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Academically Speaking ...

Criminal Justice .. Related Research by Florida's Doctoral Candidates Academically speaking . a • Criminal justice-related research by Florida's doctoral candidates, 1993

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ACQUISITBON~

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Florida Criminal Justice Executive Institute Florida Department of Law Enforcement James T. Moore, Commissioner December 1994 154484- U.S. Department of Justice 154485 National Institute of Justice

This document has been reproduced exactly as received from the person or organization originating it. Points of view or opinions stated in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the National Institute of Justice. Permission to reproduce this ~IJ!' material has been gfJCI:ffL~c Dorrain/OJP;roS u. S. Department of Justice to the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS). Further reprodu.::tion outside of the NCJRS system requires permission of the~ owner.

Portions of this project were produced under cooperative agreement 93-BJ-CX-K004 with the Bureau of Justice Stat/stics, Office of Justice Programs, u.s. Department of Justice. Points of view In this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official posltlon or policy of the U.S. Department of Justice. Table of Contents

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by Matt Bunker Federal courts and the conflict between the :frrst and sixth amendments: Striking a balance between free press and fair trials page 1

by Douglas I.:. Narby Effectiveness of voir dire as a safeguard in eyewitness cases page 13

by Timothy S. Huebner "To winnow away the rottenness": Judge Joseph Henry Lumpkin and criminal law reform in historical perspective page 24

by Lisa Stolzenberg and Stewart J. D'Alessio Sentencing and unwarranted disparity: An empirical assessment of the long-term impact of sentencing / S-n{]J ( guidelines in Minnesota T page 39

by Linda S. Forst The effects of two acquaintance prevention education programs on 115' JLlf) ~ rape-supportive beliefs among college 7 T T'6-=7 students page 47

About the contributors page 60

Criminal justice-related dissertations completed by doctoral candidates in Florida. 1993 page 61

...... Diane L. Zahm, Ph.D., Editor FlOrida Crirrnnal Justice Executive Institute /5,/'/f/5 by Linda S. Forst The effects of two prevention education programs on rape-supportive beliefs among college students

