DOCSLIB.ORG

6Th Year Biology Higher Level Wesley Hammond DNA And

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
6Th Year Biology Higher Level Wesley Hammond DNA And th 6 Year Biology Higher Level Wesley Hammond DNA and RNA No part of this publication may be copied, reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission from The Dublin School of Grinds. Ref: 6/bio/h/wh/ DNARNA 6-HOUR CRASH COURSES MAY & JUNE 2016 %01.! čƫ+*+)%/ƫ0!$!.ƫ¨*8*ƫ 1. +' ./$ƫ+1./!s Timetable The final push for CAO points... 6th Year $!ƫ 1(%*ƫ $++(ƫ +"ƫ .%* /ƫ %/ƫ .1**%*#ƫ ćġ$+1.ƫ ./$ƫ Subject Level Date Time +1./!/ƫ0ƫ0$!ƫ!* ƫ+"ƫ 5ƫ* ƫ0$!ƫ!#%**%*#ƫ+"ƫ 1*!ċƫ Accounting H Sunday 29th May 9am - 3pm $!/!ƫ +1./!/ƫ #%2!ƫ /01 !*0/ƫ 0$!ƫ !/0ƫ ,+//%(!ƫ Biology H Saturday 28th May 9am - 3pm 2*0#!ƫ/ƫ0$!5ƫ,.!,.!ƫ"+.ƫ0$!ƫ((ġ%),+.0*0ƫ00!ƫ Business H Sunday 29th May 2pm - 8pm 4)%*0%+*/ċƫ*!ƫ(/0ƫ+1*!ƫ+"ƫ!""+.0ƫ+1( ƫ)'!ƫ((ƫ Chemistry H Saturday 4th June 9am - 3pm 0$!ƫ %""!.!*!ċ Economics H Saturday 28th May 9am - 3pm English H Sunday 29th May 9am - 3pm !.!ƫ%/ƫ$+3ƫ0$!/!ƫ+1./!/ƫ3%((ƫ English H Saturday 4th June 9am - 3pm French H Saturday 4th June 9am - 3pm !*!"%0ƫ5+1č Geography H Saturday 28th May 9am - 3pm • They will offer students one last opportunity to Irish H Saturday 4th June 9am - 3pm avail of expert teaching before the State Maths Paper 1 H Saturday 4th June 9am - 3pm Examinations Maths Paper 2 H Sunday 5th June 9am - 3pm Maths O Saturday 28th May 9am - 3pm • They will provide students with a final boost of confidence before exam day Maths O Saturday 4th June 9am - 3pm Physics H Saturday 28th May 9am - 3pm • They will give students an exam strategy plan to Spanish H Sunday 5th June 9am - 3pm help them maximise their grade on the day 3rd Year Subject Level Date Time +0!: At these courses our teachers will predict what questions are most likely to appear on your exam paper. Business Studies H Sunday 5th June 9am - 3pm These questions will be covered in detail and our teachers English H Sunday 5th June 9am - 3pm will provide you with model A1 answers. French H Sunday 29th May 9am - 3pm Irish H Sunday 29th May 9am - 3pm čƫĺāćĀƫƫ Maths H Sunday 29th May 9am - 3pm Science H Saturday 4th June 9am - 3pm H = Higher O = Ordinary To book, call us on 01ġ442 4442 or book online at (!/!ƫ*+0!ƫ0$0ƫ((ƫ+1./!/ƫ3%((ƫ0'!ƫ,(!ƫ0ƫ www.dublinschoolofgrinds.ie +1.ƫ !.*%*#ƫ!*0.!ƫ0ƫ$!ƫ.%).5ƫ$++(ƫ%*ƫ 0(* /Čƫ0%((+.#*Čƫ+ċƫ1(%*ċ Contents: Structure of DNA …………………………………………………………………………………………….3 Genetic Code …………………………………………………………………………………………………..4 DNA Replication ……………………………………………………………………………………………..5 DNA Profiling …………………………………………………………………………………………………6 Application of DNA Profiling …………………………………………………………………………...7 Genetic Screening …………………………………………………………………………………………..8 Detailed look at DNA ………………………………………………………………………………………9 RNA ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..10 Protein Synthesis ………………………………………………………………………………………….12 Exam Questions ……………………………………………………………………………………………15 DNA and RNA can be worth 5% if asked as a short question in Section A. DNA and RNA can be worth 7.5% if asked as an experiment in Section B. DNA and RNA can be worth 15% if asked as a long question in Section C. Note: DNA and RNA question has been asked every year since 2004 except for 2009. 2 ©The Dublin School of Grinds Wesley Hammond DNA and RNA Structure of DNA DNA = deoxribonucleic acid DNA is located inside the nucleus of a cell. DNA can fit into a nucleus as it can coil and fold. DNA has two strands. NOTE: DNA is also found in the mitochondria and chloroplast of cells. There are four bases used in DNA: A = adenine T = thymine G = guanine C = cytosine The four bases can only join (bond) with one other base: Structure of DNA 3 ©The Dublin School of Grinds Wesley Hammond What shape does DNA have? DNA have a double helix shape What is a gene? A gene is a section of DNA that causes the production of protein. The Genetic code How many amino acids are used in the production of proteins? 