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PART 4 The Classical Era

classic is something that endures, and the of what The eighteenth century as a whole, but particularly the we now call the Classical Era—a period extending from period between about 1720 and 1790, is known as the Age of Aroughly 1750 to 1800—was the first to thrive without inter- Enlightenment. Enlightenment thought held that reason could ruption long after its had died. Joseph Haydn bring humankind to a new age of splendor, freed from the (1732–1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791), dark superstitions of the past (hence “enlightenment”). For the two leading composers of this era, wrote music that has Enlightenment artists and thinkers, the power to convince lay never really gone out of fashion. The term “classical” also not in overwhelming displays of opulence, or in larger-than- refers to Greek and Roman antiquity, which strongly influ- life drama, or in the expression of a particular effect—all of enced the arts and architecture of this period. As a new kind which aimed to influence the emotions—but rather in critical of thinking took hold, the Baroque love of ornamentation, thinking and reasoned discussion, which aimed to persuade virtuosity, and expressive extremes gave way to more classi- the mind. cal ideals of balance, clarity, and naturalness. The music of the Classical Era reflects these principles of clarity, proportion, and what critics of the day called “naturalness.” Classical-Era melodies are on the whole more tuneful, less complicated, and more balanced than those of the Baroque era. More symmetrical melodic phrasing, based on the rhythms of dance music, extended itself across all genres, both

᭣ This intriguing image captures the Enlightenment’s ideal of the mind—the seat of reason—as the focal point of all perception. Claude Nicolas Ledoux (1736–1806), “Eye Enclosing the Theatre at Besancon, France,” 1847. Engraving. © Bibliothèque des Arts Décoratifs, Paris, France. Archives Charmet/The Bridgeman Art Library. M19_BONDS8253_01_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/08 8:10 PM Page 172

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vocal and instrumental. Critics of the day praised homo- phonic texture for its clarity and grace, and the dense tex- tures of became the exception rather than the rule. But this does not mean that music of the Classical Era is somehow simpler, for a typical movement of music from this period features more internal contrasts than its Baroque counterpart. A typical movement in , the most important new structural innovation of the era (and one used in Mozart’s Symphony no. 40 in G Minor), juxtaposes multiple themes that differ markedly in their melody, rhythm, , dynamics, and .

Music as Language A such as Joseph Haydn’s op. 76, no. 3 was often described as four rational individuals conversing ᭡ Joseph Wright, An Experiment on a Bird in the Air-Pump, 1768. A scientist in music. It fits that the string quartet developed in the demonstrates the effect of a vacuum jar on a small bird. The young boy at the right lowers the cage for the bird, which will be revived when air is reintro- Classical Era, when instrumental music began to be duced to the bowl. Empirical science and the application of reason dominated heard as a language all its own. In the Baroque era and Enlightenment thought. before, the only music thought truly meaningful was © National Gallery, London that with a sung text; instrumental music was perceived primarily as a means of entertainment. In the eighteenth century, for the first time, critics described musical structures in terms of language. They recognized that the phrases in a melody corresponded in a general way to the opening and closing phrases in a sentence. Writers of the Enlightenment liked to call music the “language of the heart”—as opposed to verbal language, “the language of the mind”—and in this way, instrumental music moved up a notch in prestige.

᭤ Thomas Jefferson’s University of Virginia, shown in an early engraving. Jefferson designed the Rotunda after the Pantheon of ancient Rome. Sym- metry is important in Classical architec- ture as well as in the music of the Classical Era, though on closer inspection very few structures—or melodies—prove entirely symmetrical. Each of the large houses for faculty in this “academical village” is slightly different from the others. Tracy W. McGregor Library of American History, Special Collections, University of Virginia Library M19_BONDS8253_01_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/08 8:10 PM Page 173