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exual violence has been the Rape is a vastly under-reported topic of women's magazines for crime (Bureau of Justice Statistics, S decades, and in the 1990s it 1985, 1991). Estimates vary, but became the subject of national aided by the use of self-report studies, newspapers, talk shows, and Goldberg (1989, January) periodicals. This notoriety was largely hypothesizes that only 10% of due to the Tailhook scandal. In are reported to the police. Some September, 1991. 90 women were researchers hypothesize that the assaulted or harassed by Navy actual number may be 3.5 to 9% servicemen at the Tailhook higher than reported rapes, Symposium (Office of the Inspector suggeflting many women choose not General, 1993). Another branch of the to report rape to police (Carrow, armed services, the Army, reported 24 1980). servicewomen were raped or sexually The low reporting rate for rapes assaulted by fellow soldiers while is especially characteristic of serving in the Persian Gulf (Sun­ acquaintance rape, which has little Sentinel. July 21. 1992). Interest in likelihood of being reported (Ellis, the subject of was 1989; Parrot, 1987; Ward, Chapman, exacerbated by the rape trials of semi­ Cohn, White, & Williams, 1991). celebrities William Kennedy Smith Despite this fact, the number of and Mike Tyson and by Anita Hill's reported rapes has risen dramatically. accusations of sexual by From 1981 to 1990 rapes reported to a Supreme Court nominee. the police have increased 24% It is perhaps because of nationally (Federal Bureau of increased media coverage of sexual Investigation, 1991). An estimated vic'ence that reports of rape are 109,062 rapes (only female increasing. The has the victimizations are reported for highest rape rate in the world (Federal Uniform Crime Reporting purposes) Bureau ofInvestigation (FBI), 1991). were reported to law enforcement Researchers give several reasons for agencies across the nation during this shocking fact; primarily, they 1992 (Federal Bureau of Investigation, suggest, the high rape rate appears to 1993). be closely related to our excessively The National Crime high tolerance for violence in general Victimization Survey (NCVS) rape (Gordon & Riger, 1991). Of more victimization rate for women is nearly disturbing significance, the incidence twice as large as the Uniform Crime of rape continues to increase at an Reports statistics, which are based on alarming rate. From 1968 to 1977, rapes reported to police. The most there was 103% increase in reported recent figure available from NCVS is rapes. The latest figures indicate a for 1991, during which 173,310 rapes 59% increase in rapes and attempted were reported. The compilers of the rapes from 1990 to 1991, according to NCVS admit these numbers are still the National Crime Victimization too low and hypotheSize their Survey (Law Enforcement News, reporting methods may affect their 1992). responses (Koss & Harvey, 1991). The NCVS methods undermine self­ and short-term, that devastate those disclosure for several reasons: (a) involved. interviews may take place in front of The act of rape is often other household members, (bl no real described as either stranger rape or training is given to the interviewers acquaintance rape. It was once concerning sensitive topics, and (c) no believed that stranger rape was the match up exists between interviewer most common type of rape (Bureau of and interviewee by race or sex. The Justice Statistics, 1985). Federal most critical deficiency of NCVS government victimization surveys methods is that victims are never have morf; recently reported that asked clearly whether or not they stranger rape and acquaintance rape were raped. They must respond occur with apprOximately the same voluntarily when answering questions frequency (Bureau of Justice concerning bodily harm. Furthermore, Statistics, 1989). However, the NCVS NCVS compilatUons use a narrow reports that in 1989, approximately definition, strictly limiting rape to 66% of rapes involved strangers vaginal penetration by a penis against (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1991). the victim's will. As more self-report studies have Since rapes were being been conducted, these beliefs have inconsistently reported, it became been challenged. Research has found clear that to accurately investigate the the percentage of rapes accounted for rape problem, researchers could not by stranger rape to be much lower rely on reported rapes and than the government figures. Russell incarcerated rapists to gather (1984) determined stranger rape to be information. To alleviate this much less common than limitation, self-report victimization acquaintance rape; rape crisis centers studies were undertaken (Koss & report approximately 25-40% of Harvey, 1991). Self-report studies victims indicate they were raped by allowed the researchers to query the strangers (Bateman, 1982). More general public and to gather data recent research has corroborated the from women who had not made finding that stranger rape may not be reports as well as men who had not as common as acquaintance rape been caught and identified as rapists. (Koss et aI., 1987; Parrot. 1990; Ward Estimates vary on how many women et al., 1991). have been or will be victims of sexual Acquaintance rape is forced, assault. but the estimates far exceed unwanted intercourse with a person the number of rapes reported by the known to the victim. The victim may FBI or NCVS. Self-report studies know the offender casually or have a estimate that from 1 in 4 women dating relationship (Parrot, 1990). (Gibbs. 1991; Parrot & Bechhofer, According to Ward et al. (1991), 70 to 1991) to as high as 1 in 3 women 80% of rapes are acquaintance rapes (Schmich, 1985) women will be that happen in a social environment sexually assaulted during their in which sexual occurs. lifetime. Privacy, isolation. parties, alcohol, Rape is a serious crime. In its dating. and miscommunication most restrictive definition, it is sexual among young people can lead to an intercourse without consent. Although increased chance of rape occurring. In the terms rape and are a survey, 100% of self-disclosed frequently used interchangeably, the rapists stated their rape was preceded term sexual assault is more inclusive, by some type of consensual sexual encompassing any forced sexual act activity (Kanin, 1984). against one's will. Rape and sexual Acquaintance rape is rarely assault represent all too common reported to the authorities or crimes with effects, both long-term prosecuted. This fact has been

48 Forst supported in the literature, both 1990); and third. the portrayal of published (Berger, Searles, Salem, & violent sexuality in the media. Pierce. 1986; Bureau of Justice coupled with messages from family Statistics, 1989; Estrich. 1987; and peers. socialize us to believe rape Lundberg-Love & Geffner. 1988) and myths. Movies. books, soap operas, unpublished (Forst. 1990). Estimates and magaZines often portray women range from a 1 to 10% reporting rate as liking rough sex; note for example. for acquaintance rapes. Rhett's drunken rape of Scarlett in Evidence shows the rate of date Gone With the Wind, and Laura's rape has increased dramatically marriage to Luke, her rapist. in during the past generation. "General Hospital" (Warshaw & Researchers cite several sociocultural Parrot, 1991). changes that have occurred in society Another crucial factor in the rise that appear to be related to this trend: of is the widespread use of fIrst. the equalization of freedom alcohol among young people (Levine & between men and women (moral. Kanin, 1987). Alcohol has been found legal. fmancial. and education) to lessen social inhibitions, including (Gordon & Riger. 1991); second. the a reduction of men's inhibitions erosion of traditional values and against violence and women's ability courting habits has put women in to resist sexual violence (Richardson situations to which they would not & Hammock, 1991). have previously been exposed (Parrot.