20 A gene carries different codes to control the formation of the different amino acids. The genetic codes (DNA codes) for each amino acid have a sequence of three bases. They are known as a triplet (codon). Examples: A DNA triplet CAA is the code for the amino acid called valine A DNA triplet CGA is the triplet for an amino acid called alanine. What is non – coding DNA? They do not have a code for the formation of a protein. Non-coding DNA is also known as junk DNA. 4 ©The Dublin School of Grinds Wesley Hammond DNA replication When mitosis occurs, one cell divides into two identical daughter cells. DNA replication occurs so there is an exact copy of the DNA for mitosis to occur. Takes place during the interphase of a cell. How does DNA replication occur? The double helix unwinds. Enzyme breaks the bond between the base pairs. Other DNA bases now enter the nucleus and join with the exposed DNA strand. Each new strand is identical to the original strand. DNA Profiling What is DNA Profiling? It is a method of making a unique pattern of bands from the DNA of a person which is then used to tell the difference of that DNA from other DNA. 5 ©The Dublin School of Grinds Wesley Hammond Method of DNA profiling? 1) DNA is released 2) DNA is cut into fragments 3) The fragments are separated 4) Patterns are compared 1) DNA is released: Dna is released by the braking down of the cell. 2) DNA is cut into fragments: Isolated DNA is cut into fragments using enzymes (restriction enzymes) depending on the sequence of bases. The section of DNA bases cut will be of different lengths because of the different distances between the base sequences. 3) The fragments are separated: Sections of DNA are separated based on their size. They are separated by a process called gel electrophoresis. An electric current is passed through the gel which allows bands of small DNA fragments to be separated from bands of larger DNA fragments. NOTE: The smaller DNA fragments move quicker through the gel. 4) Patterns are compared: If two different DNA samples are the same, then the two samples must have come from the same person. 6 ©The Dublin School of Grinds Wesley Hammond Applications of DNA profiles (DNA fingerprints) Crime If a suspects DNA profile is compared to a victims DNA profile in a crime, and they are similar, then it can be said that this person was present at the crime scene. Medical DNA profiles can be used to determine whether a person is the parent of a child (e.g financial inheritance cases) Genetic screening Genetic screening is testing DNA for the presence or absence of a certain gene or an altered gene.. Genes can be altered by mutations. Altered genes do not have the correct code for the production of protein. NOTE: genetic disorders caused by altered genes include albinism, cystic fibrosis or sickle cell anaemia. 7 ©The Dublin School of Grinds Wesley Hammond Where is genetic screening used? 1) Adult screening: Carried out on people who do not have a genetic disorder but may carry altered genes. Tells them the chances if their children will have the genetic disease. Examples: carriers of sickle cell anaemia and cystic fibrosis 2) Foetal screening: Cells can be removed from the placenta of a foetus. Child can be tested for genetic disorders What Ethical issues does genetic screening bring? Mothers may terminate a pregnancy if they find out their unborn child has a genetic disorder. 8 ©The Dublin School of Grinds Wesley Hammond Detailed look at DNA What is a nucleotide? • DNA is made up of units called nucleotides. • A long chain of nucleotides is called a polynucleotides Structure of a nucleotide: Sugar is Deoxyribose = D Phosphate group = P Nitrogen base = A or G or T or T What is a polynucleotide? It is many nucleotides joined together. Structure of a polynucleotide What holds bases together? Bases are held together by a hydrogen bond. 9 ©The Dublin School of Grinds Wesley Hammond • Adenine and thymine form two weak hydrogen bonds. • Guanine and cytosine form three hydrogen bonds. What are purines and pyrimidines? There are four nitrogen bases, two are known as purines and two as pyrimidines. Two purine bases are (double ringed molecules) : adenine (A) and guanine (G) Two pyrimidine bases are (single ringed molecules) : thymine (T) and cytosine (C) What scientists discovered the shape and structure of DNA? Frances Crick and James Watson Structure of RNA: RNA = ribonucleic acid • RNA also consist of four bases • RNA contains the base uracil instead of thymine. What are the four bases: 1) Adenine (A) 2) Uracil (U) 3) Guanine (G) 4) Cytosine (C) 10 ©The Dublin School of Grinds Wesley