Background: the production of sound for speech
Adam Albright ([email protected])
LSA 2017 Phonology University of Kentucky How do humans use sound to communicate?
▶ Speech production ▶ Intended meaning, calculate syntactic form, determine phonological form, translate into physical instructions ▶ Speech perception ▶ Sound waves enter ear, auditory analysis, parse for linguistically significant units, determine phonological and syntactic form, reconstruct intended meaning
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 1/54 Properties of speech sounds
What makes a speech sound speech? ▶ Speech is noise created by air flowing from the lungs, modified as it exits through the mouth/nose ▶ Speech is just one of many modes of linguistic communication ▶ Hand signs, writing, semaphore, morse code, … ▶ But all except sign language are derivative from spoken speech ▶ Speech is continuous ▶ A fluid stream of sounds, without necessarily any pauses between individual sounds, words, or even sentences ▶ Speech is segmentable ▶ Composed of smaller units: words, morphemes, syllables, and individual sounds
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 2/54 Although it’s not obvious from the waveform, the speech stream is composed of smaller units, which we can refer to discretely ▶ Phrases, words, phones (= individual speech sounds)
▶ explain = e k s p l ai n
Speech: continuous, yet segmentable
▷ “If you can’t see that, then I don’t know if I can explain it to you”
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 3/54 ▶ explain = e k s p l ai n
Although it’s not obvious from the waveform, the speech stream is composed of smaller units, which we can refer to discretely ▶ Phrases, words, phones (= individual speech sounds)
Speech: continuous, yet segmentable
▷ “If you can’t see that, then I don’t know if I can explain it to you”
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 3/54 Although it’s not obvious from the waveform, the speech stream is composed of smaller units, which we can refer to discretely ▶ Phrases, words, phones (= individual speech sounds)
Speech: continuous, yet segmentable
▷ “If you can’t see that, then I don’t know if I can explain it to you”
▶ explain = e k s p l ai n
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 3/54 Speech: continuous, yet segmentable
▷ “If you can’t see that, then I don’t know if I can explain it to you”
▶ explain = e k s p l ai n
Although it’s not obvious from the waveform, the speech stream is composed of smaller units, which we can refer to discretely ▶ Phrases, words, phones (= individual speech sounds)
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 3/54 Evidence for discrete phones
▶ Phonemic awareness tasks (typically used for testing development in children) ▶ What is the first sound in cat? ▶ Which of these words start with the same sound: cat, pat, coat ▶ Say cat without the [k]; say stand without the [t] ▶ Say cat. What word do you get if you change the [k] to [m]? ▶ Language games ▶ pig latin → ig-pay atin-lay ▶ Speech errors ▶ “cad you rean the small print?” ▶ (More common: ‘spoonerisms’ of word-initial consonants)
▶ Alphabetic writing
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 4/54 Producing speech
Two components: ▶ Aerodynamic component ▶ Air is forced out of lungs, though throat, mouth, and nose ▶ Articulatory component ▶ Air stream is modified in various ways on its way out
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 5/54 The vocal tractArticulation of English sounds: Consonants (6) A bit of anatomy nasal passages palate alveolar ridge brain tongue dorsum
lips velum teeth tongue uvula
tongue blade
to the lungs
(7) The airstream: (mylungs vocal tract, for illustrativelarynx purposes)vocal tract outside world
The nature(8) of speechStep 1:The The production larynx of, voicing or vocalVowels cordsConsonants 6/54 • closed: vibrate, make buzzing noise → voicing • open: no vibration, just let air pass through → no voicing ☞ What would speech sound like if there was no voicing?
(9) Step 2: The vocal tract • air flowing through the mouth = oral sounds • air flowing through the nose = nasal sounds
(10) Articulation: doing something to block or obstruct the airstream (11) Place of articulation = where is the obstruction? lips = labial articulation alveolar ridge = alveolar articulation palate = palatal articulation velum = velar articulation uvula = uvular articulation glottis = glottal articulation
And one other useful term: air escaping around side(s) of the tongue = lateral articulation ☞ how would a labiodental articulation be made? an interdental articulation? an alveopalatal articulation?