Rape on college campuses

Acquaintance rape is Muehlenhard and Linton (1987) particularly prevalent on college reported similar results in their study campuses. One of the largest studies on college students. which demon­ of this phenomenon was Dr. Mary strated that 77% of the female Koss's study of over 6,000 college students and 57% of the male students on 32 campuses across t.~e students had been involved in sexual country. Her results. widely reported coercion, with 14.7% of the women in popular media as well as in having had sexual intercourse against scholarly journals. indicated that over their will. 80% of sexual assaults were These factors result in the committed by acquaintances. Other frightening conclusion that on college studies have produced similar results. campuses. often envisioned as safe with some indicating 85 to 95% of the and secure enclaves. 25% of women victims Imew their attacl

Forst 49 Rape mythology

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Rape myths are prejudicial, It's the woman's fault if she was stereotypical, or false beliefs about raped. rape, rape victims, and rapists that tend to create a climate hostile to rape Women say "no" but luean "yes." victims (Burt, 19~0). Belief in rape myths may facilitate the occurrence of All women secretly want to be raped. sexual assault (Burt, 1980; Koss & Harvey, 1991). Some of the most Most rapists are mentally ill. common rape bellefs are as follows: Rape by an acquaintance is not as Rape is a crime committed by a traumatic as rape by a stranger. stranger who attacks women walking alone at night. Onl.y women are rape victims.

Women "ask for" rape by their appearance or behavior.

Role of culture in development and belief in rape myths ...... "

Burt (1980) conducted a better-educated people revealed less frequently cited study that examined less acceptance, less the belief that certain cultural acceptance of interpersonal violence, attitudes playa role in causing rape. and a lesser degree of sex-role Burt described rape myths and tested stereotyping. the hypotheses that the acceptance of Burt reported two major rape myths can be predicted from implications of her study. First, some attitudes such as sex role Americans believe numerous rape stereotyping, adversarial sexual myths. In addition, their rape beliefs, sexual conservatism, and attitudes are correlated with other acceptance of interpersonal violence. strongly held attitudes sllch as sex Burt's resu1tsindicated that the role stereotyping, acceptance of greater the degree of sex role interpersonal Violence, and lack of stereotyping, adversarial sexual trust of the opposite sex in beliefs, and acceptance of relationships. She also observed that interpersonal violence, the greater a for Americans holding these views, respondent's acceptance of rape rape victims' testimony is rarely myths. The strongest relationship accepted. existed between the acceptance of Researchers indicate women are interpersonal violence and rape often blamed for their sexual assault, myths. Burt also found younger, depending on their behavior preceding

50 Forst the assault. However, in a Time poll it students in order to ascertain if they was also evident that the percentages share these attitudes. Additionally. by of people holding the victim examining young people's attitudes. responsible for the assault decreased we can determine if their attitudes with the respondents' age (Gibbs. have contributed to the increase in 1991). Therefore. it is prudent to sexual aggression and the increase in examine the attitudes of college the rate of date rape.

Education programs on cruupus ..... , ... " ......

Negative publicity on high­ demonstrated the potential to reduce profile cases. recent self-report the motivating factors for men to studies that indicate how prevalent commit rape while increasing the acquaintance rape is. and pressure woman's ability to resist (Lundberg­ from students, their parents. and Love & Geffner. 1988; Miller. 1988). most recently. state legislators, have Whether this increased forced colleges and universities to knowledge affects rape-supportive address the acquaintance rape beliefs (long-held beliefs that support problem. Many are attempting to the occurrence of rape and the combat acquaintance rape by blaming of victims) is unclear but expanding their rape awareness and promising. Ferguson et al. (1987). prevention programs. Fischer (l986), Hamilton and Yee Past studies on rape prevention (1990); Jones and Muehlenhard education programs present (l990), and Lee (1987) found that conflicting results. Most indicate that increased knowledge led to fewer providing rape prevention programs rape-supportive beliefs. Brakenseik increases student knowledge of rape (1982) found a change in attitudes (Brakenseil<. 1982; Dignan. 1985; among men but not among women, Ferguson, Duthie, & Graf 1987; and Borden. Karr. and Caldwel1- Hamilton & Yee. 1990; Jones & Colbert (1988) found no significant Muehlenhard, 1990; Lee. 1987). change in attitudes among student Students with information about risks participants. of rape are less likely to be victims of Past studies have also examined sexual assault (Holmberg & different types of rape prevention MacDonald. 1990; Miller, 1988). education programs to determine Gordon and Rigel' (1991) argue effectiveness. These studies report no that campus rape is so prevalent significant difference in attitude because of the norms in our societ.y change depending on the type of that condone sexual violence. Young program or facilitator (Abrams. 1992; people have grown accustomed to Jones & Muehlenhard, 1990; Nichols. observing sexual violence in the 1991). However. few studies have media and have become desensitized compared the effectiveness of to it. One way to lessen the possibility programs presented in different of rape is to change the climate on formats. The impact of using our campuses so that this behavior is improvisational theater. for example. no longer regarded as the norm or as has not been compared to the results acceptable (Gordon & Riger. 1991 J. of a more traditional didactic Some educational programs have program. Examining acquaintance