Hammond Base pairing between DNA and RNA • RNA is a single stranded molecule. • The bases in RNA pair up with those in a section of DNA. Example: If DNA has sequence GCAATC along one strand, then the RNA will have the sequence CGUUAG Differences between DNA and RNA 11 ©The Dublin School of Grinds Wesley Hammond Protein Synthesis (the making of protein) • Genes are used to produce different proteins. • The major steps involved in protein synthesis include: 1) Transcription = making of mRNA from DNA 2) Translation = making of protein depending on the RNA code Three types of RNA involved in production of protein: A. messenger RNA (mRNA) B. transfer RNA (tRNA) C. ribosomal RNA (rRNA) • Remember: all produced in the nucleus! Steps involved in protein synthesis: 1) Enzymes start to unwind the DNA double helix in the nucleus.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • DNA Microarrays (Gene Chips) and Cancer
    DNA Microarrays (Gene Chips) and Cancer Cancer Education Project University of Rochester DNA Microarrays (Gene Chips) and Cancer http://www.biosci.utexas.edu/graduate/plantbio/images/spot/microarray.jpg http://www.affymetrix.com Part 1 Gene Expression and Cancer Nucleus Proteins DNA RNA Cell membrane All your cells have the same DNA Sperm Embryo Egg Fertilized Egg - Zygote How do cells that have the same DNA (genes) end up having different structures and functions? DNA in the nucleus Genes Different genes are turned on in different cells. DIFFERENTIAL GENE EXPRESSION GENE EXPRESSION (Genes are “on”) Transcription Translation DNA mRNA protein cell structure (Gene) and function Converts the DNA (gene) code into cell structure and function Differential Gene Expression Different genes Different genes are turned on in different cells make different mRNA’s Differential Gene Expression Different genes are turned Different genes Different mRNA’s on in different cells make different mRNA’s make different Proteins An example of differential gene expression White blood cell Stem Cell Platelet Red blood cell Bone marrow stem cells differentiate into specialized blood cells because different genes are expressed during development. Normal Differential Gene Expression Genes mRNA mRNA Expression of different genes results in the cell developing into a red blood cell or a white blood cell Cancer and Differential Gene Expression mRNA Genes But some times….. Mutations can lead to CANCER CELL some genes being Abnormal gene expression more or less may result
    [Show full text]
  • Dna the Code of Life Worksheet
    Dna The Code Of Life Worksheet blinds.Forrest Jowled titter well Giffy as misrepresentsrecapitulatory Hughvery nomadically rubberized herwhile isodomum Leonerd exhumedremains leftist forbiddenly. and sketchable. Everett clem invincibly if arithmetical Dawson reinterrogated or Rewriting the Code of Life holding for Genetics and Society. C A process look a genetic code found in DNA is copied and converted into value chain of. They may negatively impact of dna worksheet answers when published by other. Cracking the Code of saw The Biotechnology Institute. DNA lesson plans mRNA tRNA labs mutation activities protein synthesis worksheets and biotechnology experiments for open school property school biology. DNA the code for life FutureLearn. Cracked the genetic code to DNA cloning twins and Dolly the sheep. Dna are being turned into consideration the code life? DNA The Master Molecule of Life CDN. This window or use when he has been copied to a substantial role in a qualified healthcare professional journals as dna the pace that the class before scientists have learned. Explore the Human Genome Project within us Learn about DNA and genomics role in medicine and excellent at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural. DNA The Double Helix. Most enzymes create a dna the code of life worksheet is getting the. Worksheet that describes the structure of DNA students color the model according to instructions Includes a. Biology Materials Handout MA-H2 Microarray Virtual Lab Activity Worksheet. This user has, worksheet the dna code of life, which proteins are carried on. Notes that scientists have worked 10 years to disappoint the manner human genome explains that DNA is a chemical message that began more data four billion years ago.
