffected.How? and therevenuetheyhadtopayincreased.Theiragriculturalstock Their grazinggroundsshrank,theirmovementswereregulated, Under colonialrule,thelifeofpastoralistschangeddramatically. 104 2 2 2 2 2 Colonial Colonial Colonial Colonial Colonial or sal were declared‘Reserved’.Nopastoralistwasallowed customary R RRRR ule and ule and ule and ule and ule and grazingrightsofpastoralistswere P PPPP astoral astoral astoral astoral astoral 2021–22 L LLLL ife ifeifeifeife Source C used tobycustomandtradition Customary rights–Rights thatpeopleare New words Activity the mainlegitimateforestproduce… unable toyieldtimberandfuel,whichare be usedforanyotherpurposeandis ‘… forestwhichisusedforgrazingcannot Forests, Darjeeling,wrotein1913: H.S. Gibson,theDeputyConservatorof Ø Ø to grazingfromthestandpointof: Write acommentontheclosureofforests a pastoralist a forester ’ the amountoftaxhepaid wasenteredonthepass. the passandpaytax. Thenumberofcattleheadshehadand given apass.Toentergrazing tract,acattleherderhadtoshow collecting taxesdirectlyfromthepastoralists.Each ofthemwas they couldwithintheyear.By1880sgovernment began the moneytheyhadpaidtostateandearnas muchprofitas contractors triedtoextractashighataxtheycould torecover the righttocollecttaxwasauctionedoutcontractors. These increasingly efficient.Inthedecadesbetween1850s and1880s cattle wentuprapidlyandthesystemofcollection wasmade introduced inthemid-nineteenthcentury.Thetax perheadof on thepastures.InmostpastoraltractsofIndia,grazingtaxwas . Pastoralistshadtopaytaxoneveryanimaltheygrazed on land,canalwater,salt,tradegoods,andeven looked foreverypossiblesourceoftaxation.Sotaxwasimposed Fourth kept acontinuouswatchonthem. not allowedtomoveoutwithoutapermit.Thevillagepolice expected toliveonlyinnotifiedvillagesettlements.Theywere and birth.OncethisActcameintoforce,thesecommunitieswere as CriminalTribes.Theywerestatedtobecriminalbynature communities ofcraftsmen,tradersandpastoralistswereclassified India passedtheCriminalTribesAct.BythisActmany considered tobecriminal.In1871,thecolonialgovernmentin peaceable andlawabiding;thosewhowerenomadic to identifyandcontrol.Thosewhoweresettledseenas with fixedrightsonparticularfields.Suchapopulationwaseasy They wantedtheruralpeopletoliveinvillages,fixedplaces The colonialgovernmentwantedtoruleoverasettledpopulation. every season,movinginsearchofgoodpasturesfortheirherds. in villages,andpastoralistswhochangedtheirplacesofresidence distrusted mobilecraftsmenandtraderswhohawkedtheirgoods Third, Britishofficialsweresuspiciousofnomadicpeople.They legally withinaforest.Iftheyoverstayedwereliabletofines. lives. Thepermitspecifiedthe Department permitsthathadbeenissuedtothemnowruledtheir in theforestwasample.TheyhadtomovebecauseForest forage wasavailable,thegrasssucculentandundergrowth was limited.Pastoralistscouldnolongerremaininanareaevenif specified, andthenumberofdaystheycouldspendinforest , toexpanditsrevenueincome,thecolonialgovernment period s in which theycouldbe 2021–22 Source D Activity Agriculture inIndia,1928. The Reportofthe indebtedness hasincreased. dietary standardshavefallenand of theirlivestockhasdeteriorated, earnings havegonedown.Thequality it difficulttoraiselargeherds.Thustheir experimental farms.[Now]breedersfind defence, industriesandagricultural Government purposes,forexample, facilities, acquiringthepasturesfor population, extensionofirrigation cultivation becauseofincreasing with theextensionofareaunder grazing hasgonedowntremendously ‘The extentoftheareaavailablefor Agriculture reported: In the1920s,aRoyalCommissionon Ø Ø a CriminalTribe. Government hasdeclaredyourcommunityas p Y Imagine youarelivinginthe1890s. astoralist ou belongtoacommunityofnomadic how itwillaffectyourlife. explaining whythe Write apetitiontothelocalcollector felt anddone. Describe brieflywhatyouwouldhave s andcraf t

