Horse Management Plan

For the Alpine Area of

January 2003 - January 2005 Horse Management Plan for the alpine area of Kosciuszko National Park

Availability

Additional copies of the Wild Horse Management Plan for the alpine area of Kosciuszko National Park may be obtained from the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, PO Box 2228 Jindabyne, NSW 2627, telephone 02 64 505 600.

This plan has been prepared by Pam O’Brien and Liz Wren of the NPWS. Thanks to Nigel Brown, former District Veterinarian for the Bombala Rural Lands Protection Board for his assistance in preparing the section ‘review of existing research’ in this document.

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service January 2003 ISBN 0731366557

This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced without permission from the National Parks & Wildlife Service. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to:

Regional Manager National Parks & Wildlife Service PO Box 2228 Jindabyne NSW 2627

Telephone 02 6450 5555 Fax 02 6456 2291 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive summary iii

1. Introduction 1

2. Background 1

2.1 Historical overview of wild horses 1 2.2 Significance of the Kosciuszko alpine area 4 2.3 Feral horses and environmental impacts 4 2.4 Legislative framework 6 2.5 Review of existing research 7

3. Public consultation process 9

3.1 The Wild Horse Management Steering Committee 9 3.2 Community consultation 10

4. Objectives 11

5. Horse management methods 11

5.1 Immobilisation using tranquillisers delivered by a dart rifle 12 5.2 Fertility control 12 5.3 Fencing 13 5.4 Shooting 13 5.5 Capture and removal methods 13

6. Control methods to be trialed 15

6.1 Trapping 15 6.2 Roping 16 6.3 Mustering 16

7. Future use of horses removed from the park 16

8. Monitoring and evaluation 17

9. Bibliography and references 18

Wild Horse Management Plan i Executive summary

Kosciuszko National Park (KNP) is the state’s largest national park and is of national and international significance. Its 690,000 hectares contain many unique landforms such as glacial lakes and cave systems. It also contains plants and animals found nowhere else in the world. The headwaters of rivers such as the Snowy and Murray are found within the park and these rivers provide a source of very high quality water for the irrigation and electricity generation provided by the Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Scheme. They are also an important source of drinking water for a number of towns and cities, including Adelaide.

About 20 per cent of the park is above the snowline and this has led to the development of a major ski industry, with all of the state’s snowfields located within the park. The park also provides a variety of recreational opportunities for approximately three million visitors each year.

The alpine area of Kosciuszko (see Map 1 Alpine Area on following page) is the area above about 1850 metres, where it is too cold for trees to survive. On the Australian continent, land that is truly alpine is less than .01 per cent of the total landmass. Kosciuszko’s alpine area is ’s largest contiguous alpine ecosystem and contains a high number of endemic (native to a locality) species of plants and animals.

The National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) has a legislative responsibility to protect native habitats and wildlife within its reserves. It also has a responsibility to minimise the impact of introduced species such as horses. There has been little management of feral horses in Kosciuszko and it appears that over the past 20 years their numbers have increased as a result. By the late 1990s wild horses had begun to appear in the alpine area each summer and their impacts were visible. These impacts include the establishment of trails, damage to stream and river banks, trampling of bogs and damage to native vegetation.

In recognising the legislative responsibilities and in response to the increase in environmental impacts resulting from horses, in 2000 the NPWS moved to develop a management plan for horses in the alpine area of Kosciuszko.

In developing a management plan for horses, the NPWS recognised that there is a wide range of views in the community about the issue of feral horse management. For these reasons it was decided that the community must be involved in developing long term solutions for managing horses. Through the process of public consultation a Wild Horse Management Steering Committee was established. This community-based committee was instrumental in the development of this draft plan.

This document examines the range of horse management methods available, including immobilisation using tranquillisers, fertility control, fencing, shooting and capture and removal methods and discusses some of the issues associated with each of the methods.

Finally it describes three capture and removal methods that are to be further trialed and evaluated, for their effectiveness in humanely removing horses from the alpine area and reducing environmental impacts. These three methods include trapping, roping and mustering, using horse riders under a contract arrangement.

Wild Horse Management Plan iii iv Wild Horse Management Plan 1. Introduction

Kosciuszko National Park covers an area of approximately 690,00 hectares in the Snowy Mountains of . It was first reserved in 1944 and is now also a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. It contains continental Australia’s highest mountains as well as a great variety of outstanding scenery, natural features and plant and animal communities.

The snow-fed rivers of the mountains provide some of Australia’s most important water catchments and the protection of these catchments was a significant factor in the establishment of Kosciusko State Park in 1944.

Kosciuszko National Park’s natural features also provide a wide range of recreational activities for the estimated three million visitors each year. The alpine area in particular attracts visitors throughout the year for bushwalking, camping, mountain biking, skiing and snow-boarding. As many as 64,000 people visit the alpine area each summer for activities which include walking to the summit of Mt Kosciuszko and experiencing the stunning displays of wildflowers.

This plan includes: S An historical overview of the issue of feral horses in Kosciuszko National Park.

S A description of the significance of the Kosciuszko alpine area and why it must be protected.

S An overview of the research available about horses and their impacts.

S An examination of the wide range of attitudes held by the community about horses in national parks and their management and how the community has been involved in developing this plan.

S The role and responsibilities of the NPWS and how legislation and relevant codes relate to this issue.

S The objectives of this plan and an examination of the range of control methods currently available for managing feral horses.

S A description of how the methods for managing horses will be trialed and reviewed. 2. Background

2.1 Historical overview of horses in the Snowy Mountains

In Australia, horses are generally known by three terms; , wild horses and feral horses. A ‘feral’ animal is defined as an exotic or non-native animal originally introduced for domestic purposes, which has survived in the wild (although some feral animals, eg foxes and rabbits, were not introduced for domestic purposes). Horses can become feral if they are left to fend for themselves (Dobbie, Berman and Braysher, 1993).

Horses have been in Australia since the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788. In eastern Australia horse numbers increased massively from 14,000 in 1830 to 160,000 in 1850 and Australia

Wild Horse Management Plan 1 now has the largest population of wild horses in the world, more than 300,000 (Dobbie, et al, 1993).