    [Show full text]
  • GENOME GENERATION Glossary
    GENOME GENERATION Glossary Chromosome An organism’s DNA is packaged into chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomesincluding one pair of sex chromosomes. Women have two X chromosomes and men have one X and one Y chromosome. Dominant (see also recessive) Genes come in pairs. A dominant form of a gene is the “stronger” version that will be expressed. Therefore if someone has one dominant and one recessive form of a gene, only the characteristics of the dominant form will appear. DNA DNA is the long molecule that contains the genetic instructions for nearly all living things. Two strands of DNA are twisted together into a double helix. The DNA code is made up of four chemical letters (A, C, G and T) which are commonly referred to as bases or nucleotides. Gene A gene is a section of DNA that is the code for a specific biological component, usually a protein. Each gene may have several alternative forms. Each of us has two copies of most of our genes, one copy inherited from each parent. Most of our traits are the result of the combined effects of a number of different genes. Very few traits are the result of just one gene. Genetic sequence The precise order of letters (bases) in a section of DNA. Genome A genome is the complete DNA instructions for an organism. The human genome contains 3 billion DNA letters and approximately 23,000 genes. Genomics Genomics is the study of genomes. This includes not only the DNA sequence itself, but also an understanding of the function and regulation of genes both individually and in combination.
    [Show full text]
  • Expanding the Genetic Code Lei Wang and Peter G
    Reviews P. G. Schultz and L. Wang Protein Science Expanding the Genetic Code Lei Wang and Peter G. Schultz* Keywords: amino acids · genetic code · protein chemistry Angewandte Chemie 34 2005 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim DOI: 10.1002/anie.200460627 Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2005, 44,34–66 Angewandte Protein Science Chemie Although chemists can synthesize virtually any small organic molecule, our From the Contents ability to rationally manipulate the structures of proteins is quite limited, despite their involvement in virtually every life process. For most proteins, 1. Introduction 35 modifications are largely restricted to substitutions among the common 20 2. Chemical Approaches 35 amino acids. Herein we describe recent advances that make it possible to add new building blocks to the genetic codes of both prokaryotic and 3. In Vitro Biosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Over 30 novel amino acids have been genetically Approaches to Protein encoded in response to unique triplet and quadruplet codons including Mutagenesis 39 fluorescent, photoreactive, and redox-active amino acids, glycosylated 4. In Vivo Protein amino acids, and amino acids with keto, azido, acetylenic, and heavy-atom- Mutagenesis 43 containing side chains. By removing the limitations imposed by the existing 20 amino acid code, it should be possible to generate proteins and perhaps 5. An Expanded Code 46 entire organisms with new or enhanced properties. 6. Outlook 61 1. Introduction The genetic codes of all known organisms specify the same functional roles to amino acid residues in proteins. Selectivity 20 amino acid building blocks. These building blocks contain a depends on the number and reactivity (dependent on both limited number of functional groups including carboxylic steric and electronic factors) of a particular amino acid side acids and amides, a thiol and thiol ether, alcohols, basic chain.