smen. Act isunjustand Royal Commissionof Y ou learnthatthe ’ 105

Pastoralists in the Modern World India and the Contemporary World 106 Underfed cattlediedinlargenumbersduringscarcitiesandfamines. shortage offorageforanimalsandthedeteriorationanimalstock. and thequalityofpaturesdeclined. on pastoralmovements,grazinglandscametobecontinuouslyused restoration ofvegetationgrowth.Whenrestrictionswereimposed area. Thesepastoralmovementsallowedtimeforthenatural pastoralists grazedtheiranimalsinoneareaandmovedtoanother continuous intensivegrazingofthesepastures.Usuallynomadic stock hadtofeedonwhatevergrazinglandremained.Thisled As pasturelandsdisappearedundertheplough,existinganimal their cattleintheforests. meant thatshepherdsandcattleherderscouldnolongerfreelypasture area ofpasturelanddeclined.Similarly,thereservationforests lands weretakenoverandturnedintocultivatedfields,theavailable These measuresledtoaseriousshortageofpastures.Whengrazing 2.1 HowDidtheseC hanges A ffect the Thisinturncreatedafurther L ives ofPastoralists? 2021–22 various partsofIndia. chapter. Therearemanyothers livingin pastoral communitiesmentioned inthe This mapindicatesthelocation ofonlythose Fig.11 –PastoralistsinIndia. modern world? pastoral communitieselsewherecopewiththese changes inthe patterns forcedpastoralcommunitiestoaltertheir lives.Howdid in India.Inmanyotherpartsoftheworld,newlawsandsettlement Such changeswerenotexperiencedonlybypastoralcommunities most viableformoflife. regions andinthemountains,pastoralismisstillecologically changes inthemodernworld.Manyecologistsbelievethatdry pastoral activitywithotherformsofincomeandadaptedtothe direction oftheirmovement,reducedthesizeherd,combined pasturelands inoneplacewasclosedtothem,theychangedthe their numbershaveexpandedoverrecentdecades.When Yet, pastoralistsnotonlycontinuetosurvive,inmanyregions and becamelabourers,workingonfieldsor moneylenders tosurvive.Attimestheylosttheircattleandsheep Many poorpastoralists,ontheotherhand,borrowedmoneyfrom peasants cultivatingland,otherstooktomoreextensivetrading. settling down,givinguptheirnomadiclife.Somebecamesettled Over theyears,somericherpastoralistsbeganbuyinglandand the animalsprovide. harvests arecut.Thisisthetimethatfieldsneedmanure to Haryanawheresheepcangrazeonagriculturalfieldsafterthe to findnewplacesgo.Inrecentyearstheyhavebeenmigrating between IndiaandPakistanstoppedtheirmovement.Sotheyhad the Indus,astheyhaddoneearlier.Thenewpoliticalboundaries no longermoveintoSindhandgrazetheircamelsonthebanksof After 1947,thecamelandsheepherdingRaikas,forinstance,could pastures whenmovementtooldgrazinggroundsbecamedifficult. enough pasturetofeedlargenumbers. reduced thenumberofcattleintheirherds,sincetherewasnot Pastoralists reactedtothesechangesinavarietyofways.Some 2.2 HowDidthe Pastoralists Copewiththese Others in small towns. C discoverednew hanges? 2021–22 107

