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Home , Monophysitism

The Human Problem

A Survey of the Conflicting Schools of Thought

Wilder R. Reynolds

Basic to any system of theology, psychol the subject, the servant of should ogy, pedagogy, or even practical poHtics, be more thoroughly furnished unto his is a philosophy of the nature of man. task. "What is man that thou art mindful of him?" Is his origin "in the frog pond" I. Historical Background or the Garden of Eden? Is he made a "little lower than the angels," or is he The church has always been under the cousin to the brute? Is he a fallen being, compulsion of necessity to defend its doc or is his "progress onward and upward trines against those who would pervert forever"? Is he depraved and perverted, them. This has given rise to great contro or is his original nature unaffected? Does versies, not infrequently to be followed by he need or the right kind of the formulation of basic creeds succinctly education? Are the remedial measures by stated. Such was the Arian controversy which he must be helped to be found in which culminated in the Nicene Creed of theology or sociology? Are his chief hin 325 A. D., defining the position of the drances and evils heredity, or are they church on the doctrine of the . This environmental? Must he have a creed safeguarded the church against the to save him out of his sins, or should the of , Subordination- emphasis be upon "salvation by character"? ism, and ; and in 381 A. D., at In fine, is the Grace of God to be magni the Council of , another fied or the Grace of Nature? clause was added which effectually curbed These are persistent questions. The re the Macedonian relating to the na ligious mind has struggled with them for ture of the Holy Spirit. centuries. There is a tendency in the prag With the doctrine of the Trinity thus matic utilitarianism of our day to ignore definitively stated, the church was now them, but the fact remains that they must forced, by the appearance of erroneous be answered in an implicit or tacit way teachings, to define its position on the before one can preach a sermon or engage Christological problem. Having asserted in religious, social or educational work. the full deity of Christ in the Godhead at It is the purpose of this discussion to Nicea, the question now turned upon the trace the development of this problem relation of the human and divine natures as it is seen in the history of Christian in Christ. This problem had been recog thought. Much confusion exists today sim nized by the Fathers from earliest days, ply because the church at large is not but by 362 A. D. the rise of ApoUinarian- famiHar with this general background of ism forced the attention of the church upon thought that was developed in the early cen the question in a more precise manner. The turies, and that has been variously restated Chalcedonian Creed of 451 A. D. gave the in later periods of history. By comparing church's answer to the question concerning and contrasting these schools in their basic the nature of Christ, thereby ruling out the assumptions, and discovering again what heresies of ApoUinarianism, , the leaders of thought have had to say on , and Monophysitism. 30 WILDER R. REYNOLDS

