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1 Geochemistry of Soils from the Shackleton Glacier Region Geochemistry of soils from the Shackleton Glacier region, Antarctica, and implications for glacial history, salt dynamics, and biogeography Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Melisa A. Diaz Graduate Program in Earth Sciences The Ohio State University 2020 Dissertation Committee W. Berry Lyons, Advisor Thomas Darrah Elizabeth Griffith Bryan Mark 1 Copyrighted by Melisa A. Diaz 2020 2 Abstract Though the majority of the Antarctic continent is covered by ice, portions of Antarctica, mainly in the McMurdo Dry Valleys and the Transantarctic Mountains (TAM), are currently ice-free. The soils which have developed on these surfaces have been re-worked by the advance and retreat of glaciers since at least the Miocene. They are generally characterized by high salt concentrations, low amounts of organic carbon, and low soil moisture in a polar desert regime. Ecosystems that have developed in these soils have few taxa and simplistic dynamics, and can therefore help us understand how ecosystems structure and function following large-scale changes in climate, such as glacial advance and retreat. During the 2017-2018 austral summer, 220 surface soil samples and 25 depth profile samples were collected from eleven ice-free areas along the Shackleton Glacier, a major outlet glacier of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. A subset of 27 samples were leached at a 1:5 soil to deionized (DI) water ratio and analyzed for stable - 15 17 2- 34 18 isotopes of water-soluble NO3 (δ N and Δ O) and SO4 (δ S and δ O), and seven 13 18 soils were analyzed for δ C and δ O of HCO3 + CO3 to understand the sources and cycling of salts in TAM soils. The depth profiles and a subset of surface soil (21) samples 10 - were analyzed for concentrations of meteoric Be and/or water-soluble NO3 to estimate relative surface exposure ages along the length of the Shackleton Glacier. Finally, water- soluble ion data from all 220 samples were correlated with geography and ii geomorphology to elucidate geochemical trends and gradients. The relationship between geochemistry and geography was further used to predict/estimate geochemical gradients in the TAM using interpolation and machine learning techniques. Collectively, these measurements and data show that atmospheric deposition is an important source of water- soluble anions, which have possibly been accumulating in some soils since at least the Pleistocene. Soils near the terminus of the Shackleton Glacier and near the glacier margins are younger than those further south towards the Polar Plateau and further inland. These soils have nutrient and salt concentrations most suitable for soil invertebrates. The geochemistry of TAM soils is related to geography, glacial history, and the present and past availability of liquid water, and these parameters can be used to effectively predict/model geochemical gradients. These findings will greatly aid in our collective understanding of habitat suitability and past refugia in Antarctic terrestrial systems, and may help predict how ecosystems will respond to future climate transitions. iii Dedication To my mom and grandma iv Acknowledgments The land on which I have based my MS and PhD education for the last 4+ years has long served as a site of meeting and exchange amongst Indigenous peoples, specifically the Shawnee, Miami, Wyandot and Delaware Nations. I honor and respect the diverse Indigenous peoples connected to this territory. I am grateful to the United States Antarctic Program (USAP), Antarctic Science Contractors (ASC) and Petroleum Helicopters Inc. (PHI) for logistical and field support; otherwise, the samples analyzed in this work would not exist. This work was supported by a National Science Foundation (NSF) OPP grant (1341631) awarded to WBL, NSF GRFP fellowship (60041697) awarded to MAD, International Association of Geochemistry (IAGC) Research Grant awarded to MAD, Geological Society of America (GSA) Student Research Grant awarded to MAD, and a Purdue SEED proposal awarded to MAD. Additional financial support from The Ohio State University awarded to MAD includes Friends of Orton Hall (FOH), the Women’s Place, and the Ray Travel Award. I am especially grateful to Lisa Rom (NSF) for the years of financial support for outreach from OPP. Many collaborators have assisted in the analysis of these samples. I thank Dan Gilbert, BS 2018, for his help in leaching the soils and measuring the water content. Drs. Greg Michalski at Purdue University, Anna Szynkiewicz at the University of Tennessee v Knoxville, Robert Gregory at Southern Methodist University, Paul Bierman and Lee Corbett at the University of Vermont, and W. Andrew Jackson at Texas Tech were instrumental in all isotopic and perchlorate/chlorate measurements. An African proverb states, “It takes a village to raise