In the Snowy Mountains horses, cattle and sheep arrived with the first European explorers and settlers in the 1830s and substantial use of the high country for cattle and sheep grazing soon occurred.

The Australian environment provides many favourable conditions for horses, with drought and heavy snowfalls providing the only real check on horse populations.

Populations of horses became established during the grazing era as animals escaped or were released into the wild. During drought times horses were let go and in some areas there were deliberate releases of horses into the wild to upgrade the herds to provide quality stock horses. Use was also made of horses by trapping them and selling their skins.

The practice of roping or running was a recreational pastime for some people. The feral horses in the mountains were also a source of horses for local events such as the Cooma and Jindabyne rodeos.

The NPWS introduced a system of licensed brumby running in KNP about 1970 as a way to manage the activity and as a means of controlling horse numbers. It was initially introduced for a trial period of three years and it appears to have occurred mainly in the southern part of the park in the Tin Mines, Lower Snowy and Byadbo areas. However, by 1972 there were concerns raised within the NPWS about the activity of brumby running. These included environmental impacts associated with the activity, animal welfare issues and the lack of knowledge about the impact that brumby running was having in controlling horse populations. These concerns continued through the late 1970s.

With the adoption of the Kosciuszko National Park Plan of Management in 1982, large wilderness areas were declared at Byadbo and the Pilot. The Wilderness Act does not allow for recreational horse riding in wilderness areas, so this effectively put an end to legal brumby running in areas where it formerly occurred. Since then, instances of illegal brumby running have occurred in both the southern and northern areas of the park as has the practice of releasing horses into the park. There has been no active management of horses in the park since that time by this or any other method and it appears that this has led to an increase in horse populations.

A research project underway by Michelle Walter of the University of for the past three years into the population ecology of wild horses in the will provide valuable information about the population and distribution of wild horses in Kosciuszko National Park. This research has estimated that the total population of horses in Kosciuszko National Park is about 3,000, with approximately 1,400 found in the southern part of the park. (see Map 2 Horse populations Southern Kosciuszko National Park on following page).

2 Wild Horse Management Plan Wild Horse Management Plan 3 2.2 Significance of the Kosciuszko alpine area

The alpine area of Kosciuszko is the area above about 1850 metres, where it is too cold for trees to survive. The true alpine area of Australia accounts for less than .01 per cent of the total continent.

The Kosciuszko alpine area is Australia’s largest contiguous alpine ecosystem, covering approximately 120 square kilometres along the Main Range. Kosciuszko’s alpine area contains a high number of endemic (native to a locality) species of plants and animals. This environment, like the rest of the Australian continent, has evolved without the presence of large, hard-hooved animals.

Many of the plants found in the alpine area are the only representatives of their genus and 21 species of plants are found nowhere else in the world. The plants found in the alpine area are limited to small shrubs and ground-hugging plants that are extremely sensitive to damage by heavy animals such as horses. The short summer growing season also means that recovery from damage is very slow.

The native fauna of the alpine area is limited to small marsupials and rodents generally weighing less than 200 grams. Two threatened species are found in this area, the mountain pygmy possum (Burramys parvus) and the broad-toothed rat (Mastacomys fuscus).

The Kosciuszko alpine area contains the headwaters of the , which is part of one of the most important catchments in Australia. Within the alpine area the sphagnum bogs and snow patch communities play an important role because of their water holding capacity. High quality water supplies for neighbouring towns, for power generation and irrigation west of the mountains depend on protection of this catchment.

Following the removal of grazing from the alpine area, the NSW Soil Conservation Service commenced a program of rehabilitation and revegetation in 1957 (Soil Conservation Service 1986). The program was aimed at stabilising soils in the area to prevent siltation and pollution of the rivers and lakes of the Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Scheme. This program continued into the early 1980s at a (then) cost of hundreds of thousands of dollars. In subsequent years the NPWS has continued to devote a large amount of resources to restoring and protecting this fragile area.

2.3 Horses and environmental impacts

The alpine area of Kosciuszko was subject to heavy grazing pressure from the mid-1800s until 1944 when grazing was withdrawn from the alpine area and it was reserved as a state park. The impacts of grazing by thousands of sheep and cattle and the associated practice of annual burning of vegetation were sufficient to cause concern among scientists such as Richard Helms and Joseph Maiden as early as the 1890s. These impacts included a reduction in plant cover and resulting erosion. The alpine herbfields experienced the most severe impacts as they contained species more palatable to stock than the more common snowgrasses. The removal of the plant cover initiated erosion caused by exposing the soil to wind, water and freezing temperatures. Bog and fen communities were also heavily impacted, being favoured areas for stock. Trampling by stock often led to the death of the bog vegetation and subsequent drainage of the bog by incised gully lines and the loss of water holding capacity.

It is also documented that the pressure of grazing in the alpine area caused some species such as the endemic anemone buttercup (Ranunculus anemoneus) and the ribbony grass

4 Wild Horse Management Plan (Chionocloa frigida) to come close to extinction. Since the end of grazing these two species have experienced a strong recovery (Costin, Totterdell and Wimbush 2000).

Various studies point out the following impacts which horses have on the environment (Dyring, 1990 and Landsberg 1999):

S Horse are large heavy animals. Because only a small area of the animal comes into contact with the ground, they have a high potential of doing damage to the environment. S Horses create trails through the areas in which they travel and these proliferate as they find alternate routes. The trails can become severely eroded, particularly in steep areas, as water funnels down slopes unchecked. S Wet areas such as bogs attract horses, yet they are very susceptible to damage by trampling. As a track into the bog becomes incised, the bog may be completely drained. S Horses create wallows, or areas where they roll on the ground. Eventually the vegetation is killed and the area becomes bare and subject to erosion and the invasion of weed species. S Horses, like cattle and sheep, are selective grazers. Although there have been no studies on the diet preferences of wild horses in the Australian alpine environment, as selective grazers of grasses and forbs, it can be expected that they would impact on vegetation structure over time if their numbers are unchecked. In the alpine area, some species such as Chionochloa frigida, have already been badly damaged by grazing in the South Rams Head area. S Some of the main findings of the 1990 study, The Impact of Feral Horses (Equus caballus) on Sub-alpine and Montane Environments in Australia identified direct impacts such as formation of tracks, wallows, streambank crossings and streambank breakdown (Dyring, 1990). The Big Boggy area of the Pilot Wilderness exhibits many of these impacts, including a proliferation of tracks and dung piles, trampling of vegetation, and erosion at crossings and along streambanks.

