Synthetic Methods and Applications of Silicon Nanowire: a Review

J. Chosun Natural Sci. Vol. 10, No. 2 (2017) pp. 65 − 73 https://doi.org/10.13160/ricns.2017.10.2.65

Synthetic Methods and Applications of Silicon Nanowire: A Review

Md Hasanul Haque and Honglae Sohn†

Abstract

In this review paper, we will discuss about the methods of synthesizing Si nanowires by Top-down and Bottom-up. Silicon nanowires have a lot of application on various fields such as Li ion batteries, solar cells, chemical and biological sensors. We will address some of the applications of silicon Nanowires.

Keywords: Silicon Nanowires, Metal Assisted Chemical Etching, Lithium Battery, Electroless Metal Deposition

1. Introduction growth (OAG), laser ablation, chemical etching, molec- ular beam epitaxy (MBE) are some of commonly used Silicon is a bio-compatible material and has some techniques for synthesizing Si NWs. Here we will benefit than other elements such as low processing cost mainly discuss about metal assisted Chemical etching and high production yields. Silicon nanowires are one (MACE) from top –down and Vapor-Liquid-solid of the most important materials for current semiconduc- growth (VLS) from bottom-up method. tor industry show unique and superior optical, thermal, electronic and chemical properties. Nanowires are 2.1. Metal Assisted Chemical Etching important class of one dimensional material with a Metal assisted Chemical etching (MACE) is the most diameter of less than 100 nm. It results in a large surface economical and simple technique for synthesizing Sili- to volume ratio[1]. Including conductor, semiconductor, con nanowires. Besides, other methods often require and insulator, there exits various types of nanowires. difficult reaction condition like high temperature, com- The properties which nanowires have that are not avail- plex equipment. Moreover these are very expensive and able in bulk or 3D materials. For future nano electronics slow growth of Si NWs. Whereas various parameters the 1D Nanowires can be employed as the building like diameter, length, doping type and doping level can blocks. Due to their ready application in modern indus- be controlled by using MACE[5]. To produce larger sur- try Silicon Nanowires are one of the most essential face to volume ratio structures MACE can be used 1Dsemiconductor. SN are attracting interest being their because it is more adjustable[6]. Etching temperature, surface dependent properties and promising application solution concentration[7], the space between metal par- in the fields of nano electronics[2,3], solar cells, lithium ticles[8] are the important parameters to obtain microm- battery , bio- and chemical sensors[4]. eters on the surface of silicon substrates. Brahiti and co- workers reported the reaction time of noble metal depo- 2. Synthesis Methods of Si NWs sition and etching[9]. The most widely used noble metal (silver, nickel, There are a lot of different approaches for fabricating platinum and gold) can be deposited on Si wafer. Depo- silicon nanowire such as top-down and bottom-up. It is sition of these metals on silicon wafers in HF solution totally depend on target of application. Vapor-liquid- has been broadly studied via various method such as solid growth (VLS), thermal evaporation, oxide-assisted thermal evaporation[10], electroless deposition[11], focused- ion-bean (FIB) assisted deposition[12] or spin-coating of Department of Chemistry, Chosun University, Gwangju, 501-759, Korea particles via other method[13]. † Corresponding author : [email protected] The electroless metal deposition does not need exter- (Received : June 1, 2017, Revised : June 15, 2017, Accepted : June 25, 2017) nal electrical power source. It also describes a galvanic

− 65 − 66 Md Hasanul Haque and Honglae Sohn

Fig. 1. Metal-assisted chemical etching is tentatively described here. In (a),deposition of silver nanoparticle on Si surface, and forming holes via the oxidation of silicon and by the etching of HF. (b) Generation of Si NWs arrays leads to silver nanoparticle sinking and new Si NWs are formed. (c) Cross-section of synthesized Si NWs.