The Classical Era PART 4 173

Music and Revolution The plot of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s comic The Marriage of Figaro (1786) would have been unthinkable only a generation before. Count Almaviva, a nobleman, is outwitted by his servants. This opera captures the growing mood of discontent with the established order of society in the decades leading up to the French Revolution. Basic ideas about human rights (“life, lib- erty, and the pursuit of happiness,” to quote the U.S. Declaration of Independence) won growing acceptance during this time. Enlightenment social critics such as Voltaire (1694–1778) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–78) argued for the innate goodness of human beings and for the rational pursuit of personal and socie- tal betterment. The U.S. Declaration of Independence is a quintes- sential document of the Enlightenment, for it recognizes the ᭡ George Washington accepts the surrender of British troops at inherent dignity of the individual. Its principal author, Thomas Yorktown in 1781, marking the end of the Revolutionary War. The military band present at the occasion played “Yankee Doodle” and Jefferson, established the University of Virginia (see image) on the a tune called “The World Turned Upside Down.” premise that the institution would be “based on the illimitable John Trumbull (American, 1756–1843), “The Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at freedom of the human mind. For here we are not afraid to follow Yorktown, 19 October 1781,” 1787–c. 1828. Yale University Art Gallery / Art truth wherever it may lead, nor to tolerate any error so long as Resource, NY reason is left free to combat it.” The American Revolution (1775–81) established the independence of the United States from Great Britain, and the French Revolution (1789) overthrew the power of what until that time had been the world’s most powerful monarchy. The results affected not just the coun- tries immediately involved, but ultimately every nation in the Western world. National inde- pendence and democracy, if not always realized in practice, became new ideals of social order. These new ideals, in turn, paved the way for new approaches to education, including the establishment of the first state-run conservatory of music, in Paris, in 1795. The lead- ers of the new French Republic and the monarchy they had just overthrown agreed on at least one point: that music was an important means of projecting cultural power.

Music and the New Economy The second half of the eighteenth century witnessed the beginnings of an even more powerful revolution, one that would change everyday life throughout the Western world. Rapid advances in technology—the steam engine, the cotton gin, and the prin- ciple of manufacturing based on interchangeable parts, to cite just a few examples— made it possible to produce goods on a far greater scale than ever before. Many national and local economies based on agriculture began to shift toward industry. Cities grew rapidly in size during this period, and this growth in urban populations in turn created new demands for cultural institutions of all kinds, including music.

᭤ Musical audiences were more diverse in the late 18th century than they had been in earlier times, when performances were attended largely by the nobility and aristocracy. In this caricature, an amateur music-lover sings along with the soloist on the stage of the opera, much to the consternation of the real performers. Rowlandson, Thomas (1756–1827), “John Bull at the ,” 1811. Engraving. Gerald Coke Handel Collection, Foundling Museum, London / The Bridgeman Art Library. M19_BONDS8253_01_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/08 8:10 PM Page 174

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While the churches and royal courts remained important centers of culture, theaters and concert halls open to the paying public began to flourish for the first time on a widespread scale. We see these changes in the careers of both Haydn and Mozart. Haydn worked almost all his adult life in the service of one aristocratic family, composing symphonies, sonatas, and according to the desires of his employers. By the 1790s, however, Haydn was lured away to England to write symphonies, including the Symphony no. 102 in B Major, among other works, for a series of public concerts organized by a musical entrepreneur. Mozart left his native Salzburg at the age of 25 to seek his fortune in Vienna. He tried unsuccessfully to land a secure job at the imperial court there, but he managed to support himself reasonably well (for a time, at least) by giving public concerts, by writing operas, and by composing works that could be published and sold to music-loving amateurs. Composers had to write in ways that would appeal to this expanded audience even while maintaining the high standards of their craft. Works like the in A Major, K. 488, were the perfect lure for audiences intrigued by Mozart’s virtuosity both as a and as a performer.

The Art of the Natural Throughout the Classical Era, artists in every field looked to nature as a model. The ideal work of art, according to this view, was one that hid its artifice, that concealed its mechani- cal elements, and that appeared to be the product of effortless— natural—genius. Composers still had to learn the technique of their craft, to be sure, and they continued to study such topics as harmony and counterpoint with great diligence. But the goal of all this study was not to show off one’s art, but to touch the hearts of listeners in a manner that was direct and (seemingly) spontaneous. This new aesthetic manifested itself in music in many ways. Melodies and ornamentation became less ornate. Textures on the whole tended more toward homophony than , homophony being the more “natural” of the two textures because it allowed the ear to focus on a single melody. In opera, plots and characters both became decidedly more realistic. Mozart and others devoted great energies to the new genre of opera buffa or “comic opera,” which portrayed real-life characters and situations, as opposed to the mythological and historical figures that populate so much of Baroque opera. In Mozart’s The Marriage of Figaro, we can immediately identify with the ᭡ A family making music together in late 18th-century England. emotions and actions of the characters because they are presented Johann Zoffany (1733–1810), “George, 3rd Earl Cowper, with the Family of Charles in a manner that is true to life, in a manner that is, in a word, Gore,” 1775. Oil on Canvas. Yale Center for British Art/Paul Mellon Collection. The Bridgeman Art Library, NY natural. M19_BONDS8253_01_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/08 8:10 PM Page 175