Alpine bog shows vegetation trampled by wild horses. (Ken Green Track formed by horses in the Rams Heads photo) area. (Ken Green photo)

In 1997 the NPWS began to receive letters and phone calls citing concerns about the level of environmental damage being caused by horses in the sub-alpine and alpine area. This level of concern among NPWS staff and the public has continued as the horses have become more established in this area and the impacts more apparent.

Wild Horse Management Plan 5 In addition to the environmental impacts caused by horses there is also concern about the danger to motorists using the Alpine Way. Horses regularly cross the Alpine Way in the vicinity of Dead Horse Gap and they also travel along the road. During winter they are attracted to the road due to salt which is used to de-ice the road. Warning signs have been placed on both sides of the gap in an effort to alert motorists to this hazard.

There have also been incidents of stallions acting aggressively towards bushwalkers.

2.4 Legislative framework There is a range of legislation and guidelines which provide the framework for the management of horses within Kosciuszko National Park. These include:

National Parks and S Establishes the National Parks and Wildlife Service Wildlife Act 1974 S Provides for establishment and management of conservation reserves and the protection of native flora and fauna and Aboriginal relics. S Requires the NPWS to carry out works considered necessary for the management or maintenance of NPWS lands. This includes management of feral species. S Requires that a Plan of Management be prepared for each reserve. The NPWS is required to give effect to plans of management. Kosciuszko National S The plan describes the natural and cultural values of the park, management Park Plan of objectives and appropriate management practices. Management (2nd S Identifies the Kosciuszko alpine area as an area of outstanding natural edition 1988, as resources with natural values such as outstanding scenery, alpine vegetation amended) and glacial landforms. The plan identifies the management practices for this area, including: 1. The scenery and natural features and processes of the area will be protected from disturbance; 2. Disturbed environments will be rehabilitated to a stable state which is as close as practicable to natural conditions and in which natural processes continue to operate without disturbance 3. Introduced plants and animals will be controlled. Note: this plan will be The plan prohibits access by vehicle or horse to certain significant areas of the revised in 2002-03 park (including the alpine area and wilderness areas), except for essential management purposes. Threatened Species S Aims to conserve biodiversity by protecting and encouraging the recovery Conservation Act 1995 of threatened species, endangered populations and endangered ecological communities in NSW. Wilderness Act 1987 S This Act states that wilderness areas must be managed to protect or restore their unmodified state in the absence of significant human interference and permit opportunities for appropriate self-reliant recreation. Environment Planning S Regulates land use within NSW. and Assessment Act S Requires the NPWS to consider the environmental impacts of management 1979 (EP & A Act) programs. S The framework used to carry out this assessment is a review of environmental factors (REF). Where a significant effect is likely, the Act requires the preparation of an environmental impact statement (EIS). Where there is likely to be a significant effect on threatened species, populations or ecological communities, a species impact statement is required. Prevention of Cruelty S Prohibits cruelty to animals. to Animals Act 1997 S Imposes obligations for persons in control of an animal to provide among (POCTA) other things food, drink, shelter, and veterinary care for the animal under their control. This is relevant where an animal’s movement is restricted, for example in a trapyard.

6 Wild Horse Management Plan 2.5 Review of existing research

2.5.1 Foreword The aim of this section of the Horse Management Plan is to provide readers with a review of some of the documents available through public libraries and other institutions so that, by following through the references listed, more information can be tracked down on the various aspects of this complex issue.

2.5.2 Introduction The first horses in Australia arrived with the First Fleet, January 26th, 1788. The earliest recorded case of a feral horse, an escapee, was in Van Diemen’s Land in 1804. “Bush horses” were plentiful in the hills around Sydney by the 1830s but nowadays feral horses are widely spread across Australia, which has the largest population in the world, estimated to be more than 300,000 in the early 1990s. (Dobbie, et al, 1993)

2.5.3 General information A comprehensive review of the history of horses in Australia, their biology and the damage they cause plus a range of management techniques is presented in the reference text Managing Vertebrate Pests: Feral Horses (Dobbie, Berman and Braysher, 1993) from the Bureau of Resource Sciences. It follows principles established in an earlier book Managing Vertebrate Pests: Principles and Strategies (Braysher, 1993) which emphasised the need to assess pest damage and modify control techniques in response to this. Both books have been valuable references for committee members in the development of this draft plan.

Feral Horses in the Alps (Walters and Hallam, 1992) provides a report of the wide range of issues covered at a workshop in 1992 and raises many pertinent issues.

Wimbush and Costin (1979) provide an extensive discussion of some influences on the botany of Kosciuszko over a 21 year period. Their observations about the differing responses of a variety of habitat type to a range of influences are germane to any discussion about the effects of wild horses.

As mentioned earlier in this document, Michelle Walter is completing a PhD study through the University of Canberra entitled “Population Ecology of Feral Horses in the Australian Alps.” Research has focused on the number of horses, factors limiting the population and the management implications of this information. The final report will be available at the end of 2002.

2.5.4 The biology of horses On average 20 per cent of a horse population dies each year mainly from drought, poisonous plants and parasites. Few feral horses reach 20 years of age. The maximum possible rate that horse numbers can increase is 20-25 per cent per year (Dobbie and Berman, 1992).

Horses feed between 51 per cent to 75 per cent of the time (Mayes and Duncan, 1986; Pratt et al, 1986) and they can tolerate a wide variety of foods and grazing patterns. They prefer to feed in areas with the greatest concentration of high quality green food and when this is sparse they seek out perennial herbaceous plants (green or dead). They mainly eat grasses but will also feed on roots, bark, buds and fruit.

Wild Horse Management Plan 7 The living area of a feral horse depends on the type of country and the season. In central Australia their home range is about 70 square km, similar to that of the wild horses of North American deserts. Feist (1971) records a home-range of up to 32 sq km for harem bands, bachelor bands and solitary males in Wyoming and Montana, areas climatically similar to the Australian Alps. Well-defined sociological groups can be identified but these are subject to continual natural disturbance, e.g. from young stallions seeking to usurp older leaders (Dobbie et al, 1993).

