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H. A. Thompson INTRODUCTION the Degree-Day Approach Hasbeen H. A. Thompson INTRODUCTION The degree-day approach hasbeen used successfully for many years to relate temperature data to heating requirements for buildings. Monthly publications of the MeteorologicalBranch list cumulative seasonal and monthly heating degree-days below 65 OFfor ab6ut fifty representative stations in Canada, while annual summaries include an additional one hundred stations. The growing degree-day concept is familiar to many as a convenient method of linking temperature vari- ations, during a growing.season, with plant growth. Calculated normal monthly and annual growing degree-days are listed 'for about eighty stations in Canada in a paper by Boughner and Kendall (2). The freezing degree-day and thawing degree-day are logical developments of the degree-day technique, and, as the names imply, are used to relate climatic effects to frost action. Crawford and Boyd (6) mention that, as early as 1930, an empirical relationship involving degree-days below freezing air temperature, and frost penetration into the ground, was used in highway-design in the United States. FREEZING AND THAWING DEGREE -DAYS AND INDICES AS RELATED TO FROST ACTION Frost action in soils is a problem in practically all sections of Canada in highway, airport and building design. The problem has increased during the past ten to fifteen years with the northward extension of exploration and development into areas of widespread permafrost. To assist in the development of modern engineering techniques in the north, research bas been increased in such fields as ground temperature studies, frost penetration, and retreat, in soils, and permafrost distribution and behaviour. During the same period the increasing importance of water transportation in the north has fostered the development of new techniques for forecasting the formation, growth, dissipation and movement of ice in the seas, lakes and rivers. While all elements of climate are interrelated in their effects on each of these manifestations of frost action, temperature is probably the most closely related and temperature data most readily available (10). The most useful expressions of temperature values as they affect soils subject to frost action (7), and influence * Published with the approval of the Director, Meteorological Branch, Department of Transport, Toronto, Ontario. ice growth and dissipation in waterways(l l), are thawing and freezing degree-days. Their accumulations during respective thawing and freezing seasons are known as thawing and freezing indices (16). Whether it is used. in determining the heat requirements of buildings or plant growth, the temperature of the ground, the depthof frost penetration, the depth of thaw in permafrost, or the growth and dissipation of ice in waterways, the degree-day method is based entirely on temperature and neglects such variables of climate as wind, solar radiation, precipitation, etc., not to mention the numerous soil and water factors that are involved. However, in most of these fields, the method does represent this climatic parameter in a con- venient, simple form, suitable for use in many engineering and design studies. Workable empirical relationships exist between accumulations of freezing degree-days and depth of frost penetration in the ground (7), and between thawing degree-days and depth of thaw in permafrost (12). In areas of Canada where temperature data are not available, the freezing index map may be used, with empirical curves, to pro- vide first approximations of frost penetration. The rate at which frost enters or leaves the ground has considerable bearing on frost damage to ground installations (6).' This, in turn, is measured by the accumulation of degree:days during the first few weeks of freezing or thawing seasons. Brown (3) notes that, although the occurrence of permafrost is influenced by many climatic, surface, and geothermal factors independent of the temperature regime, there is a very broad rela- tionship between the boundary of permafrost in Canada and the mean annual air temperature. Since the formation and persist'ence of permafrost depends as much on the frost retreat during the thawing season as on the frost penetration during the freezing season, thawing as well as freezing indices must be considered. The degree-day method is commonly used to relate air tem- perature to ice formation, growth and dissipation., Empirical relation- ships involving ice thickness and accumulated freezing degree-days are used to predict the rate of ice growth (11). Similar formulae using melting degree-days provide break-up information. According to Markham (11), these degree-day relationships are used at the Ice Forecasting Central to determine the effects of temperature on the ice regime of the coastal waterways of Canada. Burbidge and Lauder (4) tested the degree-day technique to link temperature data to dates of break-up and freeze-up of lakes and rivers. At selected stations, it was possible to relate the date of break-up to the number of melting degree-days prior to break-up. There did not, however, appear to be any connection between the date of break-up and the severity of the past winter season as measured by the freezing index. PREVIOUS WORK ON FREEZING AND THAWING INDICES During the last decade, freezing degree-day accumulations and freezing indices have been computed for a number of stations in Canada, in connection with special investigations of frost action (3, 4, 6, 13). In 1954, as part of a runway evaluation programme of the Department of Transport, Wilkins and Dujay (13) used freezing degree-day accumulations for more than one hundred stations, aver- aged during the ten freezing seasons 1941 -1950, to construct a freezing inde.x map of Canada. The degree-day computations were based on mean daily temperatures. In 1959, a map of average thawing indices in Canada was prepared by the Division of Building Research, National Research Council (3). In this case, the thawing indices were calculated from mean monthly temperature data. SCOPE AND METHOD Due to the rather sparse climatological station network in northern Canada at the start of the 1941 -1950 decade, Wilkins and Dujay (13) did not attempt to extend their freezing index map into the Arctic. As a result of the northward expansion during the late forties, an additional number of stations in northern Canada now have clima- tological records of more than ten years. This study is an attempt to fill the northern gap in the freezing index map of Canada, to present a thawing index map of northern Canada, and to provide freezing and thawing degree-day accumulations for specified periods of time during each year of the latest decade, for about forty stations. Maps of northern Canada are also presented which indicate the average dates of the start of the freezing season (mean daily temperatures gener- ally below 32°F after this date), and the average dates of the start'of the thawing season (mean daily temperatures above 32"~). In view of increasing requirements for degree-day information on short period, monthly or annual fluctuations of temperature about a daily mean temperature of 32"F, it was decided to use machine methods to prepare degree-day tabulations for selected stations throughout Canada. The northern stations were given priority on this project, and the data presented here summarize the degree-day com- putations for about forty stations in northern Canada. Degree-day data were computed for practically all stations in northern Canada which have continuous climatological records during the period from July 1949 to December 1959. This period, which covered ten freezing seasons and ten thawing seasons, represented the most recent decade of observations available at the time on punched cards. While a single decade of observations cannot be considered entirely representative of normal climate, this period does provide a standard for the comparison of degree-day statistics for individual stations. The definitions used in these calculations are from the Engineering Manual, Corps of ~n~inekrs,U. S. Army (16). On the understanding that the degree-days for any one day are the difference between the average daily air temperature and 32"F, freezing degree- days are accumulated when this value is below 32 OF, and thawing degree-days occur when it is above 32°F. In the mschine tabulations, freezing degree-days are considered to be minus values, and thawing degree-days are plus values. For these computations, the degree-day totals for each day were derived from mean daily temperatures (in whole degrees F), based on the average of daily maximum and daily minimum temperatures. Three hundred and sixty-five punched cards per station-year were machine processed to give algebraic summa- tions of degree-days measured from 32°F. The degree-day total for each day, and the summation total from January lst, were indicated in the tabulation. The degree-day totals were cumulative from January 1st !o December 3 1st of each year. It was possible to deter- mine rates of accumulation of degree-days during specified periods of days or months from the time summation tabulation, or from the slope of the time summation curve. Where the freezing season is considered to include that period of time when the mean daily temperature is generally below 32"F, the Freezing Index may be defined as the number of degree-days be- tween the highest and lowest points on a curve of cumulative degree- days versus time, for one freezing season (16). The Thawing Index measures the number of degree-days between the highest and lowest values on the summation curve during a thawing season. These indices indicate the duration and magnitude of temperatures (with respect to 32°F) during freezing or thawing seasons. The method used in determining the changeover date between freezing and thawing seasons may be illustrated by referring to the May 1950 degree-day tabulation for Fort Chimo (Table 1).
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