The Classical Era: AT A GLANCE 1759 • Voltaire publishes Candide chapter 19 chapter 20 chapter 21 chapter 22

1762 • Rousseau publishes 1797 1795 1788 Social Contract JOSEPH HAYDN MASTER MUSICIANS OF JOSEPH HAYDN WOLFGANG AMADEUS String Quartet op. 76, THE IKUTA-RYU (JAPAN) Symphony no. 102, MOZART no. 3, second movement Cherry Blossom third and Symphony no. 40, GENRE: String Quartet GENRE: Japanese koto fourth movements first movement • • GENRE: Symphony GENRE: Symphony 1775 Chapter highlight: Chapter highlight: • • • American Classical Theme and Variations Chapter highlight: Chapter highlight: Revolution The string quartet was primarily The theme and variations form pro- The Classical Symphony Sonata Form for amateurs in private settings. vides a way to combine repetition, The symphony, which used strings, Sonata form was the most impor- Intimate genres were also com- variation, and contrast. It also works winds, and percussion, was the tant structural convention to emerge posed for the newly popular piano, particularly well as a basis for largest, longest, and most prestigious from the Classical Era. It is a including sonatas, variations, trios, improvisation. of all instrumental genres in this era. flexible format in which contrasting and fantasias. Haydn, Mozart, KEY CONCEPTS: By the end of the eighteenth cen- themes and harmonic areas are J.C. Bach, and C.P.E. Bach all Pentatonic scale, , tury, performances of symphonies juxtaposed, transformed, and 1776 • contributed to these repertories. extramusical content. were decidedly public events. ultimately reconciled. American KEY CONCEPTS: KEY CONCEPTS: KEY CONCEPTS: Declaration of Theme and variations, periodic Minuet form, rounded binary form, Modulation, contrasting themes, Independence phrase structure, musical rondo form, the finale, and harmonic areas. appropriation. concert manners, and programs.

chapter 23 chapter 24 chapter 25

1789 • French Revolution

1786 1786 WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART LISA LU AND THE Piano Concerto K. 488, The Marriage of Figaro, BEIJING OPERA COMPANY 1789 • first movement Act 1, selection The Reunion U.S. Constitution GENRE: Concerto GENRE: Comic opera GENRE: Chinese opera • • • Chapter highlight: Chapter highlight: Chapter highlight: The Classical Concerto Classical Opera Recitative and Aria The concerto of the Classical era combines the Opera remained the most prestigious and In opera of the West and the East, recitative ritornello principle of the Baroque with the lucrative genre and inspired some of the era’s or heightened speech narrates dramatic action, 1793-94 • newer sonata form. A cadenza lets the soloist greatest music. In addition to providing enter- and arias express the lyrical sentiments of the Reign of improvise. Mozart, Haydn, and Marianne von tainment, the opera also served as a kind of characters. Terror in France Martinez, among others, wrote concertos for pressure-valve on social tensions. Mozart and KEY CONCEPTS: piano, violin, cello, and clarinet. Gluck are generally considered the two greatest Language tones, stock characters, pentatonic KEY CONCEPTS: composers of opera in the Classical era. scale, metabole. Double-exposition concerto form, the cadenza. KEY CONCEPTS: Drama through music, relationship of dramatic and musical structures (rondo), accompanied recitative. Historical Events M19_BONDS8253_01_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/08 8:16 PM Page 176

VIENNAVIENNA

Salzburg Innsbruck 19 AUSTRIA Joseph Haydn String Quartet in C Major, Op. 76, No. 3 (second movement)

Listen to how the sounds of the four instruments both blend together and distinguish themselves. The string quartet consists of two violins, a viola, and a cello. The registers of these instruments range from high (violin) to low (cello), but their sound quality is similar. Timbre