In the process of electro chemical deposition of Ag in AgNO3/HF solution, the electro chemical potential of the system Ag+/Ag lies well below the Si valence band, the reduction Ag ions and the oxidation of Si atoms occurs simultaneously. While the Si atoms are being oxidized, silver ions are able to capture electron from valence band of silicon atom and being reduced. From Ag+ to the valence band of silicon holes were injected[14] and silver ion reduced to elemental silver forming nuclei (Fig. 2A). Moreover Ag nuclei become large with the time. The HF solution will etch it away and into the hole Ag particle sinks when Si Oxide from below the silver nanoparticle. However silver is more electronegative to Si, so it continuously capture electrons from silicon atoms and Ag- ions formed will attract more Ag+ from the solution. Between the interface of Si and deposited Ag, the charge transfer process usually happened. Furthermore the needed electrons for reduction of metal ions will come from silicon and the nanoparticle is going larger in size along with the deposition process. At the bottom of the etched pores Ag+ was reduced forming Ag particles because no new Ag nuclei emerged. So Ag nuclei grew in dendrite structures (Fig. 2B and C). From a HF–containing plating solution, there are a different look between the morphology of Pt and Cu electroless deposited and the morphology of Ag and Au. Fig. 2. Cross-sectional SEM image of p type <111> substrate, etched with HF/AgNO3 for a) 5 min and b, c) 2.2. Vapor-Liquid-Solid (VLS) Growth on Silicon 30 min, reprinted from reference[15]. Nanowires Wagner and his co-workers[16] introduced in details, displacement process that involves the spontaneous oxi- the vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) mechanism Fig. 3. There dation of Si and reduction of metal ion to metal parti- are many ways to synthesize Si NWS. VLS is one of cles. them to synthesize by gold nanoparticle. Silicon tetra-

J. Chosun Natural Sci., Vol. 10, No. 2, 2017 Synthetic Methods and Applications of Silicon Nanowire: A Review 67

Fig. 3. Illustration of Synthesizing silicon nanowire using VLS method via CVD method: Step (i) Deposition of gold nanoparticle. Step (ii) Reduction of silane gas to silicon vapor. Step (iii) Diffusion of silicon vapor via gold nanoparticles. Step (iv) By super-saturation with silicon the formation of Si NWs, reprinted from reference[18].

Fig. 4. VLS process for growing nanowires. a) indicates the catalytic gold particles formed by Sub-nanometer sputter deposition of Au and a following coalescence with a combination of a thermal anneal in H atmosphere at 450oC for 300 s and a following plasma treatment. b) Shows nanowires grown on an oxidized silicon substrate and c) a (100) oriented single crystalline silicon substrate on a close-up of growing nanowires, reprinted from reference[19].

chloride (SiCl4) or silane (SiH4) usually used as the ing and such kind of defects are observed. By thermo- source of silicon which will alloy with Au and melted dynamic basis can predict the growth direction[17]. when heated. At the surface of Au nanoparticle, the Silicon constantly will flow and atom of Si continues silane will decompose when the temperature is higher. to diffuse into Au-Si melt. Nucleation if Si develops at At the time, into the liquid Au particle, Si will dissolve. the footprint layer by layer at the Au-Si catalyst .Thus Then Si will accelerate out from the liquid phase to Nanowire is formed. Fig. 4a presents grown of Si NW form the solid nanowire. The eutectic temperature of Si- on an oxidized Si wafer and b) close look of <110> ori- Au binary alloy is about 363oC[16] basically for synthe- ented Si NW lattice grown on crystalline Si (100) wafer. sizing the Si NWs can be 400oC which is not high. The The size of the gold array characterizes of the diameter dimension of gold particles controlled the size of as- of nanowire except the endless need of lithographic grown Si NWs. Moreover partial pressure and tempera- means. ture are also important for growing rate. To grow Givarginov postulated in 1970, that a basic critical nanowires due to various conditions like kinking, bend- diameter for growth because of thermodynamic atten-

J. Chosun Natural Sci., Vol. 10, No. 2, 2017 68 Md Hasanul Haque and Honglae Sohn tion[20]. The growth of silicon nanowires can be done on various substrates. It is one of the advantages of VLS method. The crystal growth direction of nanowire occurs on amorphous substrates. The interaction between diameter and crystal direction is openly noticeable[21].

3. Application of Si NWs

With the advantages of chemical and optical properties of their surface, it may be developed for various fields such as devices, sensors, bio-systems, batteries, and solar cells.