    [Show full text]
  • From 1957 to Nowadays: a Brief History of Epigenetics
    International Journal of Molecular Sciences Review From 1957 to Nowadays: A Brief History of Epigenetics Paul Peixoto 1,2, Pierre-François Cartron 3,4,5,6,7,8, Aurélien A. Serandour 3,4,6,7,8 and Eric Hervouet 1,2,9,* 1 Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, INSERM, EFS BFC, UMR1098, Interactions Hôte-Greffon-Tumeur/Ingénierie Cellulaire et Génique, F-25000 Besançon, France; [email protected] 2 EPIGENEXP Platform, Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-25000 Besançon, France 3 CRCINA, INSERM, Université de Nantes, 44000 Nantes, France; [email protected] (P.-F.C.); [email protected] (A.A.S.) 4 Equipe Apoptose et Progression Tumorale, LaBCT, Institut de Cancérologie de l’Ouest, 44805 Saint Herblain, France 5 Cancéropole Grand-Ouest, Réseau Niches et Epigénétique des Tumeurs (NET), 44000 Nantes, France 6 EpiSAVMEN Network (Région Pays de la Loire), 44000 Nantes, France 7 LabEX IGO, Université de Nantes, 44000 Nantes, France 8 Ecole Centrale Nantes, 44300 Nantes, France 9 DImaCell Platform, Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-25000 Besançon, France * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 9 September 2020; Accepted: 13 October 2020; Published: 14 October 2020 Abstract: Due to the spectacular number of studies focusing on epigenetics in the last few decades, and particularly for the last few years, the availability of a chronology of epigenetics appears essential. Indeed, our review places epigenetic events and the identification of the main epigenetic writers, readers and erasers on a historic scale. This review helps to understand the increasing knowledge in molecular and cellular biology, the development of new biochemical techniques and advances in epigenetics and, more importantly, the roles played by epigenetics in many physiological and pathological situations.
    [Show full text]
  • Basic Genetic Concepts & Terms
    Basic Genetic Concepts & Terms 1 Genetics: what is it? t• Wha is genetics? – “Genetics is the study of heredity, the process in which a parent passes certain genes onto their children.” (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002048. htm) t• Wha does that mean? – Children inherit their biological parents’ genes that express specific traits, such as some physical characteristics, natural talents, and genetic disorders. 2 Word Match Activity Match the genetic terms to their corresponding parts of the illustration. • base pair • cell • chromosome • DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) • double helix* • genes • nucleus Illustration Source: Talking Glossary of Genetic Terms http://www.genome.gov/ glossary/ 3 Word Match Activity • base pair • cell • chromosome • DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) • double helix* • genes • nucleus Illustration Source: Talking Glossary of Genetic Terms http://www.genome.gov/ glossary/ 4 Genetic Concepts • H describes how some traits are passed from parents to their children. • The traits are expressed by g , which are small sections of DNA that are coded for specific traits. • Genes are found on ch . • Humans have two sets of (hint: a number) chromosomes—one set from each parent. 5 Genetic Concepts • Heredity describes how some traits are passed from parents to their children. • The traits are expressed by genes, which are small sections of DNA that are coded for specific traits. • Genes are found on chromosomes. • Humans have two sets of 23 chromosomes— one set from each parent. 6 Genetic Terms Use library resources to define the following words and write their definitions using your own words. – allele: – genes: – dominant : – recessive: – homozygous: – heterozygous: – genotype: – phenotype: – Mendelian Inheritance: 7 Mendelian Inheritance • The inherited traits are determined by genes that are passed from parents to children.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 a Primer on Molecular Biology
    1APrimer on Molecular Biology Alexander Zien Modern molecular biology provides a rich source of challenging machine learning problems. This tutorial chapter aims to provide the necessary biological background knowledge required to communicate with biologists and to understand and properly formalize a number of most interesting problems in this application domain. The largest part of the chapter (its first section) is devoted to the cell as the basic unit of life. Four aspects of cells are reviewed in sequence: (1) the molecules that cells make use of (above all, proteins, RNA, and DNA); (2) the spatial organization of cells (“compartmentalization”); (3) the way cells produce proteins (“protein expression”); and (4) cellular communication and evolution (of cells and organisms). In the second section, an overview is provided of the most frequent measurement technologies, data types, and data sources. Finally, important open problems in the analysis of these data (bioinformatics challenges) are briefly outlined. 1.1 The Cell The basic unit of all (biological) life is the cell. A cell is basically a watery solution of certain molecules, surrounded by a lipid (fat) membrane. Typical sizes of cells range from 1 µm (bacteria) to 100 µm (plant cells). The most important properties Life of a living cell (and, in fact, of life itself) are the following: It consists of a set of molecules that is separated from the exterior (as a human being is separated from his or her surroundings). It has a metabolism, that is, it can take up nutrients and convert them into other molecules and usable energy. The cell uses nutrients to renew its constituents, to grow, and to drive its actions (just like a human does).