Notice how the melody always appears in one of the instruments and the other three weave around it. Is the texture homophonic or polyphonic? Also listen for the long passage shortly after the beginning in which only two of the instruments—the two violins—are playing. Texture

Listen for the pauses that break the melody into sections known as phrases. Which phrases sound like the music wants to continue? When do you hear a phrase that sounds conclusive? Which phrases are repeated? Melody

Listen to the way the melody is first presented by one of the violins and then repeated with very little change by each of the other instruments across the course of the movement. Form M19_BONDS8253_01_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/08 8:10 PM Page 177

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good melody is worth hearing again and again. But at some point, we also want to hear something different, either a different version of the melody or a different melody altogether. Composers use a combination of repetition, variation, and con- Atrast to satisfy and sustain our interest as listeners. The second movement of Joseph Haydn’s String Quartet in C Major, op. 76, no. 3, offers a good example of how music can deliver repetition, variation, and contrast all at the same time. The melody is from a song Haydn himself had written a few months earlier for the birthday of Holy Roman Emperor Franz II, who resided in Vienna. The song, set to the words “God save Franz, the Emperor,” was an immediate hit with the public and soon became Austria’s unofficial national anthem. The melody was so closely associated with the emperor that Haydn could not alter the melody itself, for the ideal emperor is steadfast and not subject to change. Haydn created an ingenious solution to this problem by repeating the emperor’s theme more or less unchanged four times in succession, varying only the instrument that played it and writing contrasting musical lines to surround the theme. Thus, though the theme remains essentially the same, it stays fresh because the frame around it is constantly changing. In setting this theme with variations for four instruments of similar timbre, Haydn imposed an additional challenge on himself. Without the full orchestra at his disposal, he could not rely on winds, brass, or timpani to create varieties of sound. This makes his accomplishment—a movement that sustains interest while repeating a melody four times— all the more remarkable. Haydn was not the first to write string quartets, but he did more than any other composer to establish this new genre’s significance from the middle of the eighteenth century onward. Not in spite of its timbral constraints but because of them, Haydn, Mozart, and later Beethoven all took up the challenge of writing for the string quartet repeatedly throughout their careers. By the end of the eighteenth century, the string quartet had acquired the reputa- tion of being the most demanding of all musical genres, one that allowed composers to demonstrate their talents more fully. The quartet is a decidedly intimate genre. In Haydn’s time, it was usually performed in the home and only rarely in public concerts. Unlike the concerto, no soloist or small group of soloists stands out; instead, all four instrumentalists operate on an equal footing. Commenta- tors since Haydn’s day have repeatedly likened the string quartet to a conversation among four equal participants. The conversational aspect of the genre reinforced the sense that these works were written primarily for the pleasure of the performers. Listeners in private settings sometimes even compared themselves to eavesdroppers. The typical string quartet of the Classical Era consists of four contrasting movements: 1. The first movement, usually in a fast , is most often written in what came to be known as “sonata form,” the most significant new form to come out of the Classical Era. We will take up the sonata form in chapter 22 of this book, with Mozart’s Symphony No. 40. 2. The second movement is usually in a slow tempo and in a contrasting key. Slow move- ments could assume many different forms: sonata form, theme and variations, and ABA are the most common. (The movement that we are listening to here is a set of variations on a theme.) M19_BONDS8253_01_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/08 8:10 PM Page 178

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3. The third movement is usually a minuet, a lively, stylized dance in triple meter, in the tonic key. We will take up the minuet in chapter 21 of this book, with Haydn’s Symphony No. 102. 4. The fourth movement, also known as the finale, is a somewhat lighter and usually very fast movement. The most common forms used in finales are sonata form and rondo. We will take up the rondo in chapter 21 of this book, with Haydn’s Symphony no. 102.

