BLBK202-Imeson August 25, 2009 16:17 ii BLBK202-Imeson August 25, 2009 16:17 Food Stabilisers, Thickeners and Gelling Agents i BLBK202-Imeson August 25, 2009 16:17 To Katie ii BLBK202-Imeson August 25, 2009 16:17 Food Stabilisers, Thickeners and Gelling Agents Edited by Alan Imeson FMC BioPolymer, UK A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication iii BLBK202-Imeson August 25, 2009 16:17 This edition first published 2010 C 2010 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing programme has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. 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Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Food stabilisers, thickeners, and gelling agents / edited by Alan Imeson. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-3267-1 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Hydrocolloids. 2. Food additives. 3. Food–Analysis. 4. Food–Composition. 5. Food industry and trade. I. Imeson, A. (Alan) TP456.H93F66 2010 664.06–dc22 2009016433 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Set in 10/12 pt Times by AptaraR Inc., New Delhi, India Printed in Singapore 1 2010 iv BLBK202-Imeson August 25, 2009 16:17 Contents Preface ix Acknowledgements xi Contributors xii 1 Introduction 1 Dennis Seisun 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Functional properties 3 1.3 Regulatory environment 4 1.4 Commercial environment 6 1.5 Future developments 10 2 Acacia Gum (Gum Arabic) 11 Francis Thevenet 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Origin and purification process 12 2.3 Chemical structure 13 2.4 Applications 15 2.5 Health benefits 26 2.6 Future developments 28 3 Agar 31 Alan Imeson 3.1 Introduction 31 3.2 Raw materials 32 3.3 Production 33 3.4 Composition and structure 36 3.5 Functional properties 38 3.6 Applications 41 3.7 Future developments 47 4 Alginates 50 Trond Helgerud, Olav Gaserød,˚ Therese Fjæreide, Peder O. Andersen, Christian Klein Larsen 4.1 Introduction 50 4.2 Production 50 4.3 Chemical composition 52 4.4 Functional properties 54 BLBK202-Imeson August 25, 2009 16:17 vi Contents 4.5 Gel formation techniques 58 4.6 Applications 62 4.7 Thickening and stabilising 65 4.8 Dairy products 66 4.9 Film formation 66 4.10 Encapsulation 67 4.11 Other applications 67 4.12 Summary 69 5 Carrageenan 73 William R. Blakemore and Alan R. Harpell 5.1 Introduction 73 5.2 Raw materials 74 5.3 Manufacturing 74 5.4 Regulation 76 5.5 Structure 78 5.6 Functional properties 79 5.7 Food applications 88 6 Cellulose Derivatives 95 Mary Jean Cash and Sandra J. Caputo 6.1 Introduction 95 6.2 Raw materials and processing 96 6.3 Composition and chemistry 96 6.4 Food applications 106 6.5 Future developments 113 7 Gelatine 116 Paul Stevens 7.1 Introduction 116 7.2 Manufacturing process 117 7.3 Regulations: European Union and the USA 120 7.4 Chemical structure and reactivity 121 7.5 Physicochemical properties 128 7.6 Food applications 132 7.7 Future developments 143 8 Gellan Gum 145 Raymond Valli and Ross Clark 8.1 Introduction 145 8.2 Manufacture 145 8.3 Chemical composition 146 8.4 Functional properties 147 8.5 Regulatory status 159 8.6 Applications 159 8.7 Future developments 165 BLBK202-Imeson August 25, 2009 16:17 Contents vii 9 Gum Tragacanth and Karaya 167 Jenny M. Mayes 9.1 Gum tragacanth 167 9.2 Gum karaya 174 10 Inulin 180 Rudy Wouters 10.1 Introduction 180 10.2 Resources and raw materials 181 10.3 Production 182 10.4 Chemical structure 183 10.5 Physical and chemical properties 184 10.6 Principle of fat replacement 191 10.7 Physiological properties 193 10.8 Applications 194 11 Konjac Glucomannan 198 Jean-Marc Parry 11.1 Introduction 198 11.2 Raw materials 200 11.3 Processing 202 11.4 Structure 204 11.5 Functional properties 205 11.6 Food applications 212 11.7 Nutritional applications 213 11.8 Future developments 214 12 Microcrystalline Cellulose 218 Domingo C. Tuason, Gregory R. Krawczyk and Greg Buliga 12.1 Introduction 218 12.2 MCC product