Running Head: TRANSGENICS 1
Transgenics: The Scientific Mystery of Today’s Species
Leanna B. Rippey
Radford University: Core 201
Running Head: TRANSGENICS 2
Abstract
Transgenic animals are species that exhibit traits not normally found in an animal. The organism is genetically engineered by removing certain genes and modifying them to function differently in another species. There are many pros and cons to transgenic research. The genes can produce a stronger organism, more capable of producing the goods desired. Transgenics are not organisms being altered through selective breeding, but through technological methods.
These technological methods of breeding organisms produces new life forms that sometimes cross species boundaries, and that have long term effects on the environment. Also, the blending of DNA from different organisms may cause unintended personal, social, and cultural consequences. The genes are not normally found in the organism and can produce mass changes. This paper argues that present genetic engineering of species through transgenic research is ethically wrong due to the lack of information given to the general public, causing the
De Minimis Dilemma, which states that individuals hold different views of safety. Transgenic research does not typically give the necessary information to develop an opinion of the safety features that the animals are guaranteed in the experiments.
Running Head: TRANSGENICS 3
Transgenic research was first recognized as a possibility when DNA was discovered and scientists realized that you could use DNA to construct bacteria and other genes through genetic engineering practices. James Watson and Francis Crick discovered DNA in 1953, which developed transgenic research in the 1950s with Joshua Lederberg. Lederberg pioneered the earliest transgenic techniques by beginning genetic engineering with the shuffling of genetic materials with bacteria (Whitesides, 2003, pp. 529-530). Legerberg was the first to use transgenic research to produce a different gene that could modify another organism in a desired way. Transgenics is the ability to introduce foreign or genetically modified genes into the gene line of an organism and let the genes encounter genetic manipulation (Jaenisch, 1988, p. 1468).
Transgenic cells have the ability to pass on the new characteristics to new cells when they reproduce because the organism will reproduce the foreign transgenes during cell division
(World of Micrbiology and Immunology, 2003, p. 551). The gene that was genetically modified will be produced for future generations when the organism reproduces because cell division uses the modified gene, even though it is foreign to the organism. Transgenic research has been completed on many different organisms and the focus of this text will be genetic modification of animals.
There are many pros and cons to transgenic or genetic engineering in species of animals.
Jaenish (1988) states to the American Association for the Advancement of Science that, “The information gained from the use of the transgenic technology is relevant to almost any aspect of modern biology including developmental gene regulation, the action of oncogenes, the immune system, and mammalian development” (p, 1468). There are also many cons with the production of transgenic organism. Cons involved in transgenic research can include: mutations on organisms, the creation of new species potentially may blur the species boundaries, the long term Running Head: TRANSGENICS 4 effects on the organism and the environment, and unintentional personal, social, and cultural consequences (Glenn, 2004, para.1). The organism that the research is tested on could bring many benefits to society, but the safety of the experiments or the gene mutations of genetic engineering techniques are not looked upon when the testing begins. The organism may be enduring intense pain or other changes that cannot be prevented because the safety features are not understood or agreed on by scientists and the public as a whole. They will also not have any valuable input on the effects that the transgenic research has nor can the research be completely reversed if a problem occurs because safety is not a main focus in the genetic engineering of an animal. This paper argues that present genetic engineering of species through transgenic research is ethically wrong due to the lack of information given to the general public, causing the
De Minimis Dilemma, which states that individuals hold different views of safety. Without the proper safety precautions, animals could be harmed without the general public knowing the risks that the animals are undergoing. The pros and cons will be reviewed in this research paper and the value of safety will ethically dismantle the argument supporting the genetic engineering of an organism for the benefit of humans.