Pastoralists in the Modern World India and the Contemporary World these changesbeen? dramatically overthecolonialandpost-colonialperiods.Whathave Like pastoralistsinIndia,thelivesofAfricanhavechanged their meagreanduncertainearningsfrompastoralism. with agriculture;stillothersdoavarietyofoddjobstosupplement earn throughtradeandtransport,otherscombinepastoralactivity donkeys; andtheysellmilk,meat,animalskinwool.Somealso agriculture isdifficult.Theyraisecattle,camels,,sheepand them nowliveinthesemi-aridgrasslandsorariddesertswhererainfed Bedouins, Berbers,Maasai,Somali,BoranandTurkana.Mostof pastoral activityfortheirlivelihood.Theyincludecommunitieslike lives. Eventoday,over22millionAfricansdependonsomeformof Let usmovetoAfricawhereoverhalftheworld’spastoralpopulation 108 3 3 3 3 3 crime againstnature.Onceyou cultivatetheland,itisnolongersuitableforgrazing. rice, potatoes,cabbage.Traditionally theMaasaifrowneduponthis.believed that tillingthelandforcropfarmingisa Forced bychangingconditions, theMaasaihavegrowndependentonfoodproduced inotherareassuchasmaizemeal, Fig.12 –AviewofMaasailand withKilimanjarointhebackground. P P P PP astoralism inAfrica astoralism inAfrica astoralism inAfrica astoralism inAfrica astoralism inAfrica 2021–22 Courtesy: TheMassaiAssociation. white settlementandthe Maasai werepushedintoasmallareain Subsequently, thebestgrazing landsweregraduallytakenoverfor boundary betweenBritish KenyaandGermanTanganyika. colonies. In1885,Maasailandwascutintohalfwith aninternational for territorialpossessionsinAfrica,slicinguptheregion intodifferent In thelatenineteenthcentury,Europeanimperialpowers scrambled a vastareafromnorthKenyatothesteppesofnorthern Tanzania. their grazinglands.Beforecolonialtimes,Maasailand stretchedover One oftheproblemsMaasaishavefacediscontinuous lossof 3.1 Wherehavethe lives intimesofdroughtandevenreshapedtheirsocialrelationships. away theirlandandrestrictedmovement.Thisaffected 150,000 inTanzania.Wewillseehownewlawsandregulationstook live primarilyineastAfrica:300,000southernKenyaandanother community –theMaasaiinsomedetail.Thecattleherders We willdiscusssomeofthesechangesbylookingatonepastoral The insetshowsthelocationofMaasaisinKenyaandTanzania. Fig.13 –PastoralcommunitiesinAfrica. G razing L ands G one? 2021–22 Zanzibar toform attained independencein1961 andunitedwith T Africa duringtheFirstW Britain conqueredwhathadbeenGermanEast On T anganyika cameunderBritish control.It anganyika T anzania in1964. orld W ar . In1919 109

Pastoralists in the Modern World India and the Contemporary World of Maasaigrazingland. Serengeti NationalPark,forinstance,wascreatedover14,760km. traditionally beenregulargrazinggroundsforMaasaiherds.The these areas.Veryoftenreserveswereinareasthathad reserves; theycouldneitherhuntanimalsnorgrazetheirherdsin Park inTanzania.Pastoralistswerenotallowedtoenterthese the MaasaiMaraandSamburuNationalParkinKenyaSerengeti Large areasofgrazinglandwerealsoturnedintogamereserveslike politically. Bytheendofcolonialrulesituationhadreversed. dominated theiragriculturalneighboursbotheconomicallyand cultivated fields.Inpre-colonialtimes,theMaasaipastoralistshad cultivation. Ascultivationexpanded,pasturelandswereturnedinto in eastAfricaalsoencouragedlocalpeasantcommunitiestoexpand From thelatenineteenthcentury,Britishcolonialgovernment uncertain rainfallandpoorpastures. of theirpre-coloniallands.Theywereconfinedtoanaridzonewith south KenyaandnorthTanzania.TheMaasailostabout60percent 110 irrigation orforlivestock. Kilimanjaro WaterProjectcuts throughthecommunitiesofthisareabutvillagers are barredfromusingthewaterfor last yeargeneratedapproximately 240millionKenyanShillings(estimated$3.5 US)fromtourism.Inaddition,the and theirchildren.Theareas hardesthitbydroughtandfoodshortageareinthevicinity ofAmboseliNationalPark,which Fig.14 –Withoutgrass,(cattle, goatsandsheep)aremalnourished,whichmeans lessfoodavailableforfamilies Courtesy: TheMassaiAssociation. 