the ments as these : "God not foresaw the It was inevitable that the thought of only ruin of but He church must focus upon the most basic fall and man, arranged problem of all�the nature of man himself. it all by the determination of His own In the ensuing controversy, known in will." "It would have been better if man of but God Church History as the Anthropological had been incapable sinning, otherwise." likewise declared controversy of the fifth century, the fash willed ZwingU ion of thought respecting the nature of that all deeds of men, wicked as well as are done the real cause man was set for all the succeeding cen good, by God, only turies. Today all sociologists, psychologists, in the universe. and theologians base their system upon one The doctrine of sin and grace grow na out or another of the three basic theories de turally of these positions. The federal veloped at this time, unless they accept ma headship of and the solidarity of terialism. human nature are maintained. "In Adam, The principal protagonists in the open we sinned all." Human nature was on pro ing phases of the controversy were Augus bation in the garden of Eden, but that tine and Pelagius, who stood poles apart probation was ended with the fall Hence in their positions. Their spiritual succes forth the will of man is resolutely set sors were, on the one hand, Calvin in the against God, and all are immoral. Calvin 16th century and the present day Calvinistic follows the same reasoning, teaching that fundamentalists, and, on the other, the man is not born human but devilish. He Socianians of the 17th century and present could, therefore, say that there are infants day modernism. Between the two were in hell a span long. Human nature is born found the Semi-Pelagians of the 5th cen sinful, guilty and punishable. The of tury, the Arminians of the 17th century man is morally dead. and the present day Arminian fundamen The theory of salvation is wholly moner- talists, sometimes referred to as essential- gistic, i.e., one way action from God to ists. man. God bestows His grace freely and quite without regard to human want either II. The Augustianian School actual or foreseen. "He goes before the unwilling that he may will; He follows Augustine stands out as a mountain peak the willing that he may not will in vain." in the closing period of the Graeco-Roman This grace is irresistible. Those whom He civilization. It is to be doubted whether wills to save cannot prevent Him even if man in era any other the Christian has they wish to do so. "For even with the done more thinking for the centuries than very wills of men He does what He will, he. His view of hmnan nature was decid when He will." edly pessimistic. The very center of his That some are saved and others not is is his doctrine of in which thought God, wholly due to God's secret will which we the sovereignty of God is over-pressed and are quite unable to fathom. To those whom the ability of man is minimized to the van God predestinates to eternal life He gives is done unless the the ishing point. "Nothing gift of perseverance that they may en wills it to be either dure to Omnipotent done, by the end ; none of the elect can per it or Himself it." permitting doing He manently fall away and be lost. magnifed the absolute power of God, deny Many features of have been that His will is ever ing thwarted, yet he radically changed in more recent times. The denied that God is the cause of evil or following statement of Dryer is significant, that the sins of men can be traced back to "The Calvinism which the Remonstrants Him. (Arminians) rejected is dead in English- His followers of the 16th century were speaking lands, while most of the New not so timid about the accepting logical Calvinists go far beyond the Remonstrants conclusions of Augustine's philosophy. Cal in what they reject of the Geneva Reform vin elaborated his principles in such state er's opinions. The significance of Arminius THE HUMAN PROBLEM 31 is that of Columbus and Luther; he broke ty. The low tone of morals so prevalent the way which the modern world was to were due, according to his viewpoint, not follow.'" This other word is also to the to depravation and moral inability of man, : "And point yet all progress in religious but to lack of a vivid sense of personal thought or in philanthropic enterprise has responsibility. He felt that the doctrine of been possible only through the overthrow moral inabiUty destroyed belief in human and destruction of the essential elements freedom without which virtue was impos of Calvin's system."* sible. The result was that Christians de The modern successors of Augustine and pended too much upon God and the church, Calvin are the Calvinistic fundamentalists. and too Httle on their own efforts. of the harsher features of Many predesti The following bit of dialectic serves to nation and the total of man are disability make clear his position : "Again it is to hold the satisfaction repudiated. They be inquired whether a man ought to be of theory atonement, implying limited sinless. Without doubt he ought. If he teach the fixed number of the grace, they ought he can ; if he cannot he ought not. elect, the of the and perseverance , And if a man ought not to be sinless then hold an elaborate Premil- many system of he ought to be sinful, and that will not be lenialism which is based a upon very pessi sin which it is admitted he ought to do.'" mistic view of this world-age. The defi Pelagius held the atomic view of human nition of sin is broad, all very including nature. He refused to believe that Adam's weakness, infirmity and ignorance. From sin could have direct effect upon his pos such a viewpoint, it is little less than sacri terity. He believed that divine justice de lege or profanation to claim to be able mands that men be rewarded only for their to live without sin. own independent merits ; that all be given The Hfe" movement in this "higher equal opportunities, and special favor be school is the Keswick movement, otherwise shown to none. Thus he maintained that known as the "victorious life" movement. each is the Adam of his own soul. Men The is the with the emphasis upon are born into the world innocent and free which empowers for service. Holy Spirit as Adam was before the fall; and each Since man is sinful in body, soul and spirit, must choose for himself just as Adam did. and divine inherently inescapably so, grace The idea of substitutionary atonement effects the rather than the suppression must be rejected by those who hold this eradication of carnal tendencies. Christ's theory. The position of the modern follow righteousness is imputed to the believer ers of Pelagius is correctly expressed in rather than The is to imparted. tendency this argument which the writer heard from emphasize the positive aspects of the Spirit- a professor in a great university as he filled life and the while neglect negative, railed at traditional Christianity: "We can in the movement in the Ar corresponding not accept that kind of morality. To as minian school the is oftentimes to tendency sume that one may sidestep a life of evil stress the aspects at the expense negative deeds by simply believing on someone is of the positive. too simple, too childish and puerile. Every one must stand on his own merit. If he HL The Pelagian School has merit it must be his own, and if he he must suffer At the opposite pole from Augustine has demerit for it." Our textbooks reflect this same stood Pelagius, a British monk. He was opinion. is profoundly interested in Christian conduct, The following quotation rather typical: "The Christian doctrine of of and devoted himself to the task of improv this evil because ing moral conditions in the local communi- sins possesses influence it disseminates the grossly erroneous no- * Dryer, G. H., History of the Christian Church, " Vol. Ill, p. 564. McGiffert, History of Christian Thought, Vol. 'Op. cit. Vol. Ill, p. 341. 2, p. 128. 32 WILDER R. REYNOLDS