One of the many pros of genetic engineering or transgenic research on animals is the fact that many human and other diseases found in organisms can be studied in more detail in search of a cure. Many studies are completed by scientists to discover cures for diseases like renal disease. Medicine is ever changing and the use of animals to research the genes and how a slight modification in the gene pool could prevent or aid in the symptoms of a disease. Scientists perform genetic engineering techniques on organisms to find the solutions to medical issues that humans face around the world, and find the most effective solutions for the creation of medicine and cures. Other medical aspects that transgenic organisms are included in are: transplant organs Running Head: TRANSGENICS 5 by aiding in the production of an exact match, nutritional supplements and pharmaceuticals through modified animal milk, and aiding in the production of red blood cells.
A study completed in 2005 about the end stages of renal diseases stated, “Although the use of these animals (mainly knockouts) has highlighted some pitfalls of this approach
(compensation by closely related gene products, absence of temporal knockouts) it has brought important information about the role of specific gene-products…” (Bascands & Schanstra, 2005, p. 925). Even though the study proved that the animals may have suffered some knock-outs and other pitfalls, researchers found many benefits on how to aid those who suffer from renal disease. Further use of these animals, especially in combination with pharmacologic tools, produces molecules and process that gave scientists the necessary knowledge needed to find a medicine for the diseases that humans and other organisms suffer from. The research helped scientists find many factors that cause the symptoms of renal disease and they can better find a solution with the signs that the animals produced (Bascands & Schanstra, 2005, p. 925).
Patients die every day because of the lack of transplant organs available. Transgenic pigs may become the solution to the shortage of hearts, livers, and other transplant organs that are desperately needed. Endang Tri Margawati (2003) says, “Currently, xenotransplantation is hampered by a pig protein that can cause donor rejection but research is underway to remove the pig protein and replace it with a human protein” (para. 21). The pig’s genes will be engineered to suit the human, and the organs will be modified by removing aspects of the pig that would not be sustained in the body of a human or other organism. The organism will then be given the organ and since the pig aspects will be removed, it will be able to function as the organ needed by the transplant patient. Running Head: TRANSGENICS 6
Another aspect of medicine that benefits from the use of transgenic animals is that animal milk can be changed by the use of transgenics to aid in the creation of supplements and pharmaceuticals that can benefit humans and other organisms. Products such as insulin, growth hormone, and blood anti-clotting factors may soon be or have already been obtained by the milk of transgenic animals. It is “underway to manufacture milk through transgenesis for treatment of debilitating diseases such as phenylketonuria (PKU), hereditary emphysema, and cystic fibrosis”
(Margawati, 2003, para. 22). These diseases can have solutions with the use of a product that animals naturally produce, just by altering their genes to sustain the supplements that are needed in suffering patients. The milk of the transgenic animal will have the nutrients that a patient needs and will create the modifications needed for a patient to live a better life through the consumption of the supplements in the genetically modified organism.
Finally, the research of transgenics for the use of medicine is concluded by the reproduction of red blood cells in the human body. With the use of milk of a transgenic organism, scientists have reason to believe that they can discover a way to reproduce red blood cells. It will add a normal copy of a gene that produces non-working red blood cells with a copy of the same gene that is proper working order (Margawati, 2003, para. 24). This will aid in finding cures for over 5,000 named genetic diseases and many other issues that can affect an organism; also allowing scientists to find a solution to help patients suffering from red blood cell malfunctions.
Agricultural applications are also greatly affected by the use of transgenic animals.
Herds with desired traits can be manufactured by genetic engineering. Traditional selective breeding is difficult and risky, but with transgenic research, scientists have discovered ways to modify genes in organisms to show a desired trait without the time consuming task of selective Running Head: TRANSGENICS 7 breeding. Scientists can also use the genetic engineering techniques to make livestock larger and less resistant to disease. Just like the medical research completed by Bascands and Schanstra
(2005), other animals can have genes added to their gene pool to produce lower chances of contracting a disease (p. 927). Scientists will target the genes within the animal and find another gene to replace with the mutated gene to solve any disease issues that an organism may face
(Margawati, 2003, para. 19). Not only will scientists be more likely to reduce the deaths of some organisms with genetic modification, they will also have the ability to produce a larger or stronger organism. They will use the hormones already in the organism and modify them with genetic engineering techniques to make the animal larger. Scientists will target the genes that make the animal and modify it enough to increase the size of the animal in the aspect that the farmer desires (Paarlberg, 2008, p. 6-7).