Forst 51 rape prevention programs to been explored is the relationship determine their effectiveness is between familiarity with sexual warranted in light of the increasing assault on the part of the participant numbers of rapes on campuses. and the effectiveness of a particular Another aspect of sexual assault prevention education program. prevention programs that has not

The study

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The purpose of this study was services available, rape myths, sexual to examine the efficacy of two different behavior, and communication and types of rape prevention education assertiveness. The group also watched programs, developed and presented to a video, Campus Rape, produced by male and female college students. the Santa Monica Rape Treatment Participants were recruited from Center and participated in a question among 420 undergraduate students and answer session. The presentation in criminal justice and psychology lasted for approximately an hour and classes at Florida Atlantic University. then the participants were given a The Adversarial Sexual Beliefs Scale post-treatment test. (AS B) and Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (RMA) (Burt. 1980) were Workshop B (treatment 2). This combined into one questionnaire with workshop was experiential in nature, fllier questions placed throughout the inviting participation from the questionnaire. The students who audience. The principal investigator participated were randomly assigned was the facilitator in this workshop. to one of three groups. One third Also present as resource people were participated in Wor1{shop A; one third a detective from the local police in Workshop B; and the remaining department. a representative of the third were in the control group. All county sexual assault project, and a three groups completed the pre-treat­ representative of student services at ment tests prior to their workshops. Florida Atlantic University. A brief The participants in Workshops A and overview of rape and acquaintance B completed immediate post­ rape was presented, including treatment tests after participating in defInitions, legal issues, prevalence, their worl{shops. communication, attitudes, social Two weel

52 Forst This script. developed by Cornell change the behaviors. University (Salmons-Rue. 1987). Mter the discussion. the actors contained two scenes. These scenes move to scene two. which is the same were adhered to with mlnor changes situation as scene one. but to colncide with the local environment lncorporates prevention strategies as and personalize the presentation. well as suggestions made by the The flrst scene shows how risk audience. Again. a discussion was factors and miscommunication can held with the audience/participants lead to acqualntance rape. The scene as to how they were feeling. how the leads up to David forcing Mary to actors were feeling. and what behavior have sex against her will. At the changes had made the difference in conclusion of the flrst scene. the the scene. facilitator and actors drew the audience into a discussion. They did Workshop C (control group). This this by asking questions about how group was the control group. The the audience felt. how the actors felt. participants were released after what behaviors may have contributed completing their pre-treatment tests. to the situation. and how they could

Analysis and Results

Fifty four students completed all Mrican-American and one Haitian. phases of the study and their Both had resided in the U.S. for 5 to responses were analyzed. The 10 years. subjects ranged in age from 19 to 44. The subjects were queried as to with the mean age 23.9 years (SD their experiences with forced sex. 5.83) and the median age 22 years. Thirteen subjects (24%) (12 women Thirty-three (61 %) of the participants and 1 man) had been forced to hav , were females and 21 (39%) were sex against their will and 25 subJ( cts males. Twenty-six (48%) were seniors. (46%) knew one or more individt,als 24 (44%) were juniors. 3 (6%) were who had been forced to have sex sophomores. and 1 (2%) was a against their will. One participant freshman. The educational major that admitted having forced someone to was most frequently represented was have sex. and 16 subjects (30%) knew criminal justice (44% or n = 24). someone who had forced someone to Seventeen percent (n = 9) of the have sex. There were 7 victims of subjects were psychology majors and sexual assault In the didactic 13% (n = 7) were political science program. 3 in the experiential majors. The remalnder of the program. and 3 in the control group. participants declared majors in Participants with a familiarity with nursing. education. business. sexual assault (knowlng a victim or communications. sociology. and social offender) were evenly distributed psychology. throughout the three groups. with 14 Most of the participants were in the didactic program. 13 in the Caucasian; six participants were experiential program. and 14 in the minorities (11 %). All participants had control group. been residents in the United States for over 10 years except for one Rape prevention program format. The

