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Vogel Blok 158X225 171013.Indd What types of hierarchies can be identified in terminologies? Do all hierarchies branch? Does the form of sister terms follow a similar pattern? Are terms in natural sciences formed differently from those in social sciences? Do lexical hierarchies based on classes and members have a different size from those based on whole-part Terminologies, relations? Do individual languages prefer different morphological structures of scientific terms? At which level are Latin and Greek Lexical Hierarchies components more frequent, at the superordinate or the subordinate? Do English and Czech differ substantially in this respect? Are and other they more similar structurally in biological or in economic terminology? Can a terminological level of a taxon be guessed from Configurations the morphological form of its name? Do alternative terms exist for one concept? Do some terms have several meanings? Do all terms have clear equivalents in other languages? Why do irregularities and gaps occur in naming in one language and between languages? What semantic relations do modifiers express towards heads in compound Radek Vogel terms? Is the meaning of such components explicit or implicit? These and similar questions might be asked when dealing with terminologies of scientific disciplines. With the help of numerous examples, tables and extensive reference to lexico-semantic theories, the book Terminologies, Lexical Hierarchies and other Configurations attempts to answer such questions or at least shed more light onto the vast and varied area of scientific terminologies. It is certain, however, that many new questions and potential explanations will arise in the minds of its readers. and other Configurations Hierarchies Lexical Terminologies, Terminologies, lexical hierarchies and other configurations hierarchies lexical Terminologies, Radek Vogel Radek Foreign Languages: Linguistics and Literature Studies Masaryk University Brno 2017 Terminologies, Lexical Hierarchies and other Configurations Radek Vogel Masaryk University Brno 2017 Edition: Foreign Languages: Linguistics and Literature Studies Volume 3 Reviewers: doc. PhDr. Miroslav Bázlik, CSc. doc. PhDr. Naděžda Kudrnáčová, CSc. © 2017 Masarykova univerzita ISBN 978-80-210-8563-3 ISBN 978-80-210-8103-1 (paperback) https://doi.org/10.5817/CZ.MUNI.M210-8563-2017 BYBY NC NDND CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 Crea�ve Commons A�ribu�on-NonCommercial-NoDeriva�ves 4.0 Table of contents List of tables and figures . 7 List of abbreviations . 11 Preface . 13 1| Language of science . 17 1 | 1 Science, terminologies and hierarchical lexical sets . 17 1 | 2 The aims, methods and research questions of this study . 20 1 | 3 Occupational varieties and the style of science . 22 1 | 4 Terms and their formation . 26 1 | 5 Semantic and syntactic condensation . 31 2| Lexical units and relations between them. 33 2 | 1 Semantic fields and lexemes . 33 2 | 2 Sense relations seen through predicate calculus . 35 2 | 3 Synonymy . 36 2 | 4 Polysemy and synonymy of terms . 40 2 | 5 Oppositeness and antonymy . 42 2 | 6 Hyponymy . 44 2 | 6 | 1 Inclusion and entailment. 44 2 | 6 | 2 Compatibility, incompatibility, paraphrases and imperfect relations . 46 2 | 6 | 3 Relation between antonymy and hyponymy. 47 2 | 6 | 4 Markedness – general and specific words . 47 3| Lexical hierarchies . 53 3 | 1 Classificatory hierarchies: introduction. 53 3 | 2 Taxonomy . 60 3 | 2 | 1 Properties of taxonomy . 60 3 | 2 | 2 Natural and nominal kind hyponyms. 61 3 | 2 | 3 Taxonomic overspecification and underspecification . 66 3 | 3 Meronomy . 67 3 | 3 | 1 Meronyms and holonyms. 67 3 | 3 | 2 Transitivity vs. intransitivity of meronymy . 69 3 | 4 Relation between taxonomy and meronomy . 70 3 | 5 Relations similar to the part-whole relation . 72 3 | 6 Proportional series . 75 3 | 6 | 1 Open vs. closed, consistent vs. inconsistent series . 75 3 | 6 | 2 Endonyms, exonyms, analogues and lexical siblings . 77 3 | 6 | 3 Paronymy. 81 | 5 | 3 | 7 Non-branching lexical hierarchies . 82 3 | 7 | 1 Derivation of non-branching hierarchies . 82 3 | 7 | 2 Non-lexicalised branching and non-branching hierarchies . 84 3 | 7 | 3 Scalar non-branching hierarchies. 86 3 | 7 | 4 Chains vs. cycles/helices . 87 4| Biological taxonomy . 91 4 | 1 The principles of binomial nomenclature and biological taxonomy. 91 4 | 2 Representation of evolution in tree diagrams . 96 4 | 3 Botanical taxonomic system and its taxonyms . .101 4 | 4 Zoological taxonomic system and its taxonyms . .115 4 | 5 Taxonymic inconsistencies: synonymy and polysemy . .121 4 | 5 | 1 Terminological synonymy . .121 4 | 5 | 2 Terminological polysemy . .126 5| Lexical hierarchies in the nomenclature of economics . 129 5 | 1 Lexical sources of the language of economics . .129 5 | 2 Lexico-semantic properties of the financial and accounting terminology . .130 5 | 3 Taxonymic inconsistencies in the language of economics: polysemy and synonymy . .135 5 | 4 Lexical hierarchies in economics, finance and accounting . .137 6| Lexical hierarchies in natural vs. social sciences . 