Another major pro to transgenic research is the industrial applications that the animal can produce. The production of silk when a goat is infused with the silk gene of a spider aiding the production of a strong material used by the military and police departments for safety gear.
Another industrial aspect discovered by scientists is toxicity sensitive testing that can produce chemical reactions quicker, not harming the animal in any way, but still receiving the chemical tests that an industry needs to prove the success of a product (Margawati, 2003, para. 28).
Animals are used in the industrial setting to produce goods in a cleaner and safer way for the environment and can produce the goods in a more efficient manner that can save money and require less labor.
There are also many cons found in transgenic research. One of the many cons is the creation of new life forms that may cross or blur the species boundaries. Crossing the boundaries of a species is characterized by the combining of DNA genes from two or more Running Head: TRANSGENICS 8 organisms into one, technologically creating a modified version of an organism and allowing it to reproduce (Baylis & Robert, 2006, para. 8). It is difficult enough to understand the genes that make up organisms because there are so many different organisms in the world. By genetically modifying the animals to have desired traits, we are making it even more difficult for scientists to determine the common ancestors that produced the creatures we study today by evolution. We cannot comparatively research the genetically modified organisms because we discover the unique individuals by the differences in their genomes (Baylis & Robert, 2006, para. 9). By genetically modifying animals, we continue to confuse ourselves by making it even more difficult to produce common ancestors and gene sequences common in animals of the same species.
When an animal is transgenically modified, it can suffer many long term effects. It is still unknown how much pain or suffering the animals that are being tested endure. James T.
MacGregor (1998) stated that an, “established a link between the DNA reactivity of chemicals and the induction of cancer and mutation and led to a concern that chemical exposures could pose previously unappreciated health hazards: induction of germinal mutations that could modify the gene pool and increase the incidence of heritable biochemical abnormalities, and somatic mutations that could cause cancer and other somatic cell diseases” (p. 107). Although scientists are working to solve many diseases, the transgenic animal may develop the disease through the research due to the tests that insert the genes into its system. This can ultimately damage the organism’s immune system or lead to death. Some research is very successful and leads to drugs that are successful, but many of the transgenes are not useful to the research that scientists are doing. This alludes to the fact that they are being used for unnecessary research and are dying in vain (MacGregor, 1998, p. 107). Kristen Shrader-Frechette’s (2009) De Minimis Dilemma also Running Head: TRANSGENICS 9 comes in effect based on the safety standards of genetic research. How safe is safe enough? It is not ethical to put an organism in danger for a benefit without first setting safety standards that can be agreed on (61). This introduces a risk assessment that cannot be solved because the human race as a whole holds different views of transgenic research and will not ever agree on a specific set of safety standards.
Another concern of many individuals is the blending of human DNA with nonhuman
DNA. To Bernard Rollin (2003) of Colorado State University, genetic engineering
“illegitimately mixes human and animal traits” (p. 15). Genetic engineering has some forms of genetically engineering traits of one human to clone another version of itself or also the removal of specific traits that are not desired by a parent. Although the possibility of therapeutic advances and cutting out diseases can be a result of genetic engineering, many find it ethically wrong because it allows human interference in the production of a child. It is just not natural, or the way of life. This is the formation of the “designer baby.” Transgenic research on humans is a possibility for the future to ensure that the traits desired by the parents will be found in a child.
This will allow them to have certain advantages and place them ahead in life. Many consider transgenic research the race to become the “superhuman,” and changing the ever-widening gap between the haves and have nots in society (Glenn, 2004, para. 19).