tion that repentance absolves a person from Semi- (which might legiti responsibility for immorality of his past mately be termed Semi-Augustinianism) conduct. It would be difficult to find a embraced the following principles: All are one more anti-social and immoral religious doc sinners because of Adam's sin and no trine."* is saved without being regenerated by di Pelagianism, with its 17th century coun vine grace; salvation is offered to all with terpart, Socianism, and its newer repre out exception, and every man decides sentative. Modernism, regards Christianity whether he will accept offered grace and a or and lost. as a moral system rather than redemptive be saved reject it be God two kinds of re the but the act of faith is agency. There are only helps believer, ligion: A religion of and a man's own, not God's. is religion of attainment. Augustianism and based upon God's foreknowledge of one's Semi-Pelagianism are redemptive. To Aug faith and perseverance. The number of ustine the divine activity is everything, to the elect is not fixed. Man's ability to Pelagius, the human; to the one God was take the first steps towards salvation is the center of interest, to the other, man. emphasized, and the church's responsibility The present modernistic doctrine of "Sal in preaching and the care of is vation by character" is decidedly Pelagian. stressed. Pelagius and his followers were con Semi-Pelagianism represented the com demned at the in 431 mon sentiment of the western church be A. D., and Pelagianism was officially a fore both Augustine and Pelagius, and to heresy both in the east and west after that. it the church reverted in the later Middle With the dominance of the evolutionary Ages. Unfortunately the term Semi-Pelag theory in the thinking of this age there has ianism rather than Semi-Augustinianism, come a marked revival of this ancient which is sometimes applied, was used, for heresy. Sociology, psychology, history and this school has far more in common with religious education are based entirely upon Augustinianism than with Pelagianism. this theory of human nature. Such time- Both Semi-Pelagianism and Augustianism honored Christian doctrines as the high are to be regarded as orthodox positions, origin of man, his subsequent fall and de while Pelagianism is always heterodox. pravation, and his absolute need of re The present day successors of the Semi- demption find no possible place in this Pelagians and Arminians may be called theory. It is utterly impossible to build Arminian fundamentalists, or Arminian upon a Pelagian psychology and anthropol essentiaUsts. The term seems to have come ogy a system of redemptive theology, al into more or less common use within the though many are apparently trying to do it. last fifteen or twenty years. It seems to be gaining some popular vogue, for a group IV- The Semi-Pelgian School of educators have recently styled them selves "essentialists." To Augustine the dominating motive was It obviously is in tended to indicate a religious; to Pelagius it was moral; but to moderately conserva Semi-Pelagians the dominating motives tive mode of thought, striking the golden mean between the extremes were both moral and religious. Their sys of ultra-conser tem was frankly synergistic, emphasizing vatism and radicalism. The at once the doctrine of divine sovereignty essentialists are to be distinguished and of human ability. They accepted the from the main body of fundamentalists doctrine of , and agreed with in the unwillingness of many to accept the of the Augustine that without divine grace men theory verbal inspiration of the are the fixed wholly incapable of good, but they gave Scriptures, number of the elect, the men some part in their own salvation in eternal security of the saints, an ex stead of ascribing it all to God. treme form of Premillenarianism which contains many Calvinistic * strictly elements, Parmelee, Criminology, p. 109. and others. THE HUMAN PROBLEM 33