3.1. Lithium Ion Battery Silicon has a low discharge potential and the highest theoretical charge capacity (4200 mAhg-1). Si anodes appearance balanced working potential (~0.5 V vs. Li/ Li+)[22]. Whereas graphite anodes (~0.05 V vs. Li) So that it is an attractive anode material for Lithium batteries and it is also cheap and abundant. The drastic volume changes of silicon greater than 300% upon Fig. 5. Illustration of a lithium battery containing a lithium insertion and extraction of lithium. This will lead to the metal oxide cathode and Si anode during a) charging and [25] capacity fading and pulverization[24]. It causes to an b) discharging, reprinted from reference . interruption through the anode for flowing current. To solve this problem fabulous efforts have been pursued tion and stress. For example, Christensen and Newman including methods of inorganic to organic, from chem- worked about swelling and stress[27], during lithiation ical to physical. 1D Si NWs were also used in LIB as under galvanostatic control, Sasty and co-workers anode materials to solve this problem[23]. This is assumed the stress generation[28]. potentiostatic and gal- because, 1D Nano-material allow for more accommo- vanostatic operations in spherical particles of the strain dation of the huge volume changes without fracture[24]. energy was calculated by Cheng and co-workers[29]. By Fig. 5 shows an illustration of lithium battery with a applying electrochemical mechanics, a lot of papers [30] lithium metal oxide cathode (LiMxOy) and Si anode. have been reported in lithiation-induced fracture . Through the external circuit both the anode and cathode Still it is significant challenges due to the large vol- are connected. During charging (Fig. 5a), electrons are ume changes on integrity of the whole electrodes and driven to the anode from cathode through the external the morphology. Several research papers have published circuit by external power source flow. Moreover to on cracking of the electrode and peeling-off. Kim et al. maintain charge neutrality lithium ions withdraw from introduced the changes in volume and density as a func- the cathode and move through the electrolyte to the tion of Li content[32]. They noticed that when Li content anode to maintain charge neutrality. As lithium ions are was adequately high alloying Li and Si was firmly alloyed with silicon, the anode widens until it has favorable as proof by the negative mixing enthalpy. arrived the desired state of charge. Discharging is just They saw in the crystalline phase, the alloy was most the opposite of this process (Fig. 5b). balanced about 70% atom Li and in amorphous phase Si anodes cracked and pulverized due to their large it was 70±5% atom Li. Other researchers also received weight induced by the constant volume expansion and similar result about the volume expansion[33]. The contraction. It leads capacity fading and loss of electri- decomposition of electrolyte is one more big cause for cal contact[26]. In recent years, many works have been losing irreversible capacity in battery performance. It studied about the nature of lithiation-induced deforma- was shown by solid- electrolyte interphase (SEI) film.

J. Chosun Natural Sci., Vol. 10, No. 2, 2017 Synthetic Methods and Applications of Silicon Nanowire: A Review 69

Fig. 6. Electrochemical performance and coulombic efficiency of solid-state nano-Si composite anodes cycled at a rate of C/20 under compressive pressures of 3 (blue), 150 (red) and 230 (black) MPa, reprinted from reference[31].

High resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) confirmed the design of this passivating SEI film on the silicon surface[34,35]. In cycle life and coulombic efficiency, the SEI stability at the interface of liquid electrolyte and silicon is a critical factor. For instance, Aries et al. introduced the electrochemical achievement of phosphorous and boron-doped silicon thin-film anodes[35]. They said that the doped silicon gave most cycling stability and larger capacity compared to the un- doped silicon films, which associated to the formation of SEI layer on the Si surface of the doped electrodes. On contrast, poor cycling and high electrodes are shown on the electrode surface due to an unstable surface layer formed in un-doped Si electrode. Without pulverization anodes were able to contain large strain (Fig. 7a and b) comprised to Si NWs. It pro- vides good electronic contact and gave short Li con- duction distance. This was published in a seminal Fig. 7. Testing of Si nanowires as the battery anode. a) paper[36] by Cui and co-workers. They also got the the- Concept schematic of Si nanowire electrode assembled on oretical charge capacity for silicon anodes and con- the current collector. b) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of Si nanowires that comprise the device trolled a discharge capacity near 75% of the maximum, anode. c) With the increase of cycles and without any with minor fading of capacity at a discharge rate of degradation, Si nanowires show stable capacity (≈3500 0.05C (Fig. 7c). mAhg-1) and Capacity versus cycle number for different electrode configurations, reprinted from reference[36]. 3.1.1. Use of Nanostructured Si Anode Many works have been done to grow silicon nanow- cycles[37]. They showed it to synthesized Si NWs by ires such as, Yang and co-worker introducing a high using Cu-catalyzed chemical vapor deposition (CVD) coulombic efficiency of 80% at first cycle of over 2000 on stainless steel. After 50 charge/discharge cycle sili- mAhg-1 high specific capacity in several dozens of con nanowires still remain excellent capacities of