Finally, the personal, social, and cultural differences that could be introduced to the world if transgenic research becomes more popular are the last aspect of the argument. The social aspect of transgenics is the fact that farmers or scientists that are maintaining the transgenic organism could be funded a large amount of monetary gain and will be placed at a higher socio- economic standing than anyone else in a country (Taskin & Ozdemir, 2005, p. 7). Transgenic and genetic engineering on farms and labs would put many farmers and scientists in control of Running Head: TRANSGENICS 10 agricultural aspects, potentially damaging the agricultural developments of the natural breeding of plants and animals. Cultural differences would be that the animals or humans that are altered may stand out compared to similar organisms. This is another aspect of the blurring of species boundaries, creating the possibility of the organism not being accepted for its differences. It may face difficulties when finding a mate to reproduce, if it can even reproduce at all. Many transgenic organisms will not survive out of a stable environment, making its survival in the wild very rare.
Concluding, my argument is that transgenic research on animals is not ethical based on
Kristin Shrader-Frechette’s theories on dilemmas. She creates an illusion that to be ethical; the technological advancement must meet the standards set up in her dilemmas. Transgenic research exemplifies some of the serious dilemmas she discusses. Genetic engineering or transgenics interfere with The Fact-Value Dilemma because it “cannot be both wholly factual/scientific and wholly sanctioned via democratic processes because lay persons want ethical/moral considerations to be taken into account” (Shrader-Frechette, 1992, p. 60). Some individuals have argued that crossing species boundaries is unnatural, immoral, and in violation of God’s laws.
The argument matches The Fact-Value Dilemma because it thinks that an animal’s boundaries are fixed and should not be tampered with for scientific research because they were created that way for a reason. If the organism was created that way, their genes should not be tampered with.
The De Minimis Dilemma and The Consent Dilemma also arises because the safety of the experiments in transgenics are not widely mentioned or even known and the animals or species are not given the choice to deny the experiment (Shrader-Frechette, 1992, p. 61). The risks of the experiment includes: inflicting pain, health risks, and tampering with environmental adaptations; but these issues are not highly recognized by the scientists wanting this technology Running Head: TRANSGENICS 11 passed. The De Minimis Dilemma is the main argument because safety regulations are not put into place when organisms are genetically engineered. It is not possible to create a set of regulations that protect the animal because it is impossible to create a set of rules that everyone can agree on in genetic engineering. Transgenics is such a slippery topic without the safety issues being introduced. Many individuals disagree with transgenics anyway, so it would be impossible for the world as a whole to agree on a set of regulations to be followed when organisms are being genetically modified. Animals are not given the opportunity to give consent to genetic engineering techniques before the research is completed, meaning they did not give consent to be changed. The Consent Dilemma is a sub-unit to my argument because every organism deserves the opportunity to give consent. The animals used in transgenic research are not given a chance to stop the things that scientists are doing, but animals do not have the ability to give proper consent. Given the choice, the organisms that scientists use for transgenic research would not want to participate in the gene modification. Organisms do not want to face the hardships of blurring the boundaries, the differences that they will have compared to non- trangenic organisms, and the health factors that they may suffer for scientific studies.
Hence, this paper argues that present genetic engineering of species through transgenic research is ethically wrong due to the lack of information given to the general public, causing the
De Minimis Dilemma, which states that individuals hold different views of safety. Although I mention that consent is a factor that all organisms deserve, I am not against transgenic research.
Organisms are studies and genetically engineered to aid in the bettering of the world as a whole.
There are many benefits to genetic engineering, such as: medical advances and increases in agriculture and industry. The main issue with transgenic research is the lack of a set of safety regulations for the treatment of the organisms. This is a dilemma that cannot be reversed Running Head: TRANSGENICS 12 because it is difficult to declare a threshold level at which to define negligible risk because all individuals hold different expectations of safety features (Shrader-Frechette, 2009, 61).