The "higher life" movement within the all thy strength:�and�thou shalt love school is popularly known as the "holiness thy neighbor as thyself." Mark 12:30-31. movement." It is based upon John Wes ley's doctrine of entire , other Conclusion wise known as . It should be noted that Wesley's rather cir The following statement may well be cumscribed definition of sin is necessary, put down as a virtual, self-evident truth: human nature if one is to hold this theory: "Sin is a As is one's philosophy of be wilful transgression of a known law of so will his entire scheme of theology deter God." It seems that much theological molded and his service and work be mined. He builds the current rancor of the past might have been saved, who upon if Calvinists and Arminians had taken the variety of Pelagianism which dominates

� trouble to discover each other's definition the textbooks and the schools that which of sin. If the Arminian accepts the Cal underlies our pedagogy and much of the vinistic definition of sin, then, perforce, religious education of the day�will largely him. He he must own that he sins every day in have his work cut out for will, for word, thought and deed. if he is consistent, substitute Sociology Theology; education for regeneration; a This "movement" emphasizes the theory of Man for the of God ; � Kingdom Kingdom of the elimination of the carnal nature the Grace of Nature for the Grace of God ; the cleansing of the heart from sin. Here and social uplift for salvation by faith. again it is necessary to note the sharp This, in effect, is a religion of attainment delimitation of the approved teaching. taking the place of a religion of redemp in terms of a trichotomy, this Speaking tion. which may be eradicated is not carnality The modernistic vogue follows or the present a property of the body (soma), the cues of John Locke, Hume, Voltaire mind or soul (psyche), but of the spirit and, particularly, Rousseau. Rousseau is It is the sarx in the (pneuma). (flesh a reputed to have had a vision on hot, bad ethical sense) of Scripture, the princi dusty road in France which has been com earmarks of which are: "conflict be pal pared to the vision of St. Paul on the tween the flesh and the ignorance spirit, Damascus road. In a vision or trance there of God, contempt of God, destitution of burst upon him this realization: "Man is the fear of God and of trust in Him, hatred inherently good, and it is by his institutions of the of God, terror at the government that he is made wicked." This removes of God, anger against God, despair justice the problem of evil from the heart of man, of God's reliance visi favor, upon things where the Bible located it, and identifies it ble".' with the institutions of society. The natural is This doctrine of perfection narrowly corollary follows: Make the environment Chris defined, and the qualifying adjective right and man will be right; if you would is It is in tian always necessary. solely save the individual, you must first save and in the realm of the spirit (pneuma) the social order. not volves only the impulsive conscience, Irving Babbitt, late of Harvard Univer Thus the discriminative conscience.' per sity, asserts that America is more naively of motives, fection may only be predicated Rousseauistic than any other modern na and never of action, purpose, intention tion. He argues that progressivism in edu performance or conduct. It is summed up cation and modernism in , shalt love in this passage : "Thou both of which are thoroughly permeated with all thy God with all thy heart, and with Rousseauistic humanitarianism, are with all and with thy soul, and they mind, building upon a superficial and erroneous philosophy of human nature. With their ' Shedd, W. T., History of Christian Doctrine, emphasis upon self-realization and self- Vol. 154. II, p. and of the old " Steele, Daniel, Milestone Papers, p. 133. expression, repudiation 34 WILDER R. REYNOLDS

Christian virtues of humility, renunciation we should thereby end malevolence. and discipline, he fears that the very foun It is incumbent upon every Christian to dations of our society are imperilled.' We be as realistic as possible in dealing with are in danger of witnessing here the ma His world. Before he casts aside the Faith jor cultural tragedy of the ages. of the Fathers to build his philosophy and a foundation he It seems clear that any adequate view theology upon Pelagian of human nature must take into account should ponder well the following statements from the most realistic book in the world a sinister, subversive factor. "The heart is deceitful above all things and desperately and make very sure he can prove them false: "And God saw that the wickedness wicked; who can know it" (Jer. 17:9). If the old doctrine of original sin is rejected, of man was great in the earth, and that something just about like it must be sub every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was evil stituted. Even an anti-Christian philosopher continually" (Gen. 6:5). like Bertrand Russell admits as much. He "This is an evil among all things that are done under the that there is one event frankly says there is universal malice, ill- sun, will and hatred. But he denies that these unto all: yea, also the heart of the sons of men is full of and spring from any corruption of human na evil, madness is in their ture. He rather makes the astounding heart while they live, and after that they assertion that this results from bad diges go to the dead" (Eccl. 9:3). "The heart tion and inadequate functioning of the is deceitful above all things and desperately ductless glands, caused by oppression and wicked: who can know it" (Jer. 17:9). thwarting in our childhood." That is to "Because the carnal mind is enmity against God: for say, our fathers disciplined us and our it is not subject to the law of neither indeed can digestion and ductless glands were perma God, be" (Rom. 8:7). nently disordered. The converse should If these sobering statements be true, then therefore be true: Allow a generation to man's greatest need is not social uplift, grow up without restraint or thwarting and economic security, or education, but regen eration. A reHgion of redemption, rather than a of ^Living Philosophies, p. 121. religion attainment, is the only 'Living Philosophies, p. 19. cure for the gravest ills of the world.