J. Chosun Natural Sci., Vol. 10, No. 2, 2017 70 Md Hasanul Haque and Honglae Sohn

1078 mAhg-1. Peng and co-workers illustrated Si NWs 3.2. Solar Cells as adaptable anode materials for lithium-ion battery[38] Silicon nanowires can play vital role in solar cell sec- by using metal catalyzed electroless etching (MCEE). tor. In that, they have potentiality to increase the optical Compared to VLS method, MCEE Si NWs obtain the absorption and collection efficiency[41]. In nanowire electrical characteristics of the original Si, so it does not based photovoltaics, single nanowire solar cell can be need to additional doping. Moreover in the application used to study the parameters[42]. It has been presented for lithium-ion battery, MCEE Si NWs are more prom- that Si NWs based solar cell can achieve sufficient ising material. It also present a discharge capacity about absorption of sunlight by using only 1% of the effective 0.5 mAhcm-2 and also longer cycling stability compared material needed in a regular solar cell[43]. However for to bulk silicon. In organic electrolyte and ionic liquid the single nanowire have to be organized in big arrays (IL), the performance of Si NW electrodes associated for doing basic purpose solar cells. Classical heterojunc- by Chakrapani et al.[39]. With charge capacities 2014 tion perception using crystalline and amorphous silicon mAhg-1 and discharge capacities 1836 mAhg-1 the result can simply be carry out[44]. To assemble radial p-n junc- showed good performance. However after 50 cycles in tions possibility has given good result[45]. IL and organic electrolyte, the capacity fading was 20- Fig. 8 presents, by using this concept a Si NW array 30%. based solar cell. Moreover to combine various materials In the term of not pulverization and not loss of con- in the nanowire adjustment is applied, for example[46]. tact, averaging ≈89 nm nanowires in diameter allowed. On cycling the diameter of nanowires was increased 3.3. Biological and showed a drastic change in their atomic structure. In biological research area nanotechnology has taken Si NWs underwent a continuous transformation to increased attention[48]. For the application of this sector amorphous LixSi from crystalline. Kumta and co- work- such as biosensors, drug delivery, and tissue engineer- ers showed this kind of crystalline to amorphous Si ing, Silicon nanowires have developed as auspicious phase transitions upon reaction with Li[40]. Other material[49]. It can easily accessible to interiors of living researcher also gave same result. The main thing is cells for their high aspect ratio and the nanometer-scale those nanowires arrays give enough space between diameter[50]. adjacent nanowire to contain the volume change combine with alloying and de-alloying of Li. Moreover each 3.4. Sensors nanowire is directly associated to the substrate which Usually a sensor device transfers a chemical or phys- collect current[40]. Furthermore nanowires could also ical signal to an electrical signal. In a sensor device play a vital role to prevent the fracture of Si NWs. active sensing part and transducers are two main Still it is true that, we need adequate work to further important parts. Active sensing part translates the input develop Si NWs-based Nano-materials as anode of LIB. signal into intermediate signal and transducers translate

Fig. 8. a) Schematic view of solar cell based on Si NWs with a radial pn-junction. b) Silicon nanowire array on cross sectional SEM images of the solar cell and SEM images from top view. Reprinted from reference[47]．