    [Show full text]
  • Electrically Sensing Hachimoji DNA Nucleotides Through a Hybrid Graphene/H-BN Nanopore Cite This: Nanoscale, 2020, 12, 18289 Fábio A
    Nanoscale View Article Online PAPER View Journal | View Issue Electrically sensing Hachimoji DNA nucleotides through a hybrid graphene/h-BN nanopore Cite this: Nanoscale, 2020, 12, 18289 Fábio A. L. de Souza, †a Ganesh Sivaraman, †b,g Maria Fyta, †c Ralph H. Scheicher, *†d Wanderlã L. Scopel †e and Rodrigo G. Amorim *†f The feasibility of synthesizing unnatural DNA/RNA has recently been demonstrated, giving rise to new perspectives and challenges in the emerging field of synthetic biology, DNA data storage, and even the search for extraterrestrial life in the universe. In line with this outstanding potential, solid-state nanopores have been extensively explored as promising candidates to pave the way for the next generation of label- free, fast, and low-cost DNA sequencing. In this work, we explore the sensitivity and selectivity of a gra- phene/h-BN based nanopore architecture towards detection and distinction of synthetic Hachimoji nucleobases. The study is based on a combination of density functional theory and the non-equilibrium Green’s function formalism. Our findings show that the artificial nucleobases are weakly binding to the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported Licence. device, indicating a short residence time in the nanopore during translocation. Significant changes in the Received 9th June 2020, electron transmission properties of the device are noted depending on which artificial nucleobase resides Accepted 7th August 2020 in the nanopore, leading to a sensitivity in distinction of up to 80%. Our results thus indicate that the pro- DOI: 10.1039/d0nr04363j posed nanopore device setup can qualitatively discriminate synthetic nucleobases, thereby opening up rsc.li/nanoscale the feasibility of sequencing even unnatural DNA/RNA.
    [Show full text]
  • A Synthetic DNA Built from Eight Building Blocks
    Foundation for Applied Molecular Evolution 13709 Progress Blvd Box 7, Alachua, FL 32615 A Synthetic DNA Built from Eight Building Blocks February 21, 2019 Alachua, FL – Life may be defined as a self-sustaining chemical system capable of Darwinian evolution. On Earth, humans use DNA to evolve, transferring information stored in its four building blocks first to RNA, and then to proteins. DNA and RNA are "universal" among known life forms on Earth. But are they truly universal, in life throughout the cosmos? An article published today in Science magazine suggests not. It reports a new kind of DNA, not from nature, but made in the lab by synthetic biologists. That new DNA doubles the four building blocks in natural DNA, making an 8-letter synthetic genetic system, called "hachimoji" DNA (from the Japanese "hachi" meaning "eight", and "moji" meaning "letter", as in "e-moji"). Hachimoji DNA can do everything that DNA does to support life. It pairs predictably, and rules predict its stability. Hachimoji DNA can be copied to make hachimoji RNA, able to direct protein synthesis. Hachimoji RNA can have a selectable phenotype, in this article, a green-fluorescent glow. Information storage, transmission, and selectable phenotype are three requirements of evolution. But there is a fourth: Structural regularity. "In 1942, Schrödinger predicted that no matter what genetic polymer life uses, its informational building blocks must all have the same shape and size," said Steven Benner, who led the team that created hachimoji DNA. Hachimoji meets this prediction. "Crystal structures of three different hachimoji DNA double helices reveal sequence-specific properties while retaining the essential features of natural DNA," said Millie Georgiadis, whose team at the Indiana University School of Medicine provided the crystal structures of hachimoji DNA.