Feral horses are highly mobile and movement corridors can be readily identified between suitable grazing sites in montane areas (Dyring, 1990). Horses resist being forced out of their home area, whether by aerial or ground mustering (Dobbie and Berman, 1992).

2.5.5 Controlling feral horses Horses have a high public profile and management practices therefore receive close scrutiny from a range of interested groups. Techniques employed have therefore to satisfy a wide range of criteria and continued refinement is necessary from the basic outlines given in a variety of sources. (Dobbie and Berman, 1992; Dobbie, et al, 1993; English, 2001).

Different techniques are best suited to particular situations depending on issues such as mob size and age structure, geography and season. A variety or combination of different techniques will give the most effective results, however, some methods may not be suitable for certain circumstances. For effective control of feral horse populations all options should remain available since some individual horses will learn from experience and will otherwise escape.

It should also be noted that even substantial culls of horses may not cause substantial reductions in abundance. Culls must be sustained and be substantial to cause large reductions in abundance. (Eberhardt, 1987)

2.5.6 The impact of horses Although concerns about the effects on mountain environments by horses have been voiced for over a century, studies into the impact of d horses in the high country are limited (Byles, 1932; Costin, 1954; Alpine Project Planning Team, 1989; Dyring, 1990). Thiele and Prober (1999) have initiated a monitoring program for Parks but results available to date are of little use due to external vandalism and damage of plots. Whinam and Comfort (1996) summarise known information and confirm that it is generally accepted that alpine areas are more subject to trampling damage than most other environments. However, the amount and type of damage varies with the intensity of usage plus the different soil and vegetation types and drainage, from damage to shrubs through to erosion of the soil profile. (Bell and Bliss, 1973; Dale and Weaver, 1974, Bratton et al, 1977: Bryan, 1977; Trudgill, 1977; Summer, 1980. Gillieson et al , 1987; Dyring, 1990.).

The compression effects of horses leads to reduced: aeration, water infiltration, pore space and water content of soils. However, the gradient of slopes will significantly affect the extent of erosion. Areas of Sphagnum sp., such as along streambanks, appear to be particularly vulnerable. In general, the track locations of horses seem to be dynamic with abandoned tracks soon revegetating, especially in areas with gentle gradients (Dyring,1991). It seems likely that the first 20 – 50 passes of a horse are those which cause significant compaction of dry soils but after this there is no marked increase. There also seems no difference between the compaction or track-width in montane and sub-alpine areas (Dyring, 1991).

8 Wild Horse Management Plan The same author investigated the distribution of plant species around tracks and identified both fewer species and fewer plants around tracks. Prostrate forms and faster-growing annuals and grasses tolerated trampling better than upright plants (Dyring, 1991).

2.5.7 Feral horse management There are several examples of management of feral horse populations in fragile environments.

The Bureau of Land Management, USA, has a Code of Federal Regulations relating to the Protection, Management and Control of Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros. Their policy aims to have a self-sustaining population of healthy animals in balance with other uses and the productive capacity of the habitat. A wide range of management practices are available, while penalties are listed for prohibited acts. More information is available on the Internet at: http://www.adoptahorse.blm.gov/ridgecrest/whbreg.htm

The Kaimanawa Wild Horse Plan of New Zealand has sought to preserve and limit their feral horses rather than lose them entirely. This plan has looked at the range of their associated values, benefits and liabilities. More information is available on the Internet http://www.doc.govt.nz/cons/pests/horse/preface.htm.

In the 1980s a cull of feral horses in Namadgi National Park in the ACT was carried out by shooting. While this was successful in eliminating a small population of horses there was also mixed public reaction about the cull.

As part of an ongoing control strategy, a cull of feral horses was carried out in Guy Fawkes River National Park in October 2000 when large numbers of horses in inaccessible areas were suffering from the effects of prolonged drought and lack of feed due to recent extensive bushfires. This cull was carried out in accordance with current best-practice techniques but was reported with widespread condemnation. In his report on this cull English (2000) made several recommendations for future feral horse control strategies. This report and two subsequent reports, A management plan for feral horses in Guy Fawkes River National Park (March 2001) and ‘A report on the management of feral horses in NSW National Parks (September 2001) are available on the NPWS website: www.npws.nsw.gov.au/news/exhibition/english_report/english_report.html.

3. The public consultation process

In recognition of the sensitivity of this topic and level of interest from the community an integral part of this planning process was the contribution of ideas, advice and support from the community.

3.1 The Wild Horse Management Steering Committee

The first stage of the consultation process was the identification of key stakeholders. Informal discussions with local interest groups and key individuals in the community were then undertaken in an effort to inform them and enlist their support for the process of forming a steering committee and developing a management plan.

The next stage was the establishment of a steering committee composed of members representing key stakeholder groups and community interests. The following stakeholder groups were identified; the NPWS Snowy Mountains Region Advisory Committee, conservation groups, scientific experts, bushwalking groups, animal welfare

Wild Horse Management Plan 9 interests/veterinarian, local horse riders, NPWS staff, tourism organisations and the Snowy River Shire Council. Each of the above stakeholder groups are represented on the Wild Horse Management Steering Committee.

The role of the steering committee is:

To facilitate through public consultation the development of a horse management plan for the alpine area of Kosciuszko National Park (KNP) which will recommend future strategies for the management of horses to ensure the sustainability of the natural features of the land with respect to horse impacts.

3.3 Community consultation

The Wild Horse Management Steering Committee has sought to provide information to the community and to offer involvement in the planning process through the following activities:

S Information sheets were developed for distribution to the public and on the NPWS web site. S There has been widespread coverage of the issue in metropolitan and regional media, including newspapers, radio and television. S A public workshop was held in Jindabyne in January 2001. More than 50 people attended. S A public information session held at Queanbeyan in February 2001 was attended by about 75 people. S The Draft Wild Horse Management Plan for the alpine area of Kosciuszko National Park was on public exhibition from June 1 to July 15, 2002. During this time public information sessions were held at Jindabyne, Cooma, Tumut and Queanbeyan to provide information to interested people. Approximately 130 people attended these sessions. S There were more than 80 submissions to the draft plan and comments made in those submissions have been valuable in contributing to this plan.