2021–22 Source E such timespastoralanimalsdieinlargenumbes. extremely hot.Droughtconditionsarecommoninthissemi-aridlandofequatorialheat.During High temperaturescombinewithlowrainfalltocreateconditionswhicharedry,dusty,and are traditionallynomadicandpastoralpeoplewhodependonmilkmeatforsubsistence. Fig.15 wh ‘W complained: The nomadiccattleherdersofKaokolandin Namibia movements betweenregions. the newsystemofterritorialboundariesthatrestricted products inneighbouringmarkets.Allthiswasstoppedwith Ovamboland, andtheysoldskin,meatothertrade traditionally movedbetweenKaokolandandnearby In Namibia,insouth-westAfrica,theKaokolandherders Pastoral communitieselsewhereinAfricafacedsimilarproblems. western Namibianpastor Quoted inMichaelBollig,‘The colonialencapsulationofthenorth Statement ofKaokoland herders, Namibia,1949. press ushea also oursheepandgoats.Thebordersareclosed. The borders Ov cannot besentout…Ov … W e ha amboland foralongtime.W y wearelock e cannotgetmeatfromthesouth…Oursleeping skins –ThetitleMaasaiderivesfromthewordMaa.Maa-saimeans'MyPeople'. v e difficult vily ed up . W y . W e cannotliv e cry . W amboland isclosedforus.W al economy’ e areinjail.W . W e areimprisoned.W e w e. ’ ant totak , Africa e ha Courtesy: TheMassaiAssociation. v e ourcattlethere, 68 (4),1998. e noplacetoliv e donotknow e liv 2021–22 ed in e 111

Pastoralists in the Modern World India and the Contemporary World suddenly changedthelives ofpastoralists.Thisadverselyaffected The newterritorialboundaries andrestrictionsimposedonthem and, buildroadsandtowns. because whitecolonistshadtodependonblacklabour toboremines minimised. Cuttingoffalllinkswas,however,never reallypossible, as dangerousandsavage–peoplewithwhomallcontact hadtobe form oftrade.WhitesettlersandEuropeancolonists sawpastoralists In manyregions,theywereprohibitedfromparticipating inany Pastoralists werealsonotallowedtoenterthemarkets inwhiteareas. Those foundguiltyofdisobeyingtheruleswereseverely punished. And itwasdifficulttogetpermitswithouttroubleandharassment. not allowedtomoveoutwiththeirstockwithoutspecialpermits. became thelimitswithinwhichtheycouldnowmove.Theywere the confinesofspecialreserves.Theboundariesthesereserves Like theMaasai,otherpastoralgroupswerealsoforcedtolivewithin various restrictionsontheirmobility. late nineteenthcentury,thecolonialgovernmentbeganimposing place theymovedtoadifferentareagrazetheircattle.Fromthe areas insearchofpastures.Whenthepastureswereexhaustedone In thenineteenthcentury,Africanpastoralistscouldmoveovervast 3.2 The supply. Feedingthecattlebecameapersistentproblem. deterioration ofthequalitypastures.Fodderwasalwaysinshort within. Continuousgrazingwithinasmallareainevitablymeant pressure onthesmallareaoflandthatMaasaiwereconfined Th Source F 112 and K ‘K issued tothem. keep acheckonthem,andordinaryvisitingpassesshouldthereforeneverbe proclamation istorestrictthenumberofnativ exceptional circumstancesnecessitatetheirentering…Theobjectoftheabove ‘P in Namibia: in south-westAfrica,restrictingthemovementsofpastoralistsKaokoland areas. Thefollowingisonesuchinstructiongivenbyamagistratetothepolice, watch onthemovementsofpastoralists,andpreventthemfromenteringwhite In mostplacesincolonialAfrica,thepoliceweregiveninstructionstokeepa e lossofthefinestgrazinglandsandwaterresourcescreated asses toentertheT aok ov amanjab B eld permitstoenter orders are , 24No ’ C losed v ember erritory shouldnotbegiv ’ , Magistr , 1937. ate toP olice StationCommandersofOutjo 2021–22 es enteringtheT en totheseNativ erritory andto es unless