The Timbre of the String Quartet

The string quartet creates an unusually homogeneous timbre, for its instruments are all variants of the same basic instrument. The viola and cello are essentially larger and there- fore deeper versions of the violin. Together, these four instruments correspond to the four standard ranges of the singing voice: HIGHEST : Violin 1 : Violin 2 : Viola LOWEST Bass: Cello

Like any good vocal ensemble, the instruments of a string quartet can blend together to sound almost like a single instrument or emphasize their differences. The violin has a sweet, pierc- ing sound, while the cello has a more resonant, richer tone. The viola creates a sound some- where between these two extremes of high and low. It is particularly easy to compare the differences between the sounds of the individual instruments in this movement because Haydn gives the main theme to each at some point:

᭡ A string quartet in performance. From left to right: violin 1, violin 2, viola, and cello. Zdenek CHRAPEK/Lebrecht Music & Arts Photo Library M19_BONDS8253_01_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/08 8:10 PM Page 179

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Changing Textures

Haydn expands the timbral variety of this movement by changing textures through- out. The theme is first presented in a hymnlike fashion, with the melody in the top voice (Violin 1) and the other instruments supporting it, moving at the same pace, rather like the in the last movement of Bach’s Cantata no. 140 (see chapter 17). The texture is homo- phonic. In Variation 1 (1:17–2:25), Violin 2 carries the theme while Violin 1 weaves an intri- cate accompanimental figure around it: this is two-part homophony. In Variation 2, the cello carries the theme, with the three other voices weaving around it. Variation 3 begins with only three voices, with the melody in the viola and the cello silent; when the cello enters, Violin 1 drops out; only later in this variation do we hear all four voices together. Variation 4 features four-part polyphony from beginning to end.

Melody: Periodic Phrase Structure

The melody of this movement is made of five phrases, each marked at the end by a cadence, a brief resting point. The first two phrases (labeled A) are the same. They are fol- lowed by a phrase that is not repeated (B), and then two final phrases (C) that are the same. Neither the A phrase nor the B phrase sounds complete at the end: with each, we expect the music to continue. Not until the end of the C phrase do we feel a sense of conclusion. The structure of these units (A, B, and C) can be compared to the elements that make up a sentence. The opening A and B sections act as antecedent phrases (ante ϭ before), while C functions as a consequent phrase (sequent ϭ following). As in a sentence, an antecedent phrase sets up a consequent phrase and the two together make a complete sentence.

Antecedent phrase 1 Antecedent phrase 2 Consequent phrase ͉If I’m still here tomorrow,͉͉and if you’re back,͉͉I’ll stop by your place.͉ comma comma period

Neither of the antecedent phrases here is complete: we expect each to continue. In Haydn’s melody, neither the A nor the B phrase of the melody sounds complete because nei- ther finishes on the tonic (home) note of the key. Phrases A and B both end on the note D, which creates a certain sense of arrival but not closure. These points of arrival are called half cadences: they create a moment of punctuation more like a comma than a period. But the melody of the C phrase ends on the main note of the tonic key (G), and for that reason, we call it a full cadence, and we hear its arrival as a moment of closure. This kind of phrase structure, with antecedent and consequent units that together make a larger whole, is called periodic phrase structure. The term “periodic” comes from the Latin word for sentence—periodus, the same word for the mark of punctuation that indicates the end of a sentence—emphasizing the link between musical and linguistic structures. Periodic phrase structure is basic to many melodies from many different eras of music, but is particu- larly associated with music of the Classical Era. M19_BONDS8253_01_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/08 8:10 PM Page 180

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A 0:00 0:15 Antecedent phrase 1 Antecedent phrase 1 (repeated) # j œ œ œ œ ˙ j œ œ œ œ ˙ & C œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Starts on G Ends on D Ends on D (= tonic) (half-cadence) (half-cadence) open-ended

B 0:29 # Antecedent phrase 2 U œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ #œœ œ ˙ & œ œ œ œ œ œ œ J

Starts on A Ends on D (half-cadence) open-ended C 0:45 1:01 Consequent phrase Consequent phrase (repeated) # œ. œ j œ. œ j œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œœœ r œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œœœ r & J J œ œ. œ œœœ œœ ˙ J J œ œ. œ œœœ œœ ˙ Z Z p Z Z p

Ends on G Ends on G Starts on G ( = tonic) ( = tonic) (full cadence) (full cadence) closed closed