All of these events were very valuable in identifying the range of values held by people and the range of issues that need to be considered in developing a management plan. It was evident from the workshop and information sessions that the management of feral horses is a very polarised issue. There is a view in the community that the impact of horses in Kosciuszko National Park needs to be drastically reduced. There is also the view that the objective of any management plan should be total eradication of horses from the entire park. Others hold the view that horses have important heritage values as part of our culture and should be retained in national parks. It is also evident that for many reasons, people view horses differently to other feral animals such as wild dogs, pigs and goats.

There is agreement on a number of key issues surrounding management of feral horses including:

S Agreement that the alpine area of Kosciuszko is a unique environment which must be protected from the impacts of horses. S Agreement that control methods must be humane for horses. S Agreement that management of horses shouldn’t be limited to the alpine area; but should be extended across the entire park.

10 Wild Horse Management Plan 4. Objectives

The objectives for this plan were developed by the Wild Horse Management Steering Committee.

The primary objectives for a Horse Management Plan for the alpine area of Kosciuszko National Park are: S To conserve and protect the natural values of the Kosciuszko alpine area (above the treeline – approximately 1850 metres) by removing horses and to ensure the alpine area remains free from horse impacts; and S To minimise the likelihood of horses causing a traffic hazard on the Alpine Way.

Further guiding principles are : S That any removal methods do not cause a significant impact on the environment. S To manage surrounding horse populations to ensure the alpine area remains free of horse impacts. S To ensure the humane treatment of horses throughout the process. S To ensure continued community involvement in the process. S To ensure that all control programs are permissible under the National Parks and Wildlife Act and other relevant planning instruments, legislation and guidelines. S To ensure that all operations are carried out to ensure the safety of Service staff, contractors, volunteers and the public. S To ensure that removal methods are open to independent audit and are evaluated and modified as appropriate. S The environmental impacts which occur as a result of the horse removal trials does not exceed the long term impact of not removing horses.

5. Horse management methods

Michelle Walter’s research during the past three years including aerial surveys, estimates the population of horses in Kosciuszko National Park to be about 3,000. The southern part of Kosciuszko, from the Alpine Way south to the Victorian border, is estimated to contain approximately 1,400 horses (M Walter, pers comm).

This research has indicated that during the 1999-2000 summer, there were typically 5-10 horses in the Kosciuszko alpine area, however this number has since declined. Nearby on the Big Boggy, an open plain south of Dead Horse Gap, there are up to 80 horses, although this number also varies. Some of the horses from the Big Boggy population move into and out of the alpine area throughout the non-winter months. Recorded movements of the Big Boggy alpine area horses ranges from 2.8 kilometres to 7.1 kilometres with an average of 4.4 kilometres. Preliminary analysis indicates the horses on the Big Boggy have a relatively high annual survival rate of .92, with the population currently growing at 8 per cent per year. (M Walter, pers comm).

It is believed that the relatively high number of horses in areas adjacent to the alpine area has been a factor in the movement of horses into the alpine area. As a result, the Wild Horse Management Steering Committee has agreed that as well as removing horses from the alpine area, the numbers of horses in the Big Boggy and areas south of Dead Horse Gap will also need to be reduced in order to prevent reinvasion of the alpine area. In fact, given the many difficulties of conducting horse management operations in the alpine area, the majority (if

Wild Horse Management Plan 11 not all) of horse management will be undertaken below the alpine area and as far south as the Tin Mines.

It is valuable to consider the implications of removing certain numbers of feral horses from parts of southern Kosciuszko. Preliminary projections about the impacts of removing differing numbers of horses from the southern Kosciuszko population have been prepared by Michelle Walter. These projections are based on various factors, including the assumption that the environment remains stable during this time. The projections indicate:

S If no horses are removed, the population will continue to increase. S More than 50 horses need to be removed each year to begin to reduce the population. S If 100 horses were to be removed each year, the number of horses would begin to decline, but it could take approximately 30 years to reduce it to about 800 horses. S If 150 horses were removed each year, in approximately eight years the total population in southern Kosciuszko would drop to approximately 850 horses. With this scenario, there is an in initial significant drop in population, however as the population decreases, the horses become harder and harder to catch and remove.

There has been vigorous public debate about the options for managing wild horses, however when the various options were fully explored, it is apparent that there are only a few options which are practical, cost-efficient, environmentally sound, provide humane treatment of horses and meet current departmental policy.

Irrespective of the horse control methods used, an overriding consideration is the fact that horses do have the ability to maintain and potentially increase their population despite capture and removal methods being employed.

Methods of horse management include:

5.1 Immobilisation using tranquillisers delivered by a dart rifle The use of dart rifles to deliver tranquillisers to immobilise horses for transport has been suggested as a control method. This method however is both very labour intensive, costly and requires veterinary supervision. Tranquillisers are difficult to administer to wild animals because they don’t stand still for an injection. In addition it is not without risks to the animal. This method is simply not practical for large scale reduction of horse numbers in rugged terrain.

5.2 Fertility control Several techniques of fertility control can be used or are under development, however they vary in cost and effectiveness. Alternatives include surgical desexing (males and females), contraceptive implants (mares) and immunocontraception (where males and females are immunised against their own sperm or eggs). All three techniques currently require horses to be captured and handled so the method has practical and financial limitations. However, there continue to be advances in this field and future refinements may allow this approach to become a more practical option. For example, recent research in the USA is encouraging. It assessed an annual dosing in free roaming mares and achieved substantial reductions in horse reproduction rates.

The steering committee concluded that fertility control is not a feasible option as there are currently no techniques for wide-scale, cost-effective administration of contraceptives.

12 Wild Horse Management Plan 5.3 Fencing Fencing horses out of sensitive areas is only an option for very small areas. It is not commonly used to control animals on public land because it restricts public access and affects the movement of native species. For larger areas such as the alpine area, fencing would be prohibitively expensive to erect and maintain. It would also have significant visual impacts. Fencing may be considered in isolated areas of particular concern.

5.4 Shooting Shooting of horses, both from the air and from the ground was suggested at some public consultation sessions.