Forst 53 ------

results of this study indicate that takes the coordination of the there was no significant difference schedules of many individuals for between the didactic program and the rehearsals as well as the presentation. experiential program in reducing If the actors and facilitators are rape-supportive beliefs as measured volunteers. it may be difficult to by the Adversarial Sexual Beliefs obtain the needed commitment. Some (ASB) and Rape Myth Acceptance colleges have elected to pay the (RMA) scales. These results support participants. further increasing the previous re~earch findings which cost of the program. In addition to indicate that there is no clearly these concerns about the theater superior method or format of present­ programs. their overall effectiveness ing information about rape and its has been questioned (Frazier. 1993). prevention. It appears that presenting any The familiariiv factor. The second type of program increases knowledge major finding in this study was the and awareness of acquaintance rape relationship between direct and and decreases rape-supportive beliefs indirect fl;'miliarity with acquaintance among college students to some rape and rape-supportive beliefs. degree. Participants in both Participants who had been victims of interventions showed greater sexual assault had significantly lower decreases in the immediate post­ scores on both the ASB and RMA treatment test. However. the second scales than participants who had not post-treatment test indicated scores been victims. Thus. "victim" regressed to pre-treatment levels. participants had fewer rape­ Only those participating in the supportive beliefs. The "victim" scores didactic program showed a significant were significantly lower than "non­ decrease in rape-supportive beliefs as victim" across all groups. pre­ measured by the RMi\ at the follow­ treatment and post-treatment. up post-treatment test. "Victim" scores did not significantly Whereas neither the didactic decrease over time perhaps because nor the experiential program offers a they were already low. This would clear advantage. the lecture program indicate that their previous may be the program of choice for victimization had decreased their college administrators for several rape-supportive beliefs. This suggests reasons. The didactic program is most that their own victimization had made frequently used. and. consequently. them more sensitive to sexual violence students. faculty. and administrators and less accepting of rape-supportive are more familiar with the format and beliefs. possibly more open to the These findings support a presentation of rape prevention previous study (Dietz. 1982). Dietz education in tllis manner. found that college women who had Furthermore. the lecture format is experienced a rape situation showed also more conducive to presenting the greater empathy toward rape victims information to larger groups than than did women who had not been improvisational theater. As involved in a rape situation. universities often have large numbers It is unclear how empathy of students in need of attending these would be related to rape-supportive programs. the efficiency of the lecture beliefs. although another rmding in method could be an important issue. the Dietz study may suggest a The lecture format is more cost­ correlation. Dietz found the male effective. less time-consuming. and respondents. in tlle study who less resource-intensive than the exhibited strong empathy toward rape theater program. Preparing for the victims reported less desire to rape a theater program and presenting it woman than did men who expressed