Everyone is granted an opinion and until a consensus can be reached about transgenic research about the safety issues, it will remain an unethical argument. The De Minimis Dilemma will hold its value because safety is the main factor in the argument of transgenic research, and without similar expectation of safety, it will not hold any ethical value. Without understanding the dangers of genetic engineering, the value of ethics remains an issue due to the safety features that are unknown and will not be agreed upon now or in the future.
Running Head: TRANSGENICS 13
Bibliography
Baylis, F. & Robert, J. S. (2006). Primer on ethics and crossing species boundaries. Retrieved
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http://www.actionbioscience.org/biotech/baylis_robert.html
Bascands, J., & Schanstra, J. (2005). Obstructive nephropathy: Insights from genetically
engineered animals. Kidney International, 68(3), 925-937. doi:10.1111/j.1523-
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Glenn, L. M. (2004). Ethical issues in genetic engineering and transgenes. Retrieved November
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Shrader-Frechette, K. (1992). Techonlogy and ethics. In C. Hawks (Ed.), Technology and
Value (pp. 60-64). New York: Blackwell.
I located this article from a class handout and in the Technology and Value print book, by editor
C. Hawks. This is a scholarly article because it is used in a well noted source, published
in Technology and Value, a book that is used for the fields of science, technology, and
philosophy to debunk an argument by dilemmas introduced by Shrader-Frechette. The
article first explains the different types of dilemmas that are involved in an argument and
gives a detailed definition of why the argument may not be valid based on the rules that
she explains. I find this source useful to my paper topic because it is the base of my
argument; it explains that consent and other dilemmas give value to an argument and if
any of the dilemmas are placed into question, the argument will have consequences for
some viewers of the research.
Taşkın, B., & Özdemir, O. (2006). A life with transgenics in 21st century. Journal
of Cell & Molecular Biology, 5(1), 1-11. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete
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PS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=viva_radford&tabID=T003&searchId=R5&r
esultListType=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchType=AdvancedSearchForm& Running Head: TRANSGENICS 15
currentPosition=1&contentSet=GALE|CX3409800558&&docId=GALE|CX3409800558
&docType=GALE&role=
I located this article using Gale Virtual Reference Library using the search of the title of the article “Transgenics.” This is a scholarly article based on publication of the article in the second volume of the World of Microbiology and Immunology and was published for the use of scientists and other researchers when looking for transgenic research and information. The article first explains what transgenics are and the process that scientists conduct when beginning the transgenic research on an organism, the genetic code rules and how the organism will use the modified genes in sync with other genes they exhibit, and the processes that the modified genes will have in the body of the transgenic organism, all while not taking a definite side on the controversy of transgenic research on organisms. I find this source useful to my paper topic because it explains the process that is commonly used in the gene modification and explains the scientific process that takes place in the organism when the gene is placed in the bodies, which are essential to the focus of my paper on transgenic research on organisms.
Whitesides, J. G. (2006). Genetic engineering. In S. Kutler (Ed.). Dictionary of American
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PS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=viva_radford&tabID=T003&searchId=R2&r
esultListType=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchType=AdvancedSearchForm&
currentPosition=1&contentSet=GALE|CX3401801675&&docId=GALE|CX3401801675
&docType=GALE&role= Running Head: TRANSGENICS 16
I located this article using Gale Virtual Reference Library with the search words “transgenics,”
“genes,” and “modification.” This is clearly an article from a scholarly article, having being written by a History professor with a strong background in genetic engineering and research primarily for the use of research and information for all readers, and published in an academic dictionary for the field of history and genetic research. The article first explains the history of genetic engineering, contemporary applications of genetic engineering, without taking a specific stand on which side of genetic engineering he stands. This source will be valuable to my paper because it gives a detailed history of genetic engineering, but also gives information on the applications of genetic engineering in the past and possible applications for the future use of genetic engineering, which is part of the focus on my paper dealing with the genetic engineering of transgenic organisms.