In 1991 the Senate Select Committee on Animal Welfare stated that shooting horses from helicopters is the only practical method for quick, large-scale and humane culling of large animals in inaccessible locations (Dobbie, et al, 1993). The main advantage of aerial shooting is that shooters can locate and get close to the animal and any wounded animals can be followed up and killed.

In his Report on the Cull of Feral Horses in Guy Fawkes River National Park in October 2000, Dr Tony English concluded that the use of aerial shooting in Guy Fawkes River National Park was an appropriate technique under the circumstances and that it was carried out in a humane way, under approved protocols.

However there is national and international concern with the large-scale shooting of horses, and in particular aerial shooting, especially from animal welfare groups. Following the cull of feral horses in Guy Fawkes River National Park, aerial shooting of feral horses in NSW national parks was banned.

Ground shooting was also suggested as a control method. It can be quite effective in relatively flat, accessible country such as central Australia. In steep, wooded terrain, where much of the horse control operations will be carried out within Kosciuszko, it is not effective. A major problem with ground shooting compared to helicopter shooting is that it’s difficult to follow up and ensure mobile wounded animals are killed quickly.

Within the Wild Horse Management Steering Committee there are strong opinions about shooting. Some members would like to see the option of ground shooting considered as a control method at present and would also like the option of aerial shooting to remain for the future should the ban on aerial shooting of horses in NSW national parks be lifted. Other committee members were adamant that they would never endorse shooting as an acceptable option.

On this basis, shooting would be used only to euthanase injured or very ill animals as recommended by veterinary advice or where a horse threatens the safety of people.

5.5 Capture and removal methods There are a number of techniques which can be used to capture and remove horses. There are also a number of issues associated with each of the capture and removal techniques including:

S environmental impacts associated with horse riding S stress on horses as a result of the capture and then transportation from the park S risk of injuries to riders and horses S conflicts with horse riders and other park users S the issue of horse riding (for management purposes) in wilderness areas

Wild Horse Management Plan 13 S various degrees of efficiency among the different methods in capturing horses

5.5.1 Salting, trapping and removal of horses out of the park under a contract system

This option involves attracting horses to an area using salt blocks. The salt block is suspended from a tree to ensure the salt does not seep into the soil. Once it is observed that the horses are using the salt, portable yards are erected which allow the horses to continue to access the salt. A trigger is then set which activates a gate which traps the horses inside. Horses are then led by mounted riders and loaded onto a truck and removed from the park. The number of horses in the trap determines the number of riders required to lead horses out. Generally two riders are required to lead each horse, depending on the terrain. The NPWS currently has two sets of portable yards.

Following agreement by the Wild Horse Management Steering Committee this method was trialed by NPWS staff and volunteers in the Rams Head area near Thredbo in May 2001, in December 2001, and from February through May 2002. Some of the issues identified with this method in this area include:

S Salt is only successful as an attractant in areas where horses are deficient in that mineral. This means it will be successful in some areas and not in others. S Trapping in the alpine area will be limited because of the short summer season (November to May) when it can be safely undertaken. In the Dead Horse Gap/Rams Head this is further limited by high visitor numbers during January and at Easter. S The method is labour intensive. It requires scouting to determine where horses are frequenting an area to ensure that placement of the salt block is effective. It then requires regular checking of the use of the salt block before the decision is taken to erect the horse yards. Once yards are erected they need to be checked regularly. This becomes more critical when the trap is set. The yards will always be in relatively remote locations, so this process will always require a large commitment of time and people. S There is the risk of interference with the trapyards and trapped horses because of the generally high level of visitation in the alpine and sub-alpine area.

5.5.2. Mustering using helicopters This option involves mustering of horses by helicopter into trapyards with long fences which direct the horses into the yards where they are held and then led by horse riders to trucks for removal out of the park.

Some of the issues identified with this method include:

S It is likely to be economic only when horse densities are relatively high. S Negative public opinion regarding use of helicopters to muster horses. S Horses that escape learn to avoid helicopters. S It is much more efficient in open, relatively flat country. S It is not likely to be very effective in rugged, timbered country. S It is more stressful on horses than trapping. S The cost of an experienced pilot and helicopter is significant, eg approximately $800 per hour. S May impact on other park users.

14 Wild Horse Management Plan 5.5.3. Mustering using horse riders under a contract system This option involves mustering horses into trapyards using horse riders and leading them out to be loaded onto transport for removal off-park.

Some of the issues associated with this method include: S Horse riders can traverse rough and timbered country. S There are environmental impacts associated with running horses, particularly in the fragile alpine and sub-alpine environments. S There are risks to riders in difficult terrain and climatic conditions. S It can be stressful for horses and there is a risk of injury. S The activity may cause conflicts with other park users, particularly in wilderness areas where horse riding is not permitted except for management purposes.

5.5.4 Roping under a contract system Roping is a method of capturing horses from horseback. It involves the roping of horses from horseback, then leading the horses to where they can be loaded onto a truck and removed.

This method has been used in Victoria to reduce horse numbers in remote areas. For example, Parks Victoria records show that during the past few years an average of 200 horses per year were removed by this method. Recent research also indicates that the average catch of wild horses using this method as reported by the Alpine Brumby Management Association (ABMA) of Victoria is one horse every one to two rider/days, depending on the skill of the rider. (M Walter pers comm).

Issues associated with this method include: S The method results in a relatively low number of horses taken. S It can target horses in more remote areas. S It requires skilled riders and the number of riders with sufficient skills to capture horses is limited. S There are environmental impacts associated with running horses, particularly in the fragile alpine and sub-alpine environments, however the environmental impacts are dispersed across a wide area. S There is a risk to riders in remote and difficult terrain. S It can be stressful for horses and there is a risk of injury. S The activity may cause conflicts with other park users, particularly in wilderness areas where horse riding is not permitted except for management purposes.

6. Control methods to be trialed

As with management of any vertebrate pest, no single method is likely to offer effective control. After discussion about the available wild horse management techniques, the Wild Horse Management Steering Committee has agreed that the following capture and removal methods are recommended to be further investigated, trialed and evaluated in the southern part of Kosciuszko National Park during the next two years to determine their effectiveness in humanely removing horses from the alpine and sub-alpine areas and reducing environmental impacts. These methods were chosen over others for their practicality, cost- effectiveness, for their humane treatment of horses and for their acceptance by the wider community. As mentioned earlier in this document, there are a number of issues associated with these methods and the trial will allow for these issues to be fully explored.