    [Show full text]
  • De Novo Nucleic Acids: a Review of Synthetic Alternatives to DNA and RNA That Could Act As † Bio-Information Storage Molecules
    life Review De Novo Nucleic Acids: A Review of Synthetic Alternatives to DNA and RNA That Could Act as y Bio-Information Storage Molecules Kevin G Devine 1 and Sohan Jheeta 2,* 1 School of Human Sciences, London Metropolitan University, 166-220 Holloway Rd, London N7 8BD, UK; [email protected] 2 Network of Researchers on the Chemical Evolution of Life (NoR CEL), Leeds LS7 3RB, UK * Correspondence: [email protected] This paper is dedicated to Professor Colin B Reese, Daniell Professor of Chemistry, Kings College London, y on the occasion of his 90th Birthday. Received: 17 November 2020; Accepted: 9 December 2020; Published: 11 December 2020 Abstract: Modern terran life uses several essential biopolymers like nucleic acids, proteins and polysaccharides. The nucleic acids, DNA and RNA are arguably life’s most important, acting as the stores and translators of genetic information contained in their base sequences, which ultimately manifest themselves in the amino acid sequences of proteins. But just what is it about their structures; an aromatic heterocyclic base appended to a (five-atom ring) sugar-phosphate backbone that enables them to carry out these functions with such high fidelity? In the past three decades, leading chemists have created in their laboratories synthetic analogues of nucleic acids which differ from their natural counterparts in three key areas as follows: (a) replacement of the phosphate moiety with an uncharged analogue, (b) replacement of the pentose sugars ribose and deoxyribose with alternative acyclic, pentose and hexose derivatives and, finally, (c) replacement of the two heterocyclic base pairs adenine/thymine and guanine/cytosine with non-standard analogues that obey the Watson–Crick pairing rules.
    [Show full text]
  • Glossary of Common Terms in Genetics
    Glossary of Common Terms in Genetics Acquired mutations Gene changes genetic information. DNA is held Multiplexing A sequencing approach that that arise within individual cells and together by weak bonds between base uses several pooled samples simultaneous­ accumulate throughout a person's life pairs of nucleotides: adenine, guanine, ly, greatly increasing sequencing speed. span. cytosine, and thymine. Mutation Any heritable change in DNA Alleles One of a group of genes that Gene The fundamental unit of heredi­ sequence. occur alternatively at a given locus. A ty. A gene is an ordered sequence of single allele is inherited separately from nucleotides located in a particular posi­ Nucleotide A subunit of DNA or RNA each parent (e.g., at a locus for eye tion on a particular chromosome that consisting of a nitrogenous base, a phos­ color, the allele might result in blue or encodes a specific functional product phate molecule, and a sugar molecule. brown eyes). (i.e., a protein or RNA molecule i. Thousands of nucleotides are linked to form a DNA or RNA molecule. Base pair Two nitrogenous bases (ade­ Gene expression The process by which nine and thymine or guanine and cyto- a gene's coded information is converted Oncogene One or more forms of a sine) held together by weak bonds. Two into the structures present and operat­ gene associated with cancer. strands of DNA are held together in the ing in the cell. shape of a double helix by the bonds Polygenic disorders Genetic disorders between base pairs. Gene mapping Determination of the resulting from the combined action of relative positions of genes on a DNA alleles of more than one gene (e.g., Carrier A person who has a recessive molecule and the distance between heart disease, diabetes, and some can­ mutated gene along with its normal them.
    [Show full text]
  • DNA Wrap: Packaging Matters an Introduction to Epigenetics UNC-Chapel Hill’S Superfund Research Program
    DNA Wrap: Packaging Matters An Introduction to Epigenetics UNC-Chapel Hill’s Superfund Research Program What causes the physical appearance and health status of identical twins to diverge with age? In this lesson, students learn that the environment can alter the way our genes are expressed, making even identical twins different. After watching a PBS video, A Tale of Two Mice, and reviewing data presented in the Environmental Health Perspectives article Maternal Genistein Alters Coat Color and Protects Avy Mouse Offspring from Obesity by Modifying the Fetal Epigenome, students learn about epigenetics and its role in regulating gene expression. Author Dana Haine, MS University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Superfund Research Program Reviewers Dana Dolinoy, PhD University of Michigan Rebecca Fry, PhD University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Superfund Research Program Banalata Sen, PhD, Audrey Pinto, PhD, Susan Booker, Dorothy Ritter Environmental Health Perspectives The funding for development of this lesson was provided by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and the UNC Superfund Program. Learning Objectives By the end of this lesson students should be able to: define the term “epigenetics” describe DNA methylation as a mechanism for inhibiting gene transcription describe how gene expression can vary among genetically identical offspring Alignment to NC Essential Science Standards for Biology Bio.3.1 Explain how traits are determined by the structure and function of DNA. Bio.3.2.3 Explain how the environment can influence the expression of genetic traits. Bio.4.1 Understand how biological molecules are essential to the survival of living organisms. Bio.4.1.2 Summarize the relationship among DNA, proteins and amino acids in carrying out the work of cells and how this is similar in all organisms.
    [Show full text]