Source however, weresubjectto theauthorityofelders. the cattleofotherpastoral groupsandparticipatinginwars.They, of thewarriorclasswhen theyprovedtheirmanlinessbyraiding groups wasasserted.Young mencametoberecognisedasmembers was wealth.Itisthroughraidsthat organised cattleraids.Raidingwasimportantinasociety wherecattle the protectionoftribe.Theydefendedcommunity and The warriorsconsistedofyoungerpeople,mainly responsiblefor councils todecideontheaffairsofcommunityand settledisputes. warriors. Theeldersformedtherulinggroupand met inperiodic Maasai societywasdividedintotwosocialcategories –eldersand affected bythechangesincolonialperiod.Inpre-colonialtimes In Maasailand,aselsewhereinAfrica,notallpastoralistswereequally 3.4 NotAllwereEquallyAffected of theanimalstockpastoralists. increased inintensity.Thefrequentbadyearsledtoasteadydecline As theareaofgrazinglandsshrank,adverseeffectdroughts cattle intheMaasaiReservedied. In justtwoyearsofseveredrought,1933and1934,overhalfthe in Kenyapossessed720,000cattle,820,000sheepand171,000donkeys. in theseyearsofdrought.Anenquiry1930showedthattheMaasai available, largenumbersofMaasaicattlediedstarvationanddisease Since theycouldnotshifttheircattletoplaceswherepastureswere and forcedtolivewithinasemi-aridtractpronefrequentdroughts. in searchofpastures.Theywerecutofffromthebestgrazinglands fixed area,confinedwithinareserve,andprohibitedfrommoving But fromthecolonialperiod,Maasaiwerebounddowntoa nomadism allowsthemtosurvivebadtimesandavoidcrises. pastoralists arenomadic;theymovefromplacetoplace.This moved toareaswhereforageisavailable.Thatwhy,traditionally, and pasturesaredry,cattlelikelytostarveunlesstheycanbe Drought affectsthelifeofpastoralistseverywhere.Whenrainsfail 3.3 WhenP activities buttheywerenowsubjecttovariousrestrictions. restrictions undercolonialruledidnotentirelystoptheirtrading only lookedafteranimalherdsbuttradedinvariousproducts.The both theirpastoralandtradingactivities.Earlier,pastoralistsnot astures Dry the powerofdifferentpastoral 2021–22 herding livestock. warriors andboysassumeresponsibility for livestock. Duringthedrought season,both while boysareresponsiblefor herding Warriors areinchargeofsociety's security they faceEasttohonourtherisingsun. hair aretintedredwithochre.Aspertradition spears. Theirlongpleatsofintricatelyplaited Maasai jewelryandcarryfive-foot,steeltipped traditional deepredshukas,brightlybeaded Fig.16 –Notehowthewarriorswear Courtesy: TheMassaiAssociation. 113

Pastoralists in the Modern World India and the Contemporary World 114 First, thetraditionaldifference basedonage,betweentheelders The socialchangesinMaasai societyoccurredattwolevels. or buildingconstruction. did oddjobs.Theluckycouldgetmoreregular workinroad in thetowns.Someekedoutalivingascharcoal burners, others they lostnearlyeverything.Theyhadtogolooking forwork the resourcestotideoverbadtimes.Intimesofwar andfamine, on theirlivestockwasdifferent.Mostoften,they didnothave But thelifehistoryofpoorpastoralistswho dependedonly was depleted. non-pastoral income,andcouldbuyanimalswhen theirstock devastations ofwaranddrought.Theyhadbothpastoral after theanimals.Thesechiefsmanagedtosurvive