2 The larynx (= the glottis)
From http://www.oto-hns.northwestern.edu/Voice/education.html (broken link)
The vocal tract
The first linguistically significant airstream obstruction:
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 7/54 The vocal tract
The first linguistically significant airstream obstruction: The larynx (= the glottis)
From http://www.oto-hns.northwestern.edu/Voice/education.html (broken link)
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 7/54 Manipulations of the vocal folds
Vocal folds are held at varying degrees of stiffness/closure ▶ Completely open: for respiration (= breathing) ▶ Close enough to obstruct airflow: whispering, sighing, [h] (aspiration) ▶ Close together, intermediate stiffness: normal (modal) voice ▶ Tightly closed: glottal stop (as in [ʔ]uh-[ʔ]oh)
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 8/54 Voicing is the first major source of noise for speech ▶ Creates a complex periodic wave, which resonates in the mouth and nose, and is otherwise modified on its way into the atmosphere
Voicing
▶ When the vocal folds are held somewhat close together, and with the right amount of stiffness, air rushing through causes them to “vibrate” ▶ Vocal folds are forced apart and rapidly close again, repeatedly ▶ Periodic vibrations = voicing ▶ Can feel externally as a “buzzing” on your throat; try [sssszzzzsssszzz]
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 9/54 Voicing
▶ When the vocal folds are held somewhat close together, and with the right amount of stiffness, air rushing through causes them to “vibrate” ▶ Vocal folds are forced apart and rapidly close again, repeatedly ▶ Periodic vibrations = voicing ▶ Can feel externally as a “buzzing” on your throat; try [sssszzzzsssszzz]
Voicing is the first major source of noise for speech ▶ Creates a complex periodic wave, which resonates in the mouth and nose, and is otherwise modified on its way into the atmosphere
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 9/54 Source properties: voice quality
How would you characterize the difference between these pairs of sounds? ▶ Mpi (Tibeto-Burman, spoken by ≈ 900 people in Thailand)
Tone Word Gloss Word Gloss Low rising ▷ si ‘to be putrid’ ▷ si ‘to be dried up’ Low level ▷ si ‘blood’ ▷ si ‘seven’ Mid rising ▷ si ‘to roll rope’ ▷ si ‘to smoke’ Mid level ▷ si (a color) ▷ si (classifier) High falling ▷ si ‘to die’ ▷ si (name) High level ▷ si ‘four’ ▷ si (name) ▶ Regular vs. ‘tense’ voice Hear them here.
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 10/54 Source properties: voice quality
!Xóõ (Khoisan, Botswana/Namibia)
Plain (voiced) Pharyngealized Strident Breathy ▷ kǁáa ▷ qáʕa ▷ k!ào ▷ k!a̤o ‘camelthorn tree’ ‘long ago’ ‘base’ ‘slope’
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 11/54 ▶ Emotive use: frustration, surprise, etc. ▶ Individual style: Louis Armstrong, Julie Kavner, etc.
▷ description
Source properties: voice quality
Voice quality contrasts ▶ Bai (Tibeto-Burman, China) (Esling 2002) ▷ tɕi31 ‘field’ ▷ tɕi21 ‘flag’ (breathy) (harsh)
▶ English: what determines the voice quality that a word is spoken with?
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 12/54 Source properties: voice quality
Voice quality contrasts ▶ Bai (Tibeto-Burman, China) (Esling 2002) ▷ tɕi31 ‘field’ ▷ tɕi21 ‘flag’ (breathy) (harsh)
▶ English: what determines the voice quality that a word is spoken with? ▶ Emotive use: frustration, surprise, etc. ▶ Individual style: Louis Armstrong, Julie Kavner, etc.