The Conflicting Schools of Thought

Comparisons and Contrasts

Fifth Century Schools

Augustinianism Semi-Pelagianism Pelagianism

16th, 17th Century Restatements Calvinism Socinianism

Present-Day Successors Calvinistic Fundamentalism Arminian Fundamentalism Modernism (Essentialism)

Emphasis upon Divine sover Emphasis upon both Divine Human ability magnified. Easi eignty. Human ability denied. sovereignty and human ability. ly becomes monergistic. Monergistic. Synergistic. THE HUMAN PROBLEM 35

Adam created intelligent and Same Evolutionism. Continuity be elementarily moral. Had origi tween physical constitution of nal righteosuness in Eden. man and lower animals.

Solidarity of human nature. Solidarity of human nature. Atomistic view of human na Federal headship of Adam. Law of genetic transmission. ture. Each is the Adam of his own soul.

Adamic perfection lost in first Same Fall was from unconscious in sin. Nature thus rendered ab nocence to conscious guilt. This normal through privation. fall from innocence is in a sense a rise to a higher grade of being.

Adam's sin unique. His ac Same Negation quired modification transmitted to descendants.

Man's soul is morally dead. Man's soul is morally sick. Man's soul is morally well.

Probation ended at fall. All Probation continued in this age. Same human nature set against God.

Traducian theory of origin of Traducianism Creationism soul maintained.

man enters world inno Every man comes into world Same Every

� free as Adam was with corrupt nature inward cent and disorder and abnormality. before the fall.

is Original sin is original guilt. It Original sin is not guilt. It is Apparent imperfection only inferior is culpable and punishable. a malady and not punishable. evolutionary develop ment.

is still Will is Will was free before fall and Will is depraved, but it always free, equally of and inclined to righteousness. Free free to choose righteousness capable choosing good evil. dom to righteousness lost, will with the aid of cooperating enslaved to evil, and can choose grace. only civil righteousness.

Sin is survival or misuse of Sin inheres in human nature, Sin is a wilful transgression of law of God. habits and tendencies that were hence every man is necessarily a known incidental to earlier stage of a sinner from birth. development. Sinfulness lies in their anachronism.

Moral influence of Satisfaction theory of atone Governmental theory of atone theory atonement. ment. Limited grace. ment. Universal grace.

Same Election is eternal, absolute and Election is conditional. Empha unconditional. sis upon election to service rather than election to salva tion.

Mixture of and free Grace is the natural endow Redeeming grace is Two efficient ment of the individual along in its operation on the elect. will. agencies: and the with will, intellect, etc. Without it man can neither the will itself Holy repent nor believe. Spirit.

of Same Eternal security of the saints. There is the possibility apostatizing. 36 WILDER R. REYNOLDS

Remainder of apostate nature In substantial agreement, save Original creation neither holy still exists in regenerate soul, that the Wesleyan school nor sinful. Original nature un in continual conflict with new teaches that the entire cleans changed. man. The final and crowning ing of indwelling sin from the act of grace results in entire soul may be experienced here cleansing of indwelling sin and now. from soul. This grade of grace is never witnessed this side of the grave.

Emphasis upon suppression of Wesleyan school emphasizes Negation carnal nature. eradication of carnal nature.

The primary concern of the Theology holds the paramount Sociology is substituted for church is the preaching of place in order to effect the theology, and education for theology in order that irresista- regeneration of the individual, regeneration. ble grace may effect the re yet sociology and the education generation of the elect. of the individual are indispen sable.