161 6 | 1 Natural vs. artificial classifications . .161 6 | 1 | 1 Properties of taxons at higher levels . .161 6 | 1 | 2 Polysemy of vernacular generic names . .164 6 | 1 | 3 Other social hierarchies: military ranks . .165 6 | 2 Term-formation—its sources, means and processes . .169 6 | 3 Nomenclatures in the vertical perspective . .176 6 | 4 Principles of term-formation at the horizontal level . .181 6 | 4 | 1 Co-hyponyms in biological taxonomies . .181 6 | 4 | 2 Co-hyponyms in the lexical hierarchies of accounting and finance . .188 7| Properties of lexical hierarchies in biology and in economics: synthesis and conclusions . 197 References . 201 Summary . 205 Zusammenfassung . 207 Shrnutí . 211 Name Index . 213 Subject Index . 215 | 6 | List of tables and figures Figure 1.1. Meronomy—components of spoken and writt en language. Figure 1.2. Proportional series—pairs of items based on an analogy. Figure 1.3. Mero-taxonomy—hierarchy of linguistic disciplines. Figure 3.1. Levels in a natural (folk) taxonomy. Figure 3.2. Hierarchical quasi-relations: absence of count hypernyms. Figure 3.3. Hierarchical quasi-relations: taxonomy with a plural count hypernym. Figure 3.4. Taxonomy with incompatible hyponyms. Figure 3.5. Th e family-tree-diagram of the Germanic languages. Figure 3.6. Th e enumerative (listing) classifi cation of Germanic languages within the Indo-European family. Figure 3.7. Parallel and reciprocal relations between items of a proportional series. Figure 3.8. Inconsistent proportional series. Figure 3.9. Non-lexicalised nodes in a hierarchy of time. Figure 3.10. Taxonomy of lexical confi gurations. Figure 4.1. Classifi cation of organisms. Figure 4.2. Hierarchy of the basic categories in Czech and Latin biological taxonomies with the characteristic suffi xes. Figure 4.3. Evolution of higher plants (Cormobionta/Embryophyta). Figure 4.4. Taxonomy of plants. Figure 4.5. Taxonomy of plants in Czech and Latin (regnum Plantae). Figure 4.6. Taxonomy of fungi in Czech and Latin (regnum Fungi). Figure 4.7. Czech and Latin names of (selected) orders in the classes Magnoliopsida and Liliopsida. Figure 4.8. Taxonomic levels in English (Latin, Czech): superordinate and sister (i.e. co-hyponymic) categories of the genus Rosa. Figure 4.9 English, Czech and Latin names of selected families of conifers (division Pinophyta) and trees, bushes and herbs in the division Magnoliophyta. Figure 4.10. Taxonomy of animals (Animalia)—formal diversity of the names of taxons at the same hierarchical level in Czech and Latin. Figure 4.11. Reduplicative names of species in the Latin zoological nomenclature. Figure 4.12. Taxonomic levels in English (Latin, Czech): superordinate and sister (i.e. co-hyponymic) categories of the genus Panthera. Figure 4.13. Synonymy in the Czech and Latin names of plant families (Latin names are used in English as well). | 7 | Figure 4.14. Synonymy in the Latin, Czech and English names of plant genera and species. Figure 4.15. Terminological inconsistency in the cypress family (Cupressaceae)—use of the head nouns cypress and cedar in compound names for taxons from diff erent genera. Figure 5.1. Synonymy arising from alternative translations by the same author. Figure 5.2. Analogy in the formation of terms in economics (management theory). Figure 5.3. Partial analogy in the forms of deverbal nouns denoting types of activity. Figure 5.4. Diversity of Czech nouns derived according to various masculine, feminine and neuter paradigms. Figure 5.5. Types of unemployment—formal and semantic analogy of terms in English and Czech. Figure 5.6. Identity vs. diversity—terms referring to the types of infl ation. Figure 5.7. Forms of integration (scale from the loosest to the most integrated type)—analogous formation in English and in Czech. Figure 5.8. Variation in the properties of the compared fi nancial statements (from Tab. 5.23). Figure 5.9. Graphic illustration of the rapid expansion in the number of taxons at the lowest level in biological taxonomies, compared with the hierarchy of the Chart of Accounts (Účtová osnova). Figure 6.1. Military ranks for the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines in the US armed forces. Figure 6.2. Taxonomy based purely on Latin (classical) word-stock: taxonomy of bacteria. Figure 6.3. Compound terms in the Czech botanical terminology. Figure 6.4. Mostly derived terms in the English botanical terminology (with some compounds based on adapted Latin terms). Figure 6.5. Th e use of Greek- and Latin-based morphemes—words (or bases) degraded to derivational affi xes—in the Czech botanical terminology. Figure 6.6. Compounds using daň (tax) as the head: distribution of individual term-formation structures in the English and Czech nomenclatures by type. Figure 6.7. Terms included in the balance sheet (UK) and rozvaha (Czech): occurrences of the main types of term structures and their identity in the E/Cz nomenclatures (from Tabs 6.5 and 6.6). Table 2.1. Polysemy and diff erences between British and American economic terminologies.
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