▷ description
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 12/54 The vocal tractArticulation as filter of English sounds: Consonants
(6) A bit of anatomy nasal passages palate alveolar ridge brain tongue dorsum
lips velum teeth tongue uvula
tongue blade
larynx (glottis)
to the lungs
(7) The airstream: lungs larynx vocal tract outside world
The nature(8) of speechStep 1:The The production larynx of, voicing or vocalVowels cordsConsonants 13/54 • closed: vibrate, make buzzing noise → voicing • open: no vibration, just let air pass through → no voicing ☞ What would speech sound like if there was no voicing?
(9) Step 2: The vocal tract • air flowing through the mouth = oral sounds • air flowing through the nose = nasal sounds
(10) Articulation: doing something to block or obstruct the airstream (11) Place of articulation = where is the obstruction? lips = labial articulation alveolar ridge = alveolar articulation palate = palatal articulation velum = velar articulation uvula = uvular articulation glottis = glottal articulation
And one other useful term: air escaping around side(s) of the tongue = lateral articulation ☞ how would a labiodental articulation be made? an interdental articulation? an alveopalatal articulation?
2 The simplest effect
The vocal tract as a tube, closed at one end
From: Ladefoged (1996) Elements of Acoustic Phonetics, p. 117
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 14/54 Resonances
▶ Formants: − 2n 1 × c Fn = 4 L ▶ Fn = formant n ▶ c = speed of sound ≈ 35000cm/sec in warm moist air ▶ L = length of the tube
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 15/54 Calculating tube length
▶ Solving for L 2n − 1 c L = × 4 Fn ▶ Example: F1 = 500Hz, F2 = 1500Hz, F3 = 2500Hz ▶ L = 17.5cm
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 16/54 Possible filtering actions
▶ Can change the size and shape of the oral cavity ▶ Can obstruct the flow of air so much that it must flow through a very narrow passageway ▶ Can completely block airflow through the mouth ▶ Can open or close velum to allow allow air to flow through nose
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 17/54 Examining speech sounds
▶ Examining acoustic properties of speech ▶ Praat: http://www.praat.org ▶ Useful for isolating/replaying sounds, and examining acoustic properties ▶ Waveform vs. spectrogram ▶ Periodic (voicing) vs. aperiod (frication/aspiration) ▶ Both together: [z], [a̤] ▶ Formants
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 18/54 The simplest filtering action
▶ Vocal tract acts as resonance chamber ▶ Tongue acts to control the size of the chamber, and divide into sub-chambers ▶ Changing size of these chambers alters the sound wave ▶ Boosts amplitude at certain frequencies, dampens others
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 19/54 What this means, practically speaking
The effect of different tongue positions on the speech signal:
Click!