54 Forst

------' less empathy for the victims. Incidence of victimization in sample. A more recent study by This investigation revealed a high Hamilton and Yee (1990) indicates incidence of victimization by sexual that increased knowledge of rape is assault among this sample. Twenty­ associated with fewer rape-supportive four percent of the participants beliefs and also a decreased likelihood reported they had been victims of of raping. It would appear there is a forced sex. and one of those victims correlation between lmowledge of was a male. Forty-six percent knew rape. empathy. and rape-supportive someone who had been a victim of beliefs. forced sex. This is consistent with This study examined not only previous studies which have reported attitudes of participants who were figures from 15% to 29% of victims of sexual assault but also the participants in the studies stating attitudes of those who had a the,y had been forced to have sex familiarity with the issue by knowing against their will (Koss et al.. 1988; a victim of sexual violence or an Aizenman & Kelly. 1988; Nichols. offender. The participants who had a 1991). familiarity with sexual assault showed This study sample reported a significant decreases in rape-support­ higher male victimization than ive beliefs after the didactic program. reported by the NCVS. The NCVS as measured ily the ASB scale. This estimates that 1 % of males are was not true of the participants who victims of rape. This estimate was had no direct or indirect familiarity based on fewer than 10 reported with sexual assault. The RMA scores cases in 1989 (Bureau of Justice I'Imong participants who had Statistics. 1991). One male familiarity \vith rape victims or participant (5%) in this study reported offenders were not significantly he was forced to have sex against his decreased. will. Self-report studies have stated Previous studies have produced that less than 10% of rape victims are conflicting results in this area of male (Jamison & Flanagan. 1989). direct familiarity with victims or This sample reported that 8% of the offenders. Coller and Resick (1987' rape victims were men which is surveyed 76 female undergraduates in consistent with literature on self­ response to a date rape scenario. report studies. however, the number Results indicated there was no is so low definitive conclusions are correlation between empathy and impossible. victim blame. Further. they found no A substantial percentage of the correlation between the degree of participants had experience with empathy and the participant's own sexual assault (30% knew an history of victimization. offender; 46% knew a victim). These Conversely. Kleinke and Meyer students tended to be more receptive (1990) found a positive value to to the information presented and familiarity with rape victims. After retain it better than students who do viewing a six minute video of an not know someone who has been interview \vith a rape victim. 165 male victimized or who has victimized and female undergraduates rated the others. This sensitivity may result "typical" rape victim more unfavorably from feelings of empathy brought than the videotaped victim with whom about through direct familiarity with they had familiarity. victims or sex offenders.

Forst 55 Recommendations and conclusions

Participants with a direct possible. knowledge of rape trauma exhibited a Campus administrators have a significantly decreased rape­ moral and legal obligation to provide supportive belief score after as safe an academic environment as participating in the didactic program. possible (Keller. 1990). College is one In addition. participants who had of the last opportunities society has to been victims of sexual assault showed educate young men and women about significantly fewer rape-supportive human relations and. therefore. beliefs across all groups including the should strive to provide awareness pre-treatment tests. This finding education to all students. If indicates that rape education program comprehensive rape prevention facilitators should. whenever possible. education programs are provided. the have rape victims address students. numbers of sexual assaults occurring in person or on videotape. as part of on our campuses can possibly be either a didactic or experiential reduced or minimized. program. If students personally In addition to promoting and unfamiliar with rape trauma can be implementing rape education and given an opportunity to experience the prevention programs. university and same feelings and attitudes of the college administrators. faculty. staff. victim. this study indicates rape­ and students must work together on a supportive beliefs would diminish. comprehensive code of sexual ethics. This issue should be studied further. Antioch College's recent sexual Whether or not any consent policy is a step in that acquaintance rape prevention direction. program has the ability to Change Finally. this nation must also deeply ingrained and long-held examine its own fascination with attitudes and beliefs remains to be violence and sex. The incidence of seen. sexual violence in the United States is The study of acquaintance rape the highest in the world. Whether the and acquaintance rape prevention incidence of sexual violence is due to programs is in its early stages. It cultural or psychological factors. to appears that the acquaintance rape increased media coverage. or to a lack rate continues to increase in spite of of funding for educational programs the efforts being undertaken by such as those described in this study community service groups and college this nation can ill afford to ignore the administrators. It is imperative rape epidemic. As Brownmiller (1975) therefore that efforts not stop. wrote of her book Against our Will: decrease. or slow down. Rape Men. Women and Rape. "[I have given] awareness programs must continue to rape its history. Now we must deny it educate as many students as a future."

56 Forst References ......

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Forst 57 Ellis, L. (1989). Theories ofrape: Henderson, M. (1991). Administration InauITies into the causes of sexual involvement in sexual assault aggression. prevention education programs in the Pennsylvania state system of higher Estrich, S. (1987). Real rape. education (Doctoral dissertation, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Temple University, 1991). Press. Holmberg, C. B., & MacDonald, W. L. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1990, May-June). Student (1991). Uniform crime reports, 1990. perceptions of assault and date rape. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Campus Law Enforcement, pp. 16-19. Justice. Jamison, K. M., & Flanagan, T. J. Ferguson, P. A, Duthie, D. A, & Graf, (1989). Sourcebook ofcriminal justice R. G. (1987). Attribution of statistics, 1988. (BJS Report No. NCJ- responsibility to rapist and victim. 100899). Washington, DC: U.S. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Department of Justice, Bureau of 2,(3), 243-250. Justice Statistics.

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