Their wivesandchildrenstayedbackinthevillagestolook of thembeganlivingintowns,andbecameinvolvedtrade. money topoorneighbourswhoneededcashpaytaxes.Many which theycouldbuyanimals,goodsandland.Theylent accumulated wealthovertime.Theyhadaregularincomewith The chiefsappointedbythecolonialgovernmentoften warriors wasadverselyaffected. Consequently, thetraditionalauthorityofbotheldersand imposed variousrestrictionsonraidingandwarfare. made responsiblefortheaffairsoftribe.TheBritish appointed chiefsofdifferentsub-groupsMaasai,whowere a seriesofmeasuresthathadimportantimplications.They To administertheaffairsofMaasai,Britishintroduced 2021–22 such aritual. new age.Girlsarenotrequiredtogothrough the day.Thisceremonyistransitionintoa loose clothinganddancenon-stopthroughout raider. Duringtheceremony,boysdressin homestead andenterwithanattitudeofa ending withaneventwheretheyruntothe section's regionforaboutfourmonths, common. Theymusttravelthroughoutthe warriors, althoughactuallyitisnolonger an elaborateritualbeforetheybecome Fig.17 -Eventoday,youngmengothrough Courtesy: TheMassaiAssociation. perfectly suitedtomanyhillyanddryregionsoftheworld. come torecognisethatpastoralnomadismisaformoflife modern world.Environmentalistsandeconomistshaveincreasingly relics ofthepast.Theyarenotpeoplewhohavenoplacein the managementofforestsandwaterresources.Pastoralistsarenot relief, subsidyandotherformsofsupportdemandarightin to enternewareas,exertpoliticalpressureonthegovernmentfor their annualmovement,reducecattlenumbers,pressforrights Yet, pastoralistsdoadapttonewtimes.Theychangethepathsof drought becometimesofcrises,whencattledieinlargenumbers. remain deterioratethroughcontinuousovergrazing.Timesof lands disappeargrazingbecomesaproblem,whilepasturesthat pastoralists finditdifficulttomoveinsearchofpastures.Aspasture movement. Withincreasingrestrictionsontheirmobility, world. Newlawsandnewbordersaffectthepatternsoftheir are affectedinavarietyofdifferentwaysbychangesthemodern So weseethatpastoralcommunitiesindifferentpartsoftheworld Conclusion pastoralists developed. entirely. Second,anewdistinctionbetweenthewealthyandpoor and warriors,wasdisturbed,thoughitdidnotbreakdown Heavy trafficonhighwayshas mademigrationofshepherdsanewexperience. Fig.18 –ARaikashepherdon Jaipurhighway. 2021–22 115

Pastoralists in the Modern World India and the Contemporary World 116 3. 2. 1. Q Activities 4. 3. 2. 1. 1 Find outmoreaboutthesomeofpastoralcommunitiesmarkedinFigs. article, givingitaninterestingtitle. about thelifeandcustomsofMaasaiinpre-colonial Imagine thatyouhavebeenaskedbyafamousmagazinetowriteanarticle would yousay? changes whichhavetakenplaceinyourlifestyleafterIndependence.What post-Independence India. Imagine thatitis1950andyouarea60 uestions for IndianpastoralistsandtheMaasaiherders. Write aboutanytwoexamplesofchanges whichweresimilar changes inthelivesofp There aremanysimilaritiesinthewaywhich themodernworldforced lands. Give reasonstoexplainwhytheMaasaicommunitylosttheirgrazing Ø Ø Ø Ø pastoralists: laws. Ineachcase,explainhowthelawchangedlivesof Discuss whythecolonialgovernmentinIndiabroughtfollowing movement? What aretheadvantagestoenvironmentofthiscontinuous Explain whynomadictribesneedtomovefromoneplaceanother 1 and13. Grazing Criminal Forest W aste Landrules Act T T ax ribes s Act Y astoral communitiesinIndiaandEast ou aretellingyourgrand-daughteraboutthe - 2021–22 year - old Raikaherderlivingin Africa. W rite the Africa. . ?

Activities