▶ Raising/lowering tongue in different locations results in different vowel sounds ▶ Height (high, mid, low) and backness (front, central, back)
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 20/54 A neat demo
Very realistic vowel qualities can be constructed with simple tube models ▶ Exploratorium demo: http: //www.exploratorium.edu/exhibits/vocal_vowels/vocal_vowels.html
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 21/54 Vowel features
Try this: ▶ Very slowly say the word yeah…, and feel what you are doing ▶ The primary motion is mouth opening/tongue lowering ▶ Along the way, you say a variety of vowels, including: ▶ [i] in heat ▶ [ɛ] in pet ▶ [æ] in cat ▶ (and probably quite a few others…)
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 22/54 Vowel features
Now try this: ▶ Very slowly say the word how… ▶ Several motions: ▶ Tongue body moving back in the mouth ▶ Tongue body moving up ▶ Tongue “root” (in throat) moving up/become more tense ▶ Mouth closing, lips rounding
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 23/54 The description of vowels
Vowels can be described along four dimensions: ▶ Backness ▶ Height ▶ Tenseness ▶ Rounding
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 24/54 Some American English vowels
Typical American English vowels, in phonetic transcription (Phonetic transcription indicated with square brackets)
[i] heat Front Central Back [ɪ] hit High (tense) i u [u] hoot (lax) ɪ ʊ [ʊ] hook Mid (tense) eɪ oʊ [eɪ] (=[ej]) gate (lax) ɛ ə, ʌ (ɔ) [ɛ] get Low (tense) ɑ [oʊ] (=[ow]) goat (lax) æ [ə] attack [ʌ] gut Diphthongs: [ɔ] ought [aɪ] ([aj]) ‘eye’, [aʊ] ([aw]) ‘how’, [ɔɪ] ([ɔj]) ‘boy’ [æ] hat [ɑ] father
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 25/54 Some things to note
Vowel letters (i, e, a, o, u) stand for what are sometimes called “pure” vowels ▶ Roughly, values used for languages like Spanish, Italian, etc. ▶ These are closest to the English tense vowels, but English vowels typically also involve an extra off-glide ▶ [eɪ] (= [ej], [e]), and [oʊ] (= [ow], [o])
Special symbols for lax vowels: [ɪ], [ɛ], [æ], [ɔ], [ʊ], [ə], [ʌ]
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 26/54 A great resource
Demo with sample words, sounds, and animations ▶ http://soundsofspeech.uiowa.edu/english/english.html
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 27/54 ə and ʌ
▶ [ə], [ʌ] = “neutral vowels” (uh…) ▶ [ʌ] = stressed, [ə] = stressless ▶ abut [əbʌt], amok [əmʌk], Canuck [kənʌk]
▶ Sometimes [ə] is used for both
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 28/54 ɑ and ɔ
For some American dialects… ▶ [ɑ] = first syllable in father ▶ [ɔ] = walk, caught, all ▶ But many dialects have merged these into an [ɑ]-like vowel ▶ In fact, the U Iowa site mixes together [ɑ] and [ɔ] words, though the isolated examples are correct
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 29/54 ɑ and ɔ
For some American dialects… ▶ [ɑ] = first syllable in father ▶ [ɔ] = walk, caught, all ▶ But many dialects have merged these into an [ɑ]-like vowel ▶ In fact, the U Iowa site mixes together [ɑ] and [ɔ] words, though the isolated examples are correct
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 29/54 ɑ and ɔ
For some American dialects… ▶ [ɑ] = first syllable in father ▶ [ɔ] = walk, caught, all ▶ But many dialects have merged these into an [ɑ]-like vowel ▶ In fact, the U Iowa site mixes together [ɑ] and [ɔ] words, though the isolated examples are correct
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 29/54 ɑ and ɔ
[ɔ]… [a]…
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 30/54 ɑ and ɔ
[rɔ] [ra]
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 31/54 Vowel dimensions
Front, central, back ▶ Front = tongue body toward the front of the mouth ▶ [i], [ɪ], [eɪ], [ɛ], [æ] ▶ Central = tongue body neither front nor back ▶ [ə], [ʌ] ▶ Back = tongue body toward the back of the mouth ▶ [u], [ʊ], [oʊ], [ɔ], [a]
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 32/54 Vowel dimensions
High, mid, low ▶ High: tongue body significantly raised ▶ [i], [ɪ], [u], [ʊ] ▶ Mid: tongue body “neutral” ▶ [eɪ], [ɛ], [ə], [ʌ], [oʊ], [ɔ] ▶ Low: tongue body lowered ▶ [æ], [ɑ]
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 33/54 Vowel dimensions
Tense, lax: ▶ Tense: tongue root raised, narrower constriction in back of mouth ▶ [i], [eɪ], [ɑ], [oʊ], [u] ▶ Lax: tongue root lowered/relaxed ▶ [ɪ], [ɛ], [æ], [ɔ], [ʊ], [ə], [ʌ]
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 34/54 Vowel dimensions
Rounding: ▶ Rounded: lips rounded ▶ [u], [ʊ], [ow], [ɔ] ▶ Unrounded: lips not rounded ▶ In English, everything else…
▶ Some languages have front rounded vowels (German ü, ö; also French, Swedish, Hungarian, and many others) ▶ The Japanese vowel that is usually written u is actually a back unrounded vowel
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 35/54 Vowels: a fuller set
Front Central Back High (tense) i y ɯ u (lax) ɪ ʏ ʊ Mid (tense) e ø ɤ o (lax) ɛ ɶ ə, ʌ ɔ Low (tense) a ɑ ɒ (lax) æ
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 36/54 ▶ “Rounding” = lip protrusion ▶ Lengthens vocal tracts ▶ Back vowels get ‘backer’
Rounding and backness
▶ In English, the non-low back vowels are all round ▶ What is the connection between rounding and backness?