The Theme and Variations Form

The theme and variations form was an extremely popular form throughout the Classical Era. It is a basically simple structure: a theme is presented and then altered in some way—through harmony, melody, texture, dynamics, or some combination of these—in a succession of individual variations. Composers often used well-known themes as the basis of new variations. Mozart, for example, wrote a set of variations on the French song “Ah, vous dirai-je, maman” (better known as “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star”; see Expand Your Playlist), and Beethoven later wrote a set on the melody to “God Save the King” (better known in the United States as “My Country ’tis of Thee”). Haydn’s unusual move—to keep the theme almost completely intact in each variation, altering only its register (the instrument) and changing the other three voices around the theme—takes on symbolic significance when one considers that the theme began as a birth- day melody celebrating the emperor. The constancy of the melody can be heard as a portrait of the constancy of Emperor Franz. Circumstances around him may change, but the emperor remains unchanged. Now listen to this movement again, using the Listening Guide. M19_BONDS8253_01_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/08 8:10 PM Page 181

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Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) WRITING TO ORDER

t’s hard to imagine any individual having his own orchestra at home nowadays, but that’s exactly what IPrince Nicholas Esterházy had in the second half of the eighteenth century. And for almost three decades, Joseph Haydn was the prince’s music director, respon- sible for writing new music, conducting the orchestra, and keeping order among the musicians, who could be a rowdy bunch at times. Fortunately for Haydn, Prince Nicholas (known far and wide as “The Magnificent”) was willing to spend huge amounts of money on music, and Haydn was thus in charge of one of the very best orchestras in all of Europe. “My Prince was satis- fied with all of my works,” he told one of his biogra- phers late in life, “and I received applause. As the director of an orchestra, I could make experiments, observe what elicited or weakened an impression, and thus correct, add, delete, take risks. I was cut off from the world, no one in my vicinity could cause me to doubt myself or pester me, and so I had to become original.” Haydn wrote whatever works the prince requested: string quartets, operas, sonatas. ᭡ Joseph Haydn, in a portrait done during his In fact, his original contract required him to appear years in London in the 1790s. in uniform every morning before the prince and receive Thomas Hardy, Josephy Haydn, 1792. London, Royal instructions as to what kinds of works he was to College of Music. AKG London. compose. The death of Prince Nicholas in 1790 opened a new PLAYLIST: HAYDN chapter in Haydn’s life. He made two extended tours to England, where he composed symphonies, songs, and String Quartet in C Major, op. 76, no. 3 (complete) a number of works for piano. After returning to Vienna String Quartet in D Major, op. 76, no. 5  for good in 1795, he produced two highly successful Symphony no. 45 in F Minor (“Farewell”) oratorios (The Creation and The Seasons), a handful of Symphony no. 101 in D Major (“Clock”) Masses, and several of his finest string quartets. The  young Ludwig van Beethoven was one of his last com- in E Major, Hob. XVI: 53 position pupils. The Creation (oratorio) M19_BONDS8253_01_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/08 9:05 PM Page 182

CD X • Track XX

GO TO for the Automated Listening Guide

Joseph Haydn String Quartet in C Major, Op. 76, No. 3 (second movement)

Formal Time Section Melodic Phrases Timbre

0:00 Theme A (0:00) Theme in the first violin A (0:15) B (0:29) C (0:45) C (1:01)

1:17 Variation 1 A (1:17) Theme in the second violin A (1:31) B (1:44) C (1:57) C (2:11)

2:26 Variation 2 A (2:26) Theme in the cello A (2:41) B (2:57) C (3:14) C (3:31)

3:49 Variation 3 A (3:49) Theme in the viola A (4:04) B (4:19) C (4:35) C (4:52)

5:09 Variation 4 A (5:09) Theme in the first violin A (5:25) B (5:39) C (5:54) Now moved to a very high range, the highest in the entire movement C (6:10) In a very high range again.

6:24 Coda Cadential passage Cadential material in first violin M19_BONDS8253_01_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/08 8:10 PM Page 183

Texture

Homophonic. Hymnlike, with all four voices moving at the same speed

I can’t always tell the difference among the four instruments. The cello in Variation 2 and the viola in Variation 3 sound almost the Homophonic. The first violin plays a rapid accompanimental same. Is this a problem? figure, while the lower voices (viola and cello) are silent. The three kinds of instruments used in a string quartet all overlap to some degree, so a cello playing in a high range is in fact playing some of the same pitches as a viola, and a viola in its high range covers many of the notes available on the lower end of the vio- lin’s range. There is a difference in the quality of sound of the instru- Polyphonic. The other three voices are playing lines that ments, however, and it is worth listening closely for this difference. If have distinctive profiles of their own and are not merely accompanimental. you are able to experience a live performance of this work, or at least watch a video of a live performance of it, the visual cues will help rein- force the individual qualities of the instruments.