a child.” My village is grand and extends through several colleges, centers, and organizations at The Ohio State University, to domestic and international universities, to funding agencies, and finally to my friends, family, and loved ones. My friends, family, and loved ones have been an incredible emotional support throughout this journey. Without them, my hair would surely have turned 100% grey years ago. Though I often called them out of the blue with heated or excited rambles, my mom and grandma simply listened and expressed how proud they were of me. Their love meant the world to me, especially during difficult times. I am the woman I am today because of them and lean on their strength. This document, the culmination of years of hard work, is for them. Even though we’ve been apart for a while, I thank Alicia DeGiso for being the greatest friend for the last 15 years. I never would have thought when we met in 7th grade that we would be inseparable and that we would support each other through doctoral programs. See you soon, Dr. DeGiso. I thank Melissa Wrzesien, Kelsey Danner, Allison Chartrand, Demie Huffman, Mary Knights, and Natalie Browning for being such wonderful people and life-long friends. I will miss our girl’s nights and “book club” but look forward to our future adventures. Thank you to all my close SES friends, Casey vi Saup, Emma Oti, Myles Moore, and Joe Schulze, for all the smiles, laughter, and of course, complaining. I will especially miss “Brown Lunch” with dear friends Nlingi Habana and Deon Knights. I thank Cole Bradley for always smiling through my grumpy moods and for teaching me how to have a little more fun. He is my biggest fan and I am grateful for his love and support. My first academic family was the Lyons Group, and the members are so much more to me than just scientific trainers. The brilliant sister duo, Sue and Kathy Welch, are role models and friends. Their knowledge of geochemistry is unparalleled, and I have learned so much about analytical chemistry from them since I joined the group. Kathy and I had numerous great conversations about not just science, but anything and everything from personality types to fantastic bread. I thank her for teaching me all about McMurdo-isms. Sue and I bonded over our love of stouts and looking at beautiful euhedral salt crystals under the scanning electron microscope. I will miss wine nights and candy binges. Chris Gardner and Adolfo Calero are like older and younger brothers. Of course we occasionally bickered and annoyed each other, but our time together at New Harbor Camp was the perfect final field season to my student career. Adolfo is the one of the sweetest, kindest, and funniest people I have met. He was always eager to help me in any way he could, even if it was just listening to me reading sentences aloud over and over to see which made the most sense. Chris taught me patience and flexibility both in my professional and academic life. Even if he was busy and I rushed into his office without warning with a flurry of questions, he would listen and offer his help and guidance. I will miss our walks, lunches, and silly conversations. And of course, I am vii grateful he broke his leg, allowing me to take his spot on the Shackleton Glacier expedition. Thanks, Chris! I express my gratitude to Drs. Byron Adams and Marci Shaver-Adams (Brigham Young University), Diana Wall (Colorado State University), Ian Hogg (Polar Knowledge Canada; University of Waikato), and Noah Fierer (University of Colorado Boulder). They have served as mentors, coaches, and fans throughout the last three years and I am so grateful to have had their support. Their guidance in both the field and in research has greatly shaped my scientific growth and perspective. The two weeks we spent together visiting some of the most beautiful features on Earth are among my fondest memories. Despite being the youngest member on the team, they regarded me as a colleague, valued my opinions and expertise, and invested in my development. Three years ago, I knew little of Antarctic biology. Now, ecology is a regular word in my vocabulary, thanks to them. The Byrd Polar and Climate Research Center was a shining beacon in my studies. Byrd felt like home. Michele Cook and Charmaine Koch are fantastic and powerful individuals. They taught me much about the financial side of research and we bonded over our love of animals. I thank Jason Cervenec for helping me develop my scientific communication and outreach skills. I still have a long way to go, but I have learned so much from him. I am thankful for the community and comradery of center members that I believe all departments strive for. The Society for the Advancement of Chicanos/Hispanics and Native Americans in Science (SACNAS) and the Office of Diversity and Inclusion (ODI) supplemented my viii education in the most meaningful ways.
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