technologies 219 12.3 Manufacturing process 219 12.4 Colloidal MCC product line extensions 220 12.5 Physical modification – the alloying concept 221 12.6 Physical and functional properties 222 12.7 Legislation and nutrition 225 12.8 Food applications 225 12.9 Future developments 235 13 Pectin 237 Sarah M. Brejnholt 13.1 Introduction 237 13.2 Raw materials 239 13.3 Processing 241 13.4 Composition 243 13.5 Chemical properties 246 BLBK202-Imeson August 25, 2009 16:17 viii Contents 13.6 Applications 252 13.7 Future developments 262 14 Pullulan 266 Hiroto Chaen 14.1 Introduction 266 14.2 Raw materials 267 14.3 Production 268 14.4 Functional properties 268 14.5 Food applications 270 14.6 Future developments 273 15 Seed Gums 275 Willem Wielinga 15.1 Introduction 275 15.2 Raw materials 275 15.3 Production 280 15.4 Composition 281 15.5 Functional properties 286 15.6 Further developments 289 15.7 Derivatised seed gums for technical applications 291 16 Starch 293 Paul Sheldrake 16.1 Introduction 293 16.2 Raw materials 294 16.3 Processing 296 16.4 Composition and structure 298 16.5 Thickening and gelling properties 302 16.6 Starch modification 306 16.7 Food applications 312 16.8 Conclusions 323 17 Xanthan Gum 325 Graham Sworn 17.1 Introduction 325 17.2 Production 325 17.3 Chemistry 326 17.4 Solution preparation 327 17.5 Rheology 329 17.6 Stability and compatibility 331 17.7 Interactions 335 17.8 Applications 339 Index 343 A colour plate section falls between pages 50 and 51 BLBK202-Imeson August 25, 2009 16:17 Preface Stabilisers, thickeners and gelling agents are inherent in almost all living organisms. They determine a number of critical functions including moisture binding and control, structure and flow behaviour that enable organisms to thrive in a natural environment. For use in food products, the functional materials are carefully extracted from various natural raw materials and incorporated into foods to give the structure, flow, stability and eating qualities desired by consumers. These additives include traditional materials such as starch, a thickener obtained from many land plants, and gelatine, an animal by-product giving characteristic melt-in-the-mouth gels. Cellulose, the most abundant structuring polymer in land plants, seed gums and other materials derived from sea plants extend the range of polymers. Recently approved addi- tives include the microbial polysaccharides of xanthan, gellan and pullulan. With stringent regulations in place governing the use of additives, it is unlikely that many new polymers will be approved and researchers must employ the current range of products to deliver the range of attributes needed for their particular food products. Hydrocolloids have a profound impact on food properties when used at levels ranging from a few parts per million for carrageenan in heat-treated dairy products to high levels of Acacia gum, starch or gelatine in jelly confectionery. The correct application of these materials is a fascinating topic that continues to engage the attentions of many expert researchers. Over recent years, investigative techniques have shed more light on the fine structure of the polymers to enhance the understanding of network formation and how they combine with other polymers. These structures determine a number of properties in finished foods, such as emulsion stability, the long-term suspension of fortified beverages using ‘fluid gels’ and for giving rich, creamy eating qualities. Calorie-dense materials such as fats and oils may be replaced with ‘structured water’ to give healthy, reduced-calorie foods with excellent eating quality. Some fibres are currently being studied for their effects on satiety and the reduction of daily energy intake. In addition to the functional attributes, future acceptance and, possibly, positive endorsement may derive from the recognition that soluble and insoluble fibres contribute many physiological benefits to the natural function and well-being of the body.