Wild Horse Management Plan 15 6.1 Trapping through a contract arrangement Following the successful trapping of horses from March to May 2002, trapping in the Dead Horse Gap area will continue. The objectives are to remove horses travelling to and from the alpine area and to reduce the number of horses in the Dead Horse Gap area to lessen the risk to motorists travelling the Alpine Way.

6.2 Roping through a contract arrangement The NPWS will develop a contract to provide for horse riders to remove horses by roping them from horseback and then removing the horses from the park.

6.3 Mustering through a contract arrangement The NPWS may develop a contract to provide for horse riders to muster feral horses so they can be captured and removed from the park. It is likely that mustering will only be used as a secondary support method to trapping and roping if required.The NPWS will report to the Wild Horse Management Steering Committee on the success or otherwise of each method for a period of two years, considering factors such as:

S Number of horses removed S Environmental impacts of the removal operations S Resources required, including personnel and funds S Humane treatment of horses S Safety/injuries to people involved S Impact of the various methods on park visitors S Success of contract arrangements

7. Future use of horses removed from the park

Horses captured in the park under a trial contract system would become the property of the contractors involved. In removing horses from the park, it will be the responsibility of the contractor to ensure that horses are treated humanely while being transported. As mentioned earlier in this document there is legislation in place, eg the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, which imposes obligations for people in control of an animal to properly care for the animal.

A Code of Practice for the Capture and Transport of Feral Horses was developed recently by Dr Tony English as part of the Terms of Reference for a review of management of feral horses in national parks in NSW. The NSW Government is currently considering how this code should be given legal status.

The contractor will also be required to record and report to the NPWS on the results of any roping, trapping and mustering operations. This information will include: S A record of all horses removed, including sex, colour and approximate age S Numbers/locations of horses sighted S Advice on any accidents or injuries to any horse or rider. S The number of rider/days used to capture the horses. S Number of horses used in capture/removal of horses.

The contractor will also be required to provide suitable horse transport for the removal of horses from the park and facilities for housing, yarding and agistment after removal.

16 Wild Horse Management Plan In terms of what happens to horses once they are removed from the park, some horses will have the potential to be trained as riding horses, carriage horses or pets. Others, because of their age and ‘wildness’ would inevitably end up being destroyed or sent to an abattoir. This is the case with thousands of horses in Australia every year which no longer have usefulness either commercially or as pets. There has been discussion about contractors involved in removing horses from the park setting up a central register or web site for people interested in obtaining a horse removed from the park and the NPWS will encourage this approach.

In 2001 the Snowy River Shire Council proposed the establishment of an Australian Stock WHIP (Wild Horse Incarceration Prevention) program. This proposal is based on a program that has been operating in the United States since 1986. The program would allow inmates (or people at risk of entering the prison system) to train horses that have been removed from the national park.

If such a facility was established, it could provide a further use for some of the horses removed from the park. The NPWS understands that the NSW Government (through the Premier’s Department) is currently considering the proposal to establish such a facility within the Snowy River Shire.

8. Monitoring and evaluation

This plan will operate as a flexible document with the potential to develop as various control methods are trialed, evaluated and modified. The Wild Horse Management Steering Committee will monitor and evaluate the implementation of the plan.

The NPWS has prepared a Strategy for Evaluating the Management of Wild Horses in Southern Kosciuszko National Park. The strategic goals of this monitoring strategy are: S To evaluate the success of monitoring strategies employed to manage horse populations and impacts within southern Kosciuszko National Park. S Collect information to enable the NPWS to modify and improve management techniques as appropriate.

8.1 Monitoring sites and techniques The presence of horses or signs of horses in the alpine area will continue to be monitored by the following methods which are currently in operation: S Reports from NPWS staff working in the alpine area. S Reports received from the public about the presence of wild horses in the alpine area. S Aerial surveys of the alpine area conducted by the NPWS. In addition, impacts from horses will be monitored in the alpine area.

To measure changes over time and responses to the implementation of management strategies, four sites that exhibit existing impacts from horses were chosen for monitoring. These sites include Little Tin Mines Creek, Cascades Hut and the Big Boggy.

Little Tin Mines Creek was chosen as an example of a subalpine/montane area that is heavily frequented by wild horses. It is also an environmentally sensitive area as the alpine tree frog (Litoria verreauxii alpina) has been recorded at this site.

The Cascades Hut area was chosen because it is one of the most highly freqented areas for wild horses in the southern part of Kosciuszko National Park. Horses have caused extensive damage to bog areas, stream banks and heathland communities and extensive track systems are found throughout the area.

Wild Horse Management Plan 17

The Big Boggy area south of Dead Horse Gap was chosen because it is one of the main access points to the Kosciuszko alpine area. It is also proposed that horse numbers in this area will be reduced through the capture and removal of horses. There has been extensive damage by horses to bog areas, stream banks and heathland communities. There are also extensive track systems present.

At each site the following parameters will be monitored:

8.1.1 Vegetation assessment At each site an exclusion plot of approximately 10metres x 10 metres will be erected to exclude horses. A paired plot outside the exclosure will also be established. The vegetation will be sampled for both presence/absence of species and cover abundance. Surveys will be carried out prior to the implementation of any horse management strategies and every five years. In addition, fixed photo points will also be established at each plot and photos will be taken at the same time each year.

8.1.2 Water quality assessment Stream sampling of macro invertebrates to ascertain stream health as per the Australian River Assessment System (AUSRIVAS) predictive model will be undertaken at each site. As part of the Australian Alps Stream Health Monitoring Project a number of reference sties have previously been tested within the study area including at the Tin Mines, Cascades Creek and the Big Boggy/Thredbo River. These sites will be reassessed prior to the implementation of management strategies and again after a five year period.

8.1.3 Population assessment The NPWS will follow-up the recent aerial survey of horses in the southern part of the park with further aerial surveys every two years. Ground surveys will be carried out annually in areas such as the Big Boggy and Tin Mines where horse removal operations will be conducted.