Polyphonic. As in Variation 2, the other three instruments play lines that have Without a conductor, who leads the quartet in performance? distinctive profiles of their own and are As any string player will tell you, playing in a quartet is very not merely accompanimental. different from playing in an orchestra. A quartet is a collabora- tive enterprise: the players discuss and agree among themselves in rehearsal about such matters as tempo, phrasing, and dynamics. In performance, the first violinist gives subtle Polyphonic. Same as in Variations 2 and 3. indications to lead the other players, often through a glance, a raised eyebrow, or a slight gesture of the head. But at times other players might give such signals, depending on which instrument leads at any given moment. The longer a group has performed together, the better the individual members know one another’s manner of playing, and the more subtle the gestures.

Homophonic. M19_BONDS8253_01_SE_C19.QXD 9/29/08 8:10 PM Page 184

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CULTURAL CONTEXT

Musical Appropriation Music is often used in ways its composers could never imagine. Fallersleben. This song would eventually become the German Musical appropriation is the use or adaptation of a work to national anthem, though only the third strophe is used today. serve something other than its original purpose. The melody A work setting new words to an established melody is Haydn wrote in honor of the Emperor Franz II became so popu- known as a contrafactum. Nothing prevents any person or lar that many different poets set new words to it: institution—a political party, a nation, a church—from appropri- ating an existing melody, often in ways that are quite different • One text praised the people of Hamburg; from the purpose of the original. Often new lyrics turn the origi- • Several praised rulers other than Franz II; nal song on its head. The British national anthem, “God Save • Another text (in Latin) came from the Book of Psalms; the King,” provided the melody for “My Country, ‘tis of Thee,” • Several other texts praised God. one of the most popular of all patriotic songs in the breakaway The most famous of all the new texts, though, was colonies of North America. The tune now known as “The Star- “Germany Above All Else” (“Deutschland über alles”), written Spangled Banner” first accompanied a text that was originally a in 1841 by the German poet August Heinrich Hoffmann von drinking song (see p. 000).

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Chamber Music and Solo Keyboard Music of the Classical Era The second half of the eighteenth century witnessed a tremen- String Quartet in D Major, K. 575. Includes an unusually promi- dous growth in amateur music making at home. New printing nently cello part; this is one of three quartets Mozart wrote for the technologies had reduced the cost of sheet music, and the King of Prussia, who was a cellist. fortepiano (a new instrument, the forerunner of the modern-day piano) was less expensive than the harpsichord (the principal Variations on “Ah vous dirai-je, maman,” K. 265. A set of variations domestic keyboard instrument of the Baroque era). The string for piano on the tune known as “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.” quartet was one of several genres intended primarily for use in Piano Sonata in A Major, K. 331. The finale is a rondo “alla Turca” the home. (“in the Turkish style”), imitating what Mozart thought music from the Ottoman Empire sounded like. Joseph Haydn  String Quartet in E Major, op. 33, no. 2 (“The Joke”). Listen to the Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach finale and you will understand the source of its nickname. Fantasia in C Minor, H. 75. A fantasia is a work that follows no for- mal conventions, guided only by the composer’s fantasy. A writer String Quartet in E Major, op. 76, no. 6. The first movement is a set the words of Hamlet’s celebrated monologue “To be or not to set of variations on a theme. be . . .” to this fantasia. C.P.E. Bach (1714–88) was one of several in G Major, Hob. XV: 25. The piano trio is an ensemble of ’s sons who had distinguished musical consisting of a piano, a violin, and a cello. The finale of this partic- careers. ular trio is a rondo “in the Hungarian Style,” often called the “Gypsy Rondo.” Johann Christian Bach Keyboard Sonata in D Major, op. 5, no. 2. The young Mozart liked Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart this solo sonata (which could be played on harpsichord or piano) String Quartet in C Major, K. 456. The slow introduction to the first so well that he rearranged it as a piano concerto. J.C. Bach movement has so many clashing sounds that the entire quartet is (1735–82), another son of J.S. Bach, was known as the “London known as the “Dissonance” Quartet. Bach” because he lived there for so long.