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 37/54 Rounding and backness
▶ In English, the non-low back vowels are all round ▶ What is the connection between rounding and backness? ▶ “Rounding” = lip protrusion ▶ Lengthens vocal tracts ▶ Back vowels get ‘backer’
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 37/54 Diphthongs
▶ Vowel and glide combinations ▶ Vowel + glide: aɪ, aʊ, ɔɪ, oʊ, etc. ▶ Glide + vowel: ju, wo, etc. ▶ English: all have glide second ▶ shine, crowd, toy
▶ Spanish: prueba [prweba] ‘test’, viejo [bjexo] ‘old’
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 38/54 Practice
Describe and give the symbol for the vowels of the following words, as you pronounce them in your speech English: remember to include height, backness, rounding, tenseness
▶ cat, couch, book, feet, neat, lute
(If you are not a native speaker of English, you may want to have a native speaker pronounce them for you.)
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 39/54 Some useful web resources
▶ IPA chart (including symbols for other languages) https://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/charts/IPAlab/IPAlab.htm ▶ Free IPA fonts for your computer http://dejavu-fonts.org/wiki/Main_Page http://sourceforge.net/projects/linuxlibertine/ http: //scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?&cat_id=FontDownloadsIPA ▶ Typing IPA on the web, to copy into another document http://ipa.typeit.org/ ▶ Drills for describing consonants ∼ http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/ krussll/phonetics/practice/ consonant/d2intro.htm
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 40/54 How are consonants different from vowels?
Airflow obstructions ▶ Stopping flow completely ▶ Rerouting through nose ▶ Impeding to varying degrees
Moving tongue, lips, etc., to block air = articulation
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 41/54 Describing articulation of consonants
Voicing: ▶ Voiced or voiceless
Place of articulation: ▶ Where in the mouth the constriction is created
Manner of articulation: ▶ Degree (and nature) of the constriction
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 42/54 Place of articulationArticulation of English sounds: Consonants
(6) A bit of anatomy nasal passages palate alveolar ridge brain tongue dorsum
lips velum teeth tongue uvula
tongue blade
larynx (glottis)
to the lungs
(7) The airstream: lungs larynx vocal tract outside world
The nature(8) of speechStep 1:The The production larynx of, voicing or vocalVowels cordsConsonants 43/54 • closed: vibrate, make buzzing noise → voicing • open: no vibration, just let air pass through → no voicing ☞ What would speech sound like if there was no voicing?
(9) Step 2: The vocal tract • air flowing through the mouth = oral sounds • air flowing through the nose = nasal sounds
(10) Articulation: doing something to block or obstruct the airstream (11) Place of articulation = where is the obstruction? lips = labial articulation alveolar ridge = alveolar articulation palate = palatal articulation velum = velar articulation uvula = uvular articulation glottis = glottal articulation
And one other useful term: air escaping around side(s) of the tongue = lateral articulation ☞ how would a labiodental articulation be made? an interdental articulation? an alveopalatal articulation?