J. Chosun Natural Sci., Vol. 10, No. 2, 2017 Synthetic Methods and Applications of Silicon Nanowire: A Review 71 it to final signal. 1D nanowire can be applied in the Mater., Vol. 16, pp. 387-394, 2006. active sensing part of the chain and transducers also. [9] N. Brahiti, S.-A. Bouanik, and T. Hadjersi, “Metal- From the last decade, in biochemical and chemical sen- assisted electroless etching of silicon in aqueous sor research has effectively utilized silicon nanow- NH4HF2 solution”, Appl. Surf. Sci., Vol. 258, pp. ires[51]. 5628-5637, 2012. [10] H. Fang, Y. Wu, J. Zhao, and J. Zhu, “Silver catal- 4. Conclusion ysis in the fabrication of silicon nanowire arrays”, Nanotechnology, Vol. 17, p. 3768, 2006. [11] K. Peng, Y. Wu, H. Fang , X. Zhong, Y. Xu, and For the high surface volume ratio of silicon 1D fea- J. Zhu, “Uniform, axial-orientation alignment of ture, various type devices can be benefited. Besides this, one-dimentional single-crystal silicon nanostructure it is necessary to control Si NWs shape, properties and arrays”, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., Vol. 44, pp. 2737- size to attain their full application. In recent years, great 2742, 2005. progress has been made, still it remains challenging and [12] S. Chattopadhyay and P. W. Bohn, “Direct-write rarely obtainable in economic and controlled large-scale patterning of microstructured porous silicon arrays production of Si NWs. by focused-ion-beam pt deposition and metal- assisted electroless”, J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 96, pp. References 6888-6894, 2004. [13] Y. Harada, X. Li, P. W. Bohn, and R. G. Nuzzo, [1] T. Mikolajick, A. Heinzig, J. Trommer, S. Pregl, M. “Catalytic amplification of the soft lithographic pat- Grube, G. Cuniberti, and W. M. Weber, “Silicon terning of Si. nonelectrochemical orthogonal fabri- nanowires - a versatile technology platform”, Phys. cation of photoluminescent porous Si pixel arrays”, Status Solidi Rapid Res. Lett., Vol. 7, pp. 793-799, J. Am. Chem. Soc., Vol. 123, pp. 8709-8717, 2001. 2013. [14] T. Qiu , X. L. Wu, G. G. Siu, and P. K. Chu, “Inter- [2] V. Schmidt, H. Riel, S. Senz, S. Karg, W. Riess, and growth mechanism of silicon nanowires and silver U. Gösele, “Realization of a silicon nanowire ver- dendrites”, Journal of Electronic Materials, Vol. 35, tical surround-gate field-cffect transistor”, Small, pp.1879-1884, 2006. Vol. 2, pp. 85-88, 2005. [15] K. P. Peng, H. Fang, J. Hu, Y. Wu, J. Zhu, Y. Yan, [3] J. Goldberger, A. I. Hochbaum, R. Fan, and P. Yang, and S. Lee, “Metal-particle-induced, highly local- “Silicon vertically integrated nanowire field effect ized site-specific etching of Si and formation of sin- transistors”, Nano Lett., Vol. 6, pp. 973-977, 2006. gle-crystalline Si nanowires in aqueous fluoride [4] Y. Cui, Q. Wei, H. Park, and C. M. Lieber, “Nanow- solution”, Chemistry-A European Journal, Vol. 12, ire nanosensors for highly sensitive and selective pp. 7942-7947, 2006 . detection of biological and chemical species”, Sci- [16] R. S. Wagner, W. C. Ellis, “Vapor?liquid?solid ence, Vol. 293, pp. 1289-1292, 2001. mechanism of single crystal growth”, Appl. Phys. [5] Z. Huang, N. Geyer, P. Werner, J. de Boor, and U. Lett., Vol. 4, pp. 89, 1964. Gösele, “Metal-assisted chemical etching of silicon: [17] A. M. Morales and C. M. Lieber, “A laser ablation a review”, Adv. Mater., Vol. 23, pp. 285-308, 2011. method for the synthesis of crystalline semiconduc- [6] J. de Boor , N. Geyer , J. V. Wittemann, U. Gösele, tor nanowires”, Science, Vol. 279, pp. 208-211, and V. Schmidt, “Sub-100 nm silicon nanowires by 1998. laser interference lithography and matal-assisted [18] H. Suzuki, H. Araki, M. Tosa, and T. Noda, “For- etching”, Nanotechnology, Vol. 21, p. 095302, 2010. mation of silicon nanowires by CVD using gold cat- [7] M. L. Zhang, K. Q. Peng, X. Fan, J. S. Jie, R. Q. alysts at low temperatures”, Materials Transctions, Zhang, S. T. Lee, and N. B. Wong, “Preparation of Vol. 48, pp. 2202-2206, 2007. large-area uniform silicon nanowires arrays through [19] W. M. Weber, G. S. Duesberg, A. P. Graham, M. metal-assisted chemical etching”, J. Phys. Chem. Liebau, E. Unger, C. Cheze, L. Geelhaar, P. Lugli, C., Vol.112, pp. 4444-4450, 2008. H. Riechert, and F. Kreupl, “Silicon nanowires: cat- [8] K. Q. Peng, J. J. Hu, Y. J. Yan, Y. Wu, H. Fang, Y. alytic growth and electrical characterization”, Phys. Xu, S. T. Lee, and J. Zhu, “Fabrication of single- Status Solidi B. Basic Solid State Phys., Vol. 243, crystalline Silicon nanowires by scratching a Silicon pp. 3340-3345, 2006. surface with catalytic metal particles”, Adv. Funct, [20] E. I. Givargizov, “Fundamental aspects of VLS

J. Chosun Natural Sci., Vol. 10, No. 2, 2017 72 Md Hasanul Haque and Honglae Sohn

growth”, J. Cryst. Growth, Vol. 31, pp. 20-30, 1975. [34] R. Ruffo, S. S. Hong, C. K. Chan, R. A. Huggins, [21] V. Schmidt, S. Senz, and U. Gösele, “Diameter and Y. Cui, “Impedance analysis of silicon nanowire dependent growth direction of epitaxial silicon lithium ion battery anodes”, J. Phys. Chem. C, Vol. nanowires”, Nano Lett., Vol. 5, pp. 931-935, 2005. 113, pp. 11390-11398, 2009. [22] B. A. Boukamp, G. C. Lesh, and R. A. Huggins, [35] X. Wu, Z. Wang, L. Chen, and X. Huang, “Ag- “All-solid lithium electrodes with mixed-conductor enhanced SEI formation on Si particles for lithium matrix”, J. Electrochem. Soc., Vol. 128, pp. 725- batteries”, Electrochem. Commun., Vol. 5, pp. 935- 729, 1981. 939, 2003. [23] M. Ge, J. Rong, X. Fang, and C. Zhou, “Porous [36] C. K. Chan, H. Peng, G. Lin, K. McIlwrath, X. F. doped silicon nanowires for lithium ion battery Zhang, R. A. Huggins, and Y. Cui, “High perfor- anode with long cycle life”, Nano lett., Vol. 12, pp. mance lithium battery anodes using silicon nanow- 2318-2323, 2012. ires”, Nat. Nanotechnol., Vol. 3, pp. 31-35, 2008. [24] N.-S. Choi, Y. Yao, Y. Cui, and J. Cho, “One dimen- [37] Y. Xiao, D. Hao, H. Chen, Z. Gong, and Y. Yang, sional Si/Sn - based nanowires and nanotubes for “Economical synthesis and promotion of the elec- lithium-ion energy storage materials”, J.mater. trochemical performance of silicon nanowires as Chem., Vol. 21, pp. 9825-9840, 2011. anode material in Li-ion batteries”, ACS Appl. [25] J. R. Szczech and S. Jin, “Nanostructured silicon for Mater. Interfaces, Vol. 5, pp. 1681-1687, 2013. high capacity lithium battery anodes” Energy Envi- [38] K. Peng, J. Jie, W. Zhang, and S.-T. Lee, “Silicon ron. Sci., Vol. 4, pp. 56-72, 2011. nanowires for rechargeable lithium-ion battery [26] G. K. Simon and T. Goswami, “Improving anodes anodes”, Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 93, p. 033105, for lithium ion batteries”, Metallurgical and Mate- 2008. rials Transactions A, Vol. 42, pp. 231-238, 2011. [39] V. Chakrapani, F. Rusli, M. A. Filler, and P. A. [27] J. Christensen and J. Newman, “A mathematical Kohl, “Silicon nanowire anode: Improved battery model of stress generation and fracture in lithium life with capacity-limited cycling”, J. Power manganese oxide”, J. Electrochem. Soc., Vol. 153, Sources, Vol. 205, pp. 433-438, 2012. pp. A1019-A1030, 2006. [40] J. Nanda, M. Datta, J. T. Remillard, A. O’Neill, and [28] X. Zhang, A. M. Sastry, and W. Shyy, “Intercala- P. N. Kumta. “In situ raman microscopy during dis- tion-induced stress and heat generation within sin- charge of a high capacity silicon–carbon composite gle lithium-ion battery cathode particles”, J. Li-ion battery negative electrode”, Electrochem. Electrochem. Soc., Vol. 155, pp. A542-A552, 2008. Commun., Vol. 11, pp. 235-237, 2009. [29] Y.-T. Cheng and M. W. Verbrugge, “Evolution of [41] L. Tsakalakos, J. Balch, J. Fronheiser, B. A. Kor- stress within a spherical insertion electrode particle evaar, O. Sulima, and J. Rand, “Silicon nanowire under potentiostatic and galvanostatic operation”, J. solar cells”, Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 91, p. 233117, Power Sources, Vol. 190, pp. 453-460, 2009. 2007. [30] W. H. Woodford, Y.-M. Chiang, and W. C. Carter, [42] M. D. Kelzenberg, D. B. Turner-Evans, B. M. “Electrochemical Shock of Intercalation Electrodes: Kayes, M. A. Filler, M. C. Putnam, N. S. Lewis, A Fracture Mechanics Analysis” J. Electrochem. and H. A. Atwater, “Photovoltaic measurements in Soc., Vol. 157, pp. A1052-A1059, 2010. single-nanowire silicon solar cells”, Nano Lett., Vol. [31] D. M. Piper, Y.-M. Chiang, and W. C Carter, “Effect 8, pp. 710-714, 2008. of compressive stress on electrochemical perfor- [43] J. Zhu and Y. Cui, “Photovoltaics: more solar cells mance of silicon anodes”, J. Electrochem. Soc., Vol. for less”, Nat. Mater., Vol. 9, pp. 183-184, 2010. 160, pp. A77-A81, 2013. [44] X. Hua, Y. Zeng, W. Wang, and W. Shen, “Light [32] H. Kim, C.-Y. Chou, J. G. Ekerdt, and G. S. Hwang, absorption mechanism of c-Si/a-Si half-coaxial “Structure and properties of Li−Si alloys: A first- nanowire arrays for nanostructured heterojunction principles study”, J. Phys. Chem. C, Vol. 115, pp. photovoltaics”, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, Vol. 2514-2521, 2011. 61, pp. 4007-4013, 2014. [33] K. Zhao, W. L. Wang, J. Gregoire, M. Pharr, Z. Suo, [45] E. C. Garnett and P. Yang, “Silicon nanowire radial J. J. Vlassak, and E. Kaxiras, “Lithium-assisted p-n junction solar cells”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., Vol. plastic deformation of silicon electrodes in lithium- 130, pp.9224-9225, 2008. ion batteries: A first-principles theoretical study”, [46] T. J. Kempa, R. W. Day, S.-K. Kim, H.-G. Park and Nano Lett., Vol. 11 pp. 2962-2967, 2011. C. M. Lieber, “Semiconductor nanowires: a plat-

J. Chosun Natural Sci., Vol. 10, No. 2, 2017 Synthetic Methods and Applications of Silicon Nanowire: A Review 73

form for exploring limits and concepts for nano- Kong, “Silicon nanowire arrays for label-free detec- enabled solar cells”, Energy Environ. Sci., Vol. 6, tion of DNA”, Anal. Chem., Vol. 79, pp. 3291- pp. 719-733, 2013. 3297, 2007. [47] Y.-J. Lee, Y.-C. Yao, and C. H. Yang, “Direct elec- [50] G. Zheng, F. Patolsky, Y. Cui, W. U. Wang, and C. trical contact of slanted ITO film on axial p-n junc- M. Lieber, “Multiplexed electrical detection of can- tion silicon nanowire solar cells”, Opt. Express, Vol. cer markers with nanowire sensor arrays”, Nat. Bio- 21, pp. A7-A14, 2013. technol., Vol. 23, pp. 1294-1301, 2005. [48] F. Patolsky, G. Zheng, and C. M. Lieber, “Nanowire [51] J. I. A. Rashid, J. Abdullah, N. A. Yusof, and R. sensors for medicine and the life sciences”, Nano- Hajian, “The development of silicon nanowire as medicine, Vol. 1, pp. 51-65, 2006. sensing material and its applications”, J. Nanoma- [49] Z. Gao, A. Agarwal, A. D. Trigg, N. Singh, C. ter., Vol. 2013, p. ID328093, 2013. Fang, C.-H. Tung, Y. Fan, K. Buddharaju, and J.

J. Chosun Natural Sci., Vol. 10, No. 2, 2017