8.2 Measuring the environmental impacts of the removal process It is important that removal techniques do not cause greater damage than the existing presence of wild horses in the environment.

8.2.1 Trap yards When using horse yards there is always a concentration of horse impacts within the yard. Impacts will be monitored using fixed photo points at each yard site. Photo points will include the yard and surrounding area.

8.2.2.Roping Roping is a dispersed activity and does not have the same concentration of horses apart from marshalling and loading areas. The effectiveness of this method can be measured by comparing the number of horse days used during the removal process against the number of wild horses removed. A cost benefit analysis can be carried out to assess the effectiveness of this method. Environmental impacts will also be monitored.

18 Wild Horse Management Plan 9. Bibliography and references

Alpine Planning Project Team (1989). Alpine National Park. Cobberas-Tingaringy unit proposed management plan. Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands, Victoria. Bell K.L. and L.C. Bliss (1973). Alpine disturbance studies: Olympic National Park USA. Biological Conservation 5, 25-32. Bratton, S.P., M.G. Hickler and J.H. Groves (1977). Trail and campsite erosion survey for Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Management Report 16, United States National Park Service, South East Region. Braysher, M.L. (1993). Managing Vertebrate Pests: Principles and Strategies. Canberra. Publishing Service. ISBN Byles, B.U. (1932) A reconnaissance of the mountainous part of the river Murray Catchment in New South Wales. Commonwealth Forestry Bureau, Canberra. Bull. No. 13. Clement, R.F., K.A. Doyle and J.G. Murray, (1990). The significance of a major outbreak of quarantinable disease to the Australian horse industries. Australian Veterinary Journal 67, 77-78. Costin, A.B. (1954) A Study of the Ecosystems of the Monaro region of New South Wales. Government Printer. Costin AB, Gray, M, Totterdell, CJ and Wimbush, DJ, 2000, Kosciuszko Alpine Flora, CSIRO/Collins, Australia Dale D. and T. Weaver (1974). Trampling effects on vegetation of the trail corridors of North Rocky Mountain forests. Journal of Applied Ecology 11, 767-772. Dobbie W. and D. Berman, (1992). Control of Brumbies in central Australia. Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory. Dobbie, W.R., D. McK. Berman and M.L. Braysher (1993). Managing Vertebrate pests : Feral Horses. Canberra. Australian Government Publishing Service. ISBN 0 6444 25286 3. Dyring, J. (1990). The impact of feral horses (Equus caballus) on sub-alpine and montane environments in Australia M.Sc. Thesis, Division of Resource and Environmental Science, University of Canberra. Dyring, J. (1991). Management Implications of the 1988-1990 Study: The impact of feral horses (Equus caballus) on sub-alpine and montane environments in Australia. Applied ecology Research Group, University of Canberra. Eberhardt, L. L. (1987) Population projections from simple models, Journal of Applied Ecology 1987. English, A. (2000). Report on the cull of feral horses in Guy Fawkes River National Park in October, 2000. Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney. English (2001). A report on the management of feral horses in National Parks in New South Wales. Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney. Feist J.D. (1971) Behaviour of feral horses in the Pryor Mountain Wild Horse Range. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis. University of Michigan. Feist J.D. and C. McCullough, (1976). Behaviour patterns and communication in feral horses. Z.Tierpschol. 41, 337-371. Gillieson, D., Davies, J. and Hardley, P. (1987). Gurragorambla Creek horse track monitoring, Kosciusko National Park. Unpublished paper to Royal Australian Institute of Parks and Recreation Conference, Canberra. October, 1987. Good, Roger 1992, Kosciusko Heritage, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service. Kaimanawa Horse Plan, New Zealand Department of Conservation 1995. Landsberg, Jill 1999, Horse Riding in Canberra Nature Park CSIRO Wildlife and Ecology. Liddle, M.J. and L.D. Chitty (1981). The nutrient budget of horse tracks on an English lowland heath. Journal of Applied Ecology 18, 841-849.

Wild Horse Management Plan 19 Mayes E. and P. Duncan (1986) Temporal patterns of feeding behaviour in free-ranging horses. Behaviour 97, 105-129. Parks Victoria / Australian Alps National Parks, (1999). Australian Alps Feral Horse Impact Monitoring Project. Parsonson, I., (1998). The Australian Ark: a history of domesticated animals in Australia (1788 – 1998). Collingwood. CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 0 643 0657 9. Pratt R.M., R.J. Putman, J.R. Ekins and P.J. Edwards (1986). Use of habitat by free-ranging cattle and ponies in the New Forest, Southern England. Journal of Applied Ecology 23, 539 –557. Soil Conservation Service of NSW (1986), Above the Treeline – How the high country was rescued. Summer, R.M. (1986). Geomorphic impacts of horse traffic on montane landforms. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 41, 126-128. Thiele, K.R. and S.M. Prober, (1999). Assessment of Feral Horses (Equus caballus) in the Australian Alps. A Report to the Australian Alps Liaison Committee. Trudgill, S.T. (1977). Soil and Vegetation Systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Walters, B. and M. Hallam (1992). Feral horses in the Alps. Report of a workshop, Howmans Gap, Victoria. Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra. Walters, B. 1996. Report on the feasibility of assessing feral horse densities in the Australian Alps Parks using a strip-transect method. Natural Heritage Working Group of the Australian Alps Liaison Committee. Weaver, T. and D. Dale (1978). Trampling effects of hikers, motorcycles and horses in meadows and forests. Journal of Applied Ecology, 15, 451 – 457. Whinam J., E.J. Cannell, J.B. Kirkpatrick and M. Comfort (1994). Studies on the potential impact of recreational horseriding on some alpine environments of the Central Plateau, Tasmania. Journal of Environmental Management 40,103-117. Whinam J. and M. Comfort, (1996). The Impact of Commercial horse riding on Sub-Alpine Environments at Cradle Mountain, Tasmania, Australia. Journal of Environmental Management 47, 61-70. Wimbush, D.J. and A.B. Costin (1979). Trends in Vegetation at Kosciusko. Australian Journal of Botany 27 (6) 741-871. Ziegeler D. (1990). A survey of weed infestation within the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area and peripheral areas. Tasmania: Department of Parks, Wildlife and Heritage.

20 Wild Horse Management Plan