2 Place of articulation
Labial (Bilabial) p, b, m (Labiodental) f, v Interdental θ, ð Alveolar t, d, n, l, s, z, Alveopalatal ʃ, ʒ Palatal j Velar k, g, ŋ Uvular (q, ʁ) Glottal ʔ
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 44/54 Obstruents
Sonorants
Manner of articulation
In increasing amount of obstruction:
Stops Affricates Fricatives Nasals Liquids Glides
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 45/54 Manner of articulation
In increasing amount of obstruction:
Stops Affricates Obstruents Fricatives Nasals Liquids Sonorants Glides
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 45/54 Manner of articulation
Stops: completely block airflow ▶ Voiceless: [p], [t], [k] ▶ [p] = voiceless bilabial stop ▶ Voiced: [b], [d], [g] ▶ [g] = voiced velar stop
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 46/54 Aspiration
In English, voiceless stops in some contexts are aspirated ▶ A puff of air after release of closure, and before the beginning of voicing ▶ Occurs at the beginnings of words ▶ pie [phaɪ], top [thap] ▶ But not after [s] ▶ spy [spaɪ], stop [stap]
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 47/54 Nasals
▶ It is possible to keep the mouth closed, but open the velum, to release air through the nose
Labial m whim [wɪm] Alveolar n win [wɪn] Velar ŋ wing [wɪŋ]
If your nose is blocked, these sounds you can’t make very well; they become the corresponding regular (oral) stops ▶ a stuffy [d]ose
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 48/54 Fricatives
Flow of air is obstructed, but not completely blocked ▶ Narrow constriction = air escapes quickly and noisily ▶ Characterized by added turbulent noise
Labiodental f, v fan [fæn], van [væn] Interdental θ, ð thin [θɪn], then [ðɛn] Alveolar s, z sin [sɪn], zen [zɛn] Alveopalatal ʃ, ʒ cash [kæʃ], beige [beɪʒ] Velar x Bach [bax]
▶ th in thin = voiceless interdental fricative ▶ th in then = voiced interdental fricative ▶ s in measure = voiced alveopalatal fricative
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 49/54 Affricates
Air is stopped briefly, but then released slowly, so there is still obstruent ▶ Essentially, stop + fricative combinations
Alveopalatal tʃ, dʒ choke [tʃoʊk], joke [dʒoʊk]
▶ ch in church = voiceless alveopalatal affricate ▶ j in judge = voiced alveopalatal affricate
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 50/54 Stridents
▶ Alveolar and alveopalatal fricatives and affricates are especially noisy, because they involve very narrow passages for the air to pass through ▶ These are known as stridents, or sibilants ▶ [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ], [tʃ], [dʒ]
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 51/54 Liquids
▶ Relatively less constriction; air escapes freely around tongue ▶ Lateral: [l] ▶ Alveolar constriction, but air escapes around sides of tongue ▶ Rhotic: [r] ▶ Tongue curled back or bunched up
▶ Flap: [ɾ] ▶ Tongue briefly tapped against alveolar ridge ▶ atom [æɾəm]
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 52/54 Glides
▶ Consonant versions of [i], [u] ▶ Very similar articulation, but shorter and with narrower constriction
Palatal [j] yes [jɛs] Labiovelar [w] wet [wɛt]
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 53/54 Consonants
Bilab Lab Inter- Alv Alv- Retr Pal Vel Uvu Phar Glot dent Pal Stop p b t d ʈ ɖ c ɟ k ɡ q ɢ ʔ Fric Non-lat ɸ β f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ ʂ ʐ ç ʝ x ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ h ɦ Lat ɬ ɮ Affric tʃ dʒ Nas m ɱ n ɳ ɲ ŋ ɴ Trill r ʀ Tap/flap ɾ Approx Non-lat ʍ w ɹ̥ ɹ ɻ j (ʍ w